1.
Fuze
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In military munitions, a fuze or fuse is the part of the device that initiates function. In some applications, such as torpedoes, a fuze may be identified by function as the exploder, the relative complexity of even the earliest fuze designs can be seen in cutaway diagrams. A fuze is a device that detonates an explosive material under specified conditions. In addition, a fuze will have safety and arming mechanisms that protect users from premature or accidental detonation, for example, an artillery fuzes battery is activated by the high acceleration of cannon launch, and the fuze must be spinning rapidly before it will function. Complete bore safety can be achieved with mechanical shutters that isolate the detonator from the charge until the shell is fired. A fuze may contain only the electronic or mechanical elements necessary to signal or actuate the detonator, Fuzes for large explosive charges may include an explosive booster. Professional publications about explosives and munitions distinguish the fuse and fuze spelling, the UK Ministry of Defence states, FUSE, Cord or tube for the transmission of flame or explosion usually consisting of cord or rope with gunpowder or high explosive spun into it. FUZE, A device with explosive components designed to initiate a main charge, oliver Hogg states the following about fuze, The word fuze is often spelt fuse by those unaquainted with artillery usage. Fuse, derived from fusus, the past participle of fundo, means to melt, fuze, on the other hand, is the shortened or modern method of spelling fuzee, meaning a tube filled with combustible material. It is a derivation of fusus, a spindle and from the French fusee and it is well to make this point at the outset. Historically, it was spelled with s or z. In the United States and some forces, fuze is used to denote a sophisticated ignition device incorporating mechanical and/or electronic components as opposed to a simple burning fuse. The situation of usage and the characteristics of the munition it is intended to affect the fuze design e. g. its safety. Artillery fuzes may be initiated by a mechanism, impact or detection of proximity to the target. Requirements for a hand grenade fuze are defined by the small size. This necessitates manual arming before throwing as the grenade has insufficient initial acceleration for arming to be driven by setback and these are also referred to as pistols. The main design consideration is that the projectile is large and accelerating vertically downwards, the main design consideration is that the bomb the fuze is intended to actuate is stationary, and the target itself is moving in making contact. Time fuzes detonate after a set period of time by using one or more combinations of mechanical, depending on the technology used, the device may self-destruct some seconds, minutes, hours, days, or even months after being deployed
2.
Screw thread
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A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread, a screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on its lead. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses, the tightening of a fasteners screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation. Screw threads have several applications, Fastening, Fasteners such as screws, machine screws, nuts. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps, gear reduction via worm drives Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack. Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion, as in a micrometer, both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe. In all of these applications, the thread has two main functions, It converts rotary motion into linear motion. It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation, every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole has female threads, the helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. This is known as a thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the direction are known as left-handed. By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads, therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include, Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to fretting induced precession, examples include, The left hand pedal on a bicycle. The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder, the lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles. The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at startup should tend to tighten the nut. The spindle on brushcutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles, in such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed and one left-handed thread. In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a method of disassembly
3.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
4.
Cast iron
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Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
5.
Fragmentation (weaponry)
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Fragmentation is the process by which the casing of an artillery shell, bomb, grenade, etc. is shattered by the detonation of the explosive filler. The correct technical terminology of these pieces is fragmentation – although shards or splinters can be used for non-preformed fragments, preformed fragments can be of various shapes and size and are normally held rigidly within some form of matrix or body until the high explosive filling is detonated. These casing pieces are often referred to as shrapnel, though this is the result of the original term being culturally genericized due to its uniquely memorable phonology. The use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, the fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain. Once the bomb explodes, the resulting shrapnel is capable of piercing the skin, for this bomb you take tung oil, yin hsiu, salammoniac, chin chih, scallion juice, and heat them so as to coat a lot of iron pellets and bits of broken porcelain. Then fill in to a case of cast iron making a fragmentation bomb, when it bursts, it breaks into pieces that wound the skin and break the bones and blinds their eyes. The modern fragmentation grenade was developed during the 20th century, the Mills bomb, first adopted in 1915 by the British army, is an early fragmentation grenade used in World War I. The Mk 2 grenade was a fragmentation grenade adopted by the American military based on the Mills bomb, the term shrapnel is often incorrectly used to refer to fragments produced by any explosive weapon. However, the shrapnel shell predates the modern high-explosive shell and operates via a different process. A shrapnel shell consists of a shell casing filled with steel or lead balls suspended in a resin matrix, when the projectile is fired, it travels a pre-set distance along a ballistic trajectory before the fuse ignites a relatively weak secondary charge in the base of the shell. Since the cone of impact is small, shrapnel shells needed to be carefully sighted. Detonating on impact after being fired, whereas a shrapnel shell would ineffectually fire its contents only a few feet into the air in a cone-shaped pattern, another artillery round very similar to shrapnel is canister shot, sometimes called case shot. Canister shot is a sheet metal casing filled with steel or lead balls. Upon firing, the casing fractures as it exits the muzzle of the gun and dispenses the balls from the gun’s muzzle much like a large shotgun
6.
Booby trap
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A booby trap is a device or setup that is intended to kill, harm or surprise a person, unknowingly triggered by the presence or actions of the victim. As the word implies, they sometimes have some form of bait designed to lure the victim towards it. At other times, the trap is set to act upon trespassers that violate personal or restricted areas, the device can be triggered when the victim performs some type of everyday action e. g. opening a door, picking something up or switching something on. They can also be triggered by driving along a road as in the case of victim-operated improvised explosive devices. Booby traps should not be confused with mantraps which are designed to catch a person, booby traps which merely cause discomfort or embarrassment are a popular form of practical joke. The Spanish word bobo translates to stupid, daft, naïve, simple, fool, idiot, clown, funny man, one who is easily cheated, the slang of bobo, bubie, translates to dunce. Variations of this word exist in other languages, with their meaning being to stammer, the word has also been applied to the Sula genus of sea birds, with their common name being boobies. These birds, adapted for sea flight and swimming, have flat feet and wide wingspans. As a result, they are considered clumsy and easy to catch when onshore and they are also known for landing aboard seagoing vessels, whereupon they have been eaten by the crew. In approximately 1590, the word appearing in the English language as booby, meaning stupid person. The phrase booby trap originally applied to schoolboy pranks, but took on its more sinister connotation during World War I. A military booby trap may be designed to kill or injure a person who activates its trigger, most, but not all, military booby traps involve explosives. There is no division between a booby trap and buried conventional land mines triggered by a tripwire or directional mine. Other, similar devices include spring-guns and mechanisms such as the SM-70 directional antipersonnel mine, what distinguishes a booby trap is that its activation is intended to be unexpected to its victim. Thus booby trap design is varied, with traps or their trigger mechanisms often hidden. Frequently at least part of the device is improvised from standard ordnance, such as a shell, grenade. Part of the skill in placing booby traps lies in exploiting natural human behaviors such as habit, self-preservation, an example that exploits an instinct for self-preservation was used in the Vietnam War. Spikes known as Punji sticks were hidden in grassy areas, when fired upon soldiers instinctively sought to take cover by throwing themselves down on the ground, impaling themselves on the spikes
7.
Ipswich
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Ipswich is the county town of Suffolk, England, located on the estuary of the River Orwell, about 60 miles north east of London. The town has been occupied since the Saxon period. It has also known as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. Ipswich is one of Englands oldest towns, if not the oldest, the claim has also been made of the Essex town of Colchester, but that town was abandoned for some time, leaving Ipswich to claim to be the oldest continuously inhabited town in England. Under the Roman empire, the area around Ipswich formed an important route inland to towns and settlements via the rivers Orwell. A large Roman fort, part of the defences of Britain, stood at Walton near Felixstowe. The modern town took shape in Anglo-Saxon times around Ipswich dock, gipeswic ) arose as the equivalent to these, serving the Kingdom of East Anglia, its early imported wares dating to the time of King Rædwald, supreme ruler of the English. The famous ship-burial and treasure at Sutton Hoo nearby is probably his grave, the Ipswich Museum houses replicas of the Roman Mildenhall and Sutton Hoo treasures. A gallery devoted to the towns origins includes Anglo-Saxon weapons, jewellery, the 7th-century town was centred near the quay. Towards 700 AD, Frisian potters from the Netherlands area settled in Ipswich and their wares were traded far across England, and the industry was unique to Ipswich for 200 years. With growing prosperity, in about 720 AD a large new part of the town was out in the Buttermarket area. Ipswich was becoming a place of national and international importance, parts of the ancient road plan still survive in its modern streets. After the invasion of 869 Ipswich fell under Viking rule, the earth ramparts circling the town centre were probably raised by Vikings in Ipswich around 900 to prevent its recapture by the English. The town operated a mint under royal licence from King Edgar in the 970s, the abbreviation Gipes appears on the coins. King John granted the town its first charter in 1200, laying the foundations of its modern civil government. In the next four centuries it made the most of its wealth, Five large religious houses, including two Augustinian Priories, and those of the Greyfriars, Ipswich Whitefriars and Ipswich Blackfriars, stood in medieval Ipswich. The last Carmelite Prior of Ipswich was the celebrated John Bale, there were also several hospitals, including the leper hospital of St Mary Magdalene, founded before 1199. During the Middle Ages the Marian Shrine of Our Lady of Grace was a pilgrimage destination
8.
Kingston upon Hull
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Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber estuary,25 miles inland from the North Sea, the town of Hull was founded late in the 12th century. The monks of Meaux Abbey needed a port where the wool from their estates could be exported and they chose a place at the confluence of the rivers Hull and Humber to build a quay. The exact year the town was founded is not known but it was first mentioned in 1193, renamed Kings-town upon Hull by King Edward I in 1299, Hull has been a market town, military supply port, trading hub, fishing and whaling centre, and industrial metropolis. Hull was a theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars. Its 18th-century Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce, took a prominent part in the abolition of the trade in Britain. The city is unique in the UK in having had a municipally owned telephone system from 1902, sporting cream, not red, telephone boxes. After suffering heavy damage in the Second World War, Hull weathered a period of decline, gaining unfavourable results on measures of social deprivation, education. In the early 21st-century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail, commercial, housing, tourist attractions include the historic Old Town and Museum Quarter, Hull Marina and The Deep, a city landmark. The redevelopment of one of Hulls main thoroughfares, Ferensway, included the opening of St Stephens Hull, spectator sports include Premier League football and Super League Rugby. The KCOM Stadium houses Hull City football club and Hull F. C. rugby club, Hull is also home to the English Premier Ice Hockey League Hull Pirates. The University of Hull was founded in 1927 and now more than 16,000 students. It is ranked among the best in the Yorkshire and the Humber region and located in the leafy Newland suburb, in 2013, it was announced that Hull would be the 2017 UK City of Culture. In 2015 it was announced that the Ferens Art Gallery will be hosting the annual art prize, The Turner Prize. The prize is held outside London every other year, Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber estuary at the mouth of its tributary, the River Hull. The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period, the area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor, being remote, low-lying and with no fresh water. It was originally a part of the hamlet of Myton. The name is thought to either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning inlet or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge
9.
Grimsby
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Grimsby, also known as Great Grimsby, is a large town and seaport in Lincolnshire, England, on the South Bank of the Humber Estuary close to where it reaches the North Sea. It is the centre of North East Lincolnshire. Grimsby developed as a sea port on the east coast of England. The fishing industry declined dramatically after the Cod Wars, since then the town has battled with post-industrial decline. Since the 1990s the local council has encouraged food manufacturing, the Grimsby–Cleethorpes conurbation acts as the cultural, shopping and industrial centre for a large area of northern and eastern Lincolnshire. People from Grimsby are called Grimbarians, the term codhead is also used jokingly or disparagingly,22 January is Great Grimsby Day. The town was titled Great Grimsby to distinguish it from Little Grimsby, the town had a population of 88,243 in 2011. It is physically linked to and forms a conurbation with the town of Cleethorpes. Some 11,000 of its residents live in the village of Scartho, all three areas come under the jurisdiction of the same unitary authority, North East Lincolnshire. It is close to the terminus of the A180, which ends in Cleethorpes. Grimsby lies in the national character areas of the Humber, the town was historically settled on low-lying islands and raised areas of the Humber marsh, and subsequently expanded onto the surrounding marshes as they were drained. The town still has areas named East Marsh and West Marsh, the Lincolnshire Wolds are situated to the south west of the town, from which the towns River Freshney rises. There is some evidence of a small town of Roman workers sited in the area in the second century. Located on the River Haven, which flowed into the Humber and it was also well situated to exploit the rich fishing grounds in the North Sea. Grimsby was settled by Danes sometime in the 9th century AD, according to legend, the name Grimsby derives from the name Grim, a Danish fisherman, the suffix -by being the Old Norse word for village. The legendary founding of Grimsby is described in Lay of Havelock the Dane, in Norse mythology, Grim and Grimnir are names adopted by the deity Odin when travelling incognito amongst mortals, as in the short poem known as Grimnirs Sayings in the Poetic Edda. The intended audience of the Havelock tale may have understood the fisherman Grim to be Odin in disguise, the Odinic name Grimr/Grim occurs in many English placenames within the historical Danelaw and elsewhere in Britain, examples being the numerous earthworks named Grimsdyke. As other British placenames containing the element Grim are explained as referring to Woden/Odin, Grimsby is listed in the Domesday Book as having a population of around 200, a priest, a mill and a ferry
10.
Cleethorpes
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Cleethorpes is a seaside resort on the estuary of the Humber in North East Lincolnshire, England with a population of nearly 40,000 in 2011. It has been occupied since the 6th century, with fishing as a primary industry. The town lies on the Greenwich meridian and its annual rainfall is amongst the lowest in the British Isles. The name Cleethorpes is thought to come from joining the words clee, an old word for clay, and thorpes, an Old English/Old Norse word for villages, and is of comparatively modern origin. Before becoming a town, Cleethorpes was made up of three small villages, or thorpes, Itterby, Oole and Thrunscoe, which were part of a wider parish called Clee. The manor of Itterby was purchased in 1616 by the trustees of Peter Blundells charity for the benefit of scholars and fellows at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge from Blundells School and this is reflected in many of the street and park names in the area. Cleethorpes developed as a fishing village, by the time of the 1801 census the population was 284. The 1820s saw the first developments of Cleethorpes as a holiday resort, with sea-bathing. By 1831 the population had increased to 497, in 1842 the Cleethorpes Enclosure Bill was enacted. 2,050 acres of land were divided among land owners, in 1848 Cleethorpes was described as. Many of the population are employed in the oyster-fisheries, the resort expanded following the linking of the town by railway with the industrial towns of Yorkshire. Cleethorpes Pier opened in 1873 and the promenade in 1885, Cleethorpes with Thrunscoe was constituted a Local Board of Health District in 1873, and under the Local Government Act of 1894 it became an urban district. In 1916 the urban district was renamed Cleethorpes, and in 1922 and 1927 the towns boundaries were extended to part of Humberston. In 1936 Cleethorpes was granted a charter of incorporation to become a municipal borough, Cleethorpes successfully resisted attempts by Grimsby to absorb it and in 1974 it became the Borough of Cleethorpes within the new county of Humberside. However, when Humberside County Council was abolished in 1996, Cleethorpes Borough Council was joined with Grimsby Borough Council as the authority of North East Lincolnshire. In 2009 North East Lincolnshire Council agreed to market the towns of Grimsby, Immingham and Cleethorpes, Cleethorpes can also be known as down beach. Cleethorpes has undergone significant redevelopment, with JDs Nightclub and the Lifeboat Hotel both being demolished to build flats overlooking the beach, the Winter Gardens, a venue for a variety of events, was also demolished in 2007. In 2007 a North East Lincolnshire Councils committee accepted proposals for the demolished Cleethorpes Winter Gardens to be replaced by 47 flats and this resulted in some local opposition
11.
Operation Barbarossa
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Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Nazi Germanys invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II, which was launched on Sunday 22 June 1941. In the two leading up to the invasion, the two countries signed political and economic pacts for strategic purposes. Nevertheless, the German High Command began planning an invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1940, over the course of the operation, about four million Axis personnel invaded the western Soviet Union along a 2, 900-kilometer front, the largest invasion force in the history of warfare. In addition to troops, the Wehrmacht employed some 600,000 motor vehicles, the offensive marked an escalation of the war, both geographically and in the formation of the Allied coalition. Despite their successes, the German offensive stalled in the Battle of Moscow and was pushed back by the Soviet winter counteroffensive. The Red Army repelled the Wehrmachts strongest blows and forced the unprepared Germans into a war of attrition, the Wehrmacht would never again mount a simultaneous offensive along the entire strategic Soviet–Axis front. The failure of the operation drove Hitler to demand further operations of limited scope inside the Soviet Union, such as Case Blue. The failure of Operation Barbarossa proved a point in the fortunes of the Third Reich. Most importantly, the operation opened up the Eastern Front, in more forces were committed than in any other theater of war in world history. The German armies captured 5,000,000 Soviet prisoners of war who were not granted protections stipulated in the Geneva Conventions, a majority of them never returned alive. The Nazis deliberately starved 3.1 million of the prisoners to death as part of a Hunger Plan that aimed to reduce the population of Eastern Europe, over a million Soviet Jews were murdered by Einsatzgruppen death squads and gassing as part of the Holocaust. On 10 February 1939, Hitler told his commanders that the next war would be purely a war of Weltanschauungen. Totally a peoples war, a racial war, on 23 November, once World War II had already started, Hitler declared that racial war has broken out and this war shall determine who shall govern Europe, and with it, the world. The racial policy of Nazi Germany viewed the Soviet Union as populated by non-Aryan Untermenschen, Hitler claimed in Mein Kampf that Germanys destiny was to turn to the East as it did six hundred years ago. Accordingly, it was stated Nazi policy to kill, deport, or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land with Germanic peoples, under the Generalplan Ost. Likening the Soviets to the forces of Genghis Khan, Hitler told Croatian military leader Slavko Kvaternik that the Mongolian race threatened Europe. Following the invasion, Wehrmacht officers told their soldiers to target people who were described as Jewish Bolshevik subhumans, the Mongol hordes, the Asiatic flood, German army commanders cast the Jews as the major cause behind the partisan struggle. The main guideline policy for German troops was Where theres a partisan, theres a Jew, many German troops viewed the war in Nazi terms and regarded their Soviet enemies as sub-human
12.
Focke-Wulf Fw 190
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The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Würger is a German single-seat, single-engine fighter aircraft designed by Kurt Tank in the late 1930s and widely used during World War II. Along with its counterpart, the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Fw 190 became the backbone of the Luftwaffes Jagdwaffe. The Fw 190A started flying operationally over France in August 1941, and quickly proved superior in all but turn radius to the Royal Air Forces main front-line fighter, V, especially at low and medium altitudes. The 190 maintained superiority over Allied fighters until the introduction of the improved Spitfire Mk, in the opinion of German pilots who flew both the Bf 109 and the Fw 190, the latter provided increased firepower and, at low to medium altitude, manoeuvrability. The Fw 190A series performance decreased at high altitudes, which reduced its effectiveness as a high-altitude interceptor, problems with the turbocharger installations on the -B and -C subtypes meant only the D model would see service, entering service in September 1944. While these long nose versions gave them parity with Allied opponents, the Fw 190 was well-liked by its pilots. Some of the Luftwaffes most successful fighter aces claimed a great many of their kills while flying it, including Otto Kittel, Walter Nowotny, between 1934 and 1935 the German Ministry of Aviation ran a contest to produce a modern fighter for the rearming Luftwaffe. Kurt Tank entered the parasol-winged Fw 159 into the contest, against the Arado Ar 80, Heinkel He 112, the Fw 159 was hopelessly outclassed, and was soon eliminated from the competition along with the Ar 80. The He 112 and Bf 109 were generally similar in design, on 12 March 1936 the 109 was declared the winner. Kurt Tank responded with a number of designs, most based around a liquid-cooled inline engine, however, it was not until a design was presented using the air-cooled, 14-cylinder BMW139 radial engine that the Ministry of Aviations interest was aroused. As this design used an engine, it would not compete with the inline-powered Bf 109 for engines. This was not the case for competing designs like the Heinkel He 100 or twin-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 187, after the war, Tank denied a rumour that he had to fight a battle with the Ministry to convince them of the radial engines merits. Tank was not convinced of this, having witnessed the use of radial engines by the U. S. Navy. The hottest points on any air-cooled engine are the cylinder heads, in order to provide sufficient air to cool the engine, airflow had to be maximized at this outer edge. This was normally accomplished by leaving the majority of the front face of the open to the air. During the late 1920s, NACA led development of an improvement by placing an airfoil-shaped ring around the outside of the cylinder heads. The shaping accelerated the air as it entered the front of the cowl, increasing the total airflow, Tank introduced a further refinement to this basic concept. He suggested placing most of the components on the propeller
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