1.
Furniture
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Furniture refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating, eating, and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work, Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furnitures functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose and it can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture. People have been using natural objects, such as stumps, rocks and moss. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia, depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland, complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt. This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with thrones being commonplace as well as the klinai, multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, the furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, the seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century is defined by revival styles. The first three-quarters of the century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures, the English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture, the noun form of fournir, which means to supply or provide. Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions, the practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilisation. Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, during the late palaeolithic or early neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, a similar statue of a Mother Goddess was found in Catal Huyuk in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BC. The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age, a range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland. Each house shows a degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats
2.
Bathroom cabinet
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A bathroom cabinet is a cabinet in a bathroom. It is often placed above a sink or toilet and is made to hold hygiene products, toiletries, although a bathroom tends to be generally the smallest room in the home, it is the busiest place second only to the kitchen. Having a well-organized bathroom becomes necessary especially with a larger family, the bathroom cabinet will depend upon the size and style of the bathroom. It is easier to choose the correct bathroom cabinet once it is decided what goes into it, bathroom cabinets are available in different materials such as wood, metal etc. and the price is determined accordingly
3.
Wood veneer
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They are also used in marquetry. Plywood consists of three or more layers of veneer, each glued with its grain at right angles to adjacent layers for strength, Veneer beading is a thin layer of decorative edging placed around objects, such as jewelry boxes. Veneer is also used to replace decorative papers in Wood Veneer HPL, Veneer is also a type of manufactured board. Veneer is obtained either by peeling the trunk of a tree or by slicing large rectangular blocks of wood known as flitches. The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through the rings of a tree. Rotary-cut veneer is used for plywood, as the appearance is not desirable because the veneer is cut concentric to the growth rings. A slicing machine in which the flitch or piece of log is raised and lowered against the blade and this yields veneer that looks like sawn pieces of wood, cut across the growth rings, such veneer is referred to as crown cut. Each slicing processes gives a distinctive type of grain, depending upon the tree species. In any of the methods, when the veneer is sliced. As it hits the wood, the blade creates a loose side where the cells have been opened up by the blade. Historically veneers were also sawn, but this is wasteful of wood. Veneering is an ancient art, dating back to at least the ancient Egyptians who used expensive and rare wood veneers over cheaper timbers to produce their furniture, during the Roman Empire, Romans also used veneered work in mass quantities. The finest and rarest logs are sent to companies that produce veneer, the advantage to this practice is twofold. First, it provides the most financial gain to the owner of the log, secondly, and of more importance to the woodworker, it greatly expands the amount of usable wood. While a log used for lumber is cut into thick pieces, usually no thinner than 1/8 of an inch. Depending on the process used by the veneer manufacturer, very little wood is wasted by the saw blade thickness. Accordingly, the yield of a rare grain pattern or wood type is greatly increased, some manufacturers even use a very wide knife to slice off the thin veneer pieces. In this way, none of the wood is wasted, the slices of veneer are always kept in the order in which they are cut from the log and are often sold this way
4.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
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Commerce
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Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially on a large scale. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that are in operation in any country or internationally, commerce is derived from the Latin commercium, from cum, together, and merx, merchandise. Some commentators trace the origins of commerce to the start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart from traditional self-sufficiency, trading became a facility of prehistoric people. Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In historic times, the introduction of currency as a money, facilitated a wider exchange of goods. Numismatists have collections of these tokens, which include coins from some Ancient World large-scale societies. For example, if a man who makes pots for a living needs a new house, he/she may wish to hire someone to build it for him/her. But he/she cannot make an equivalent number of pots to equal this service done for him/her, because if the builder could build the house. During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs, wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries, hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities. Today commerce includes as a subset a complex system of companies which try to maximize their profits by offering products and services to the market at the lowest production cost
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Door furniture
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Door furniture or door hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. Items of door furniture fall into categories, described below. A hinge is a component that one edge of a door to the frame. It usually consists of a pair of plates, each with a set of open cylindrical rings attached to them, the knuckles of the two plates are offset from each other and mesh together. A hinge pin is placed through the two sets of knuckles and usually fixed, to combine the plates and make the hinge a single unit. One door usually has about three hinges, but it can vary, doors generally have at least one fixed handle, usually accompanied with a latch. A typical handle set is composed of the handle, escutcheon, an independent deadbolt. On some doors the latch is incorporated into a handle that releases when pulled on. See also, Doorknob – A knob or lever on an axle that is rotated to release the bolt, Crash bar or Panic bar, Doorhandles for all types of doors Flush pull handle for sliding glass door. A lock is a device that prevents access by those without a key or combination, some doors, particularly older ones, will have a keyhole accompanying the lock. Most doors make use of one or more fasteners to hold the door closed, latchbolt – A bolt that has an angled surface which acts as a ramp to push the bolt in while the door is being closed. By the use of a latchbolt, a door can be closed without having to operate the handle, deadbolt – Deadbolts usually extend deeper into the frame and are not automatically retractable the way latchbolts are. They are typically manipulated with a lock on the outside and either a lock or a latch on the inside. Deadbolts are generally used for security purposes on external doors in case somebody tries to kick the door in or use a tool such as a crowbar or a hammer and screwdriver etc, Strike plate – A plate with a hole in the middle made to receive a bolt. If the strike is for a latchbolt, it also includes a small ramped area to help the bolt move inward while the door is being closed. Its also available as electric strike which allows you to open the door even though the mechanical lock is locked, dust Socket - A plastic socket that sits under the Strike plate concealing the rough wood of the mortise. Numerous devices exist to serve specific purposes related to how a door should be used
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Lock (security device)
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A lock is a mechanical or electronic fastening device that is released by a physical object, by supplying secret information, or by a combination thereof. The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out of drilled holes within the bolt, when the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock, the first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodore of Samos in the 6th century BC, affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits, It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. The lever tumbler lock, which uses a set of levers to prevent the bolt from moving in the lock, was perfected by Robert Barron in 1778. His double acting lever lock required the lever to be lifted to a height by having a slot cut in the lever. This type of lock is currently used today. The lever tumbler lock was improved by Jeremiah Chubb in 1818. A burglary in Portsmouth Dockyard prompted the British Government to announce a competition to produce a lock that could be opened only with its own key, Chubb was awarded £100 after a trained lock-picker failed to break the lock after 3 months. In 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, the Chubb brothers also received a patent for the first burglar-resisting safe and began production in 1835. The designs of Barron and Chubb were based on the use of levers, but Joseph Bramah. His lock used a key with precise notches along the surface. The lock was at the limits of the manufacturing capabilities of the time and was said by its inventor to be unpickable. Hobbs attempt required some 51 hours, spread over 16 days and this lock design used pins of varying lengths to prevent the lock from opening without the correct key. The modern Yale lock is essentially a developed version of the Egyptian lock. Despite some improvement in key design since, the majority of locks today are variants of the designs invented by Bramah, Chubb
8.
Drawer (furniture)
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A drawer /drɔːr/ is a box-shaped container that fits into a piece of furniture in such a way that it can be drawn out horizontally to reach its contents. Drawers are built into numerous types of furniture, including cabinets, chests of drawers, drawers can be built in a variety of manners using a variety of materials. Wood and various wood composites, sheet metal, and plastic are common materials used for drawers, wooden drawers are often designed so that the front face is complete and the end grain from the side pieces does not show. The corners may be dovetailed for additional strength or for aesthetics, to attach the bottom piece of the drawer, a groove may be cut in the four vertical pieces to insert the bottom of the drawer. Most commonly, one or two handles or drawer pulls are attached to the front face of the drawer to facilitate pulling it out from its enclosure, some drawers incorporate a locking mechanism to secure the drawer. This is commonly found in filing cabinet and desk drawers, most older or inexpensive pieces of furniture and cabinets use wooden sliders, upon which the drawer slides as it is opened or closed. Wood slides can be lubricated with paraffin wax, newer furniture and cabinets may use plastic friction slides, or more elaborate bearings slide, which will provide smoother operation with less binding. There are different types of bearing slides, such as linear ball-bearing slides, roller bearing slides, modern drawer slides are usually categorized in how they are mounted, including center mount, side mount, bottom mount and European mount drawer slides. Drawer slides are intended for use varying from light to heavy drawers, a load rating of 100 pounds is considered typical. Drawer slides often have a mechanism to keep the drawer from accidentally being pulled fully from its enclosure, cash drawer False bottom Roll-out shelf
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Shelf (storage)
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A shelf is a flat horizontal plane which is used in a home, business, store, or elsewhere to hold items that are being displayed, stored, or offered for sale. It is raised off the ground and usually anchored/supported on its shorter length sides by brackets and it can also be held up by columns or pillars. A shelf is known as a counter, ledge, mantel. Tables designed to be placed against a wall, possibly mounted, are known as console tables, usually two to six shelves make up a unit, each shelf being attached perpendicularly to the vertical or diagonal supports and positioned parallel one above the other. Free-standing shelves can be accessible from one or both longer length sides. A shelf with a hidden internal bracket is termed a floating shelf, a shelf or case designed to display books is a bookshelf. The length of the shelf is based upon the limitations of its siting. The vertical distance between the shelves is based upon the limitations of the units siting and the height of the objects. The unit can be fixed or be some form of mobile shelving, the most heavy duty shelving is pallet racking. In a store, the front edge of the shelf under the object held might be used to display the name, product number, pricing, and other information about the object. Shelves are normally made of materials such as wood, bamboo or steel. DIY shelves can even be made from an old door, blue-tack, pipe shelving can be used in a home, business, store or restaurant. It consists mainly of wood resting on black or galvanized steel gas pipe. Copper pipe can be used but it is not recommended for heavy duty shelves, pipe shelving can also be modified to be used as retail clothing displays and wall shelves. Pipe shelving supports rest on the floor with floor flanges and attaches to the wall with flanges that are directed backwards, many different designs exist and some companies make these shelves for commercial and residential applications and others make these shelves as diy projects. Pipe shelving is mainly attached to a wall but some companies have designed free standing units.3 x brackets width and no wider than 1.2 x brackets height. A good rule of thumb for concrete walls is that the screw should go into the wall at least at least as far as 1/10th the width of the shelf, but there are shelf systems where a brace is hung on the wall onto which brackets are attached without screws. The word shelf is from the Old English scylfe, akin to Low German schelf shelf and Old Norse -skjalf bench
10.
Countertop
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A countertop is a horizontal work surface in kitchens or other food preparation areas, bathrooms or lavatories, and workrooms in general. It is frequently installed upon and supported by cabinets, the surface is positioned at an ergonomic height for the user and the particular task for which it is designed. A countertop may be constructed of materials with different attributes of functionality, durability. The countertop may have built-in applicances, or accessory items relative to the intended application. In Australian English, the counter is generally reserved for a surface of this type that forms a boundary between a space for public use and a space for workers to carry out service tasks. In other contexts, the bench or benchtop is used. The common fitted Western-style kitchen, developed in the early 20th century, is typically an arrangement of assembled unit cabinetry covered with a more-or-less continuous countertop work surface. The unfitted kitchen design style exemplified by Johnny Grey may also include detached and/or varied countertop surfaces mounted on discrete base support structures, primary considerations of material choice and conformation are durability, functionality, hygienics, appearance, and cost. When installed in a kitchen on standard wall-mounted base unit cabinets and this allows for a convenient reach to objects at the back of the countertop while protecting the base cabinet faces. In the UK the standard width is 600mm, finished heights from the floor will vary depending on usage but typically will be 35-36, with a material thickness depending on that chosen. They may include an integrated or applied backsplash to prevent spills, the horizontal surface and vertical edges of the countertop can be decorated in manners ranging from plain to very elaborate. They are often conformed to accommodate the installation of sinks, stoves, ranges, and cooktops, or other such as dispensers, integrated drain boards. Laboratory countertops are countertops used specifically in science fields for educational labs or research purposes and they can be used to place equipments, tools, projects and chemicals. Characteristics of laboratory countertops are generally determined according to what reagents or corrosive chemicals are being used, the purpose of the countertop would be different depending on whether it is used in a chemistry lab, physics lab, food science lab, microbiology or a biology lab. Common characteristics of preferred laboratory countertops are ones that are strong, durable, depending on the objectives of a lab, they may additionally be required to be resistant to acids or high temperatures. Many laboratory countertops are equipped with drawers that can be used to store materials that might get in the way while conducting an experiment. Materials such as lab notebooks, pencils, extra papers and folders are advised and expected to be stored away in the spaces or inside the drawer. The laboratory countertops styles and variations may differ according to where they are and they are also often made of different materials depending on their usage
11.
Chest of drawers
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A chest of drawers, also called a bureau, is a piece of furniture that has multiple parallel, horizontal drawers stacked one above another. In American English a dresser is a piece of furniture, usually waist high, in British English a dresser or a Welsh dresser has shelves in the upper section for storing or displaying tableware. Chests of drawers have traditionally made and used for storing clothing, especially underwear, socks. They are usually placed in a bedroom for this purpose, but can actually be used to store anything that will fit inside, various personal sundry items are also often stored in a chest of drawers. It has a history as one of the stand-bys of a carpenters workshop. A typical chest is approximately rectangular in shape and often has short legs at the bottom corners for placement on the floor. Chests of drawers often come in 5-, 6-, and 7-drawer varieties, the chest illustrated at right would be described as a 5 over 2 chest-on-chest, the latter term deriving from the fact that at one time it would have been made as 2 separable pieces. They are commonly made of wood, similar to other kinds of furniture. The inside of the drawers can be accessed by pulling out at the front side. It is often placed so that the side faces a wall since access to the back is not necessary. The lateral sides are usually made such that they can be placed against a wall or in a corner. Although they can be plain in appearance, chests of drawers can also be made with a fancy or ornamental appearance, including finishes, traditionally, drawers would slide out on smooth wood rails. Most modern cabinets use roll-out shelf sliders, made of metal, most chests of drawers fall into one of two types, those which are about waist-high or bench-high and those which are about shoulder-high. Both types typically have a surface on top. Waist-high chests often have a mirror placed vertically on top, which is bought with the piece. While a user is getting dressed or otherwise preparing their grooming, a chifforobe is a combination of a wardrobe and a chest of drawers. In late medieval Europe the chest came into use, especially in homes of the nobility. This type, also known as a coffer was more or less a simple joined wooden box with a hinged lid and it may or may not have stood on feet
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Nightstand
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A nightstand, alternatively night table, bedside table or bedside cabinet, is a small table or cabinet designed to stand beside a bed or elsewhere in a bedroom. Modern nightstands are usually small bedside tables, often with a drawer. They are often used to support items that might be useful during the night, such as a lamp, alarm clock, reading matter, phone, eyeglasses, desktop intercom. Before indoor flushing toilets became commonplace, the function of a nightstand was to contain a chamber pot. As a result, early nightstands were often small cabinets, sometimes fitted with a drawer, another term sometimes given to such cabinets was commode. French, Italian and Spanish antique nightstands usually have one drawer and they can be embellished with gold leaf finish, bronze or parquetry inlaid
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Wardrobe
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A wardrobe is a standing closet used for storing clothes. The name of wardrobe was given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with closets and lockers. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, throughout the chronological changes in the form of the enclosure, it more or less retained its preset function as a place to retain a king’s robe. The word has gained coinage over successive generations as an independent store for among others, preserving precious items for a ruler like gold and it is also a simple patio where clothes are hung from metal bars or tucked inside utility racks running from up to down. The word wardrobe appeared in the English language in the early 14th century and it originated from Old French words warderobe, wardereube and garderobe, in which warder meant to keep, to guard and robe meant garment. In the United States, the wardrobe in its form as an oak hanging cupboard dates back to the early 17th century. At that time it was an export product from America to England. Consequently, the item was sometimes referred to as an Oakley, during a large portion of the 18th century the tallboy was much used for storing clothes. A common feature was to base future size on the eight small men method, a considered good size double wardrobe would thus be able to hold within its capacity, eight small men. In the nineteenth century the wardrobe began to develop into its form, with a hanging cupboard at each side. Where Chippendale and his school had carved, Sheraton, Hepplewhite and their contemporaries achieved their effects by the employment of deftly contrasted. In the United Kingdom, a more affluent option is custom-fitted wardrobes, kas, kast or kasten is a massive cupboard or wardrobe of Dutch origin similar to an armoire that was popular in the Netherlands and America in the 17th & 18th century. It was fitted with shelves and drawers used to store linen, clothing and other valuables and they were status symbols and family heirlooms in the Low Countries and imported luxury goods to the American colonies. As such they were made of quality wood such as cherry, rosewood and ebony. Cabinetry Closet Encoignure This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. American kasten, the Dutch-style cupboards of New York and New Jersey, 1650–1800, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
14.
Vaux-le-Vicomte
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The Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte is a baroque French château located in Maincy, near Melun,55 kilometres southeast of Paris in the Seine-et-Marne département of France. At Vaux-le-Vicomte, the architect Louis Le Vau, the landscape architect André le Nôtre, and their collaboration marked the beginning of the Louis XIV style combining architecture, interior design and landscape design. The gardens pronounced visual axis is an example of this style, Fouquet was an avid patron of the arts, attracting many artists with his generosity. When Fouquet became King Louis XIVs superintendent of finances in 1657, he commissioned Le Vau, Le Brun and Le Nôtre to renovate his estate, fouquet’s artistic and cultivated personality subsequently brought out the best in the three. To secure the necessary grounds for the plans for Vaux-le-Vicomte’s garden and castle. The displaced villagers were employed in the upkeep and maintenance of the gardens. It was said to have employed 18 thousand workers and cost as much as 16 million livres, the château and its patron became for a short time a focus for fine feasts, literature and arts. The poet Jean de La Fontaine and the playwright Molière were among the close to Fouquet. At the inauguration of Vaux-le-Vicomte, a Molière play was performed, along with an event organized by François Vatel. The celebration had been too impressive and the superintendents home too luxurious, Fouquets intentions were to flatter the king, part of Vaux-le-Vicomte was actually constructed specifically for the king, but Fouquets plan backfired. Jean-Baptiste Colbert led the king to believe that his ministers magnificence was funded by the misappropriation of public funds, Colbert, who then replaced Fouquet as superintendent of finances, arrested him. Later, Voltaire was to sum up the famous fête, On 17 August, at six in the evening Fouquet was the King of France, La Fontaine wrote describing the fête and shortly afterwards penned his Elégie aux nymphes de Vaux. After Fouquet was arrested and imprisoned for life and his wife exiled, the king seized, confiscated or purchased 120 tapestries, the statues and all the orange trees from Vaux-le-Vicomte. He then sent the team of artists to design what would be a larger project than Vaux-le-Vicomte. Madame Fouquet recovered her property 10 years later and retired there with her eldest son, in 1705, after the death of her husband and son, she decided to put Vaux-le-Vicomte up for sale. Marshal Claude Louis Hector de Villars became the new owner without first seeing the chateau, in 1764, the Marshals son sold the estate to the Duke of Praslin, whose descendants would maintain the property for over a century. In 1875, after thirty years of neglect, the estate was sold to Alfred Sommier in a public auction, the château was empty, some of the outbuildings had fallen into ruin and the famous gardens were totally overgrown. The huge task of restoration and refurbishment began under the direction of the architect Gabriel-Hippolyte Destailleur, when Sommier died in 1908, the château and the gardens had recovered their original appearance
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Industrial design
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Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured through techniques of mass production. This distinguishes industrial design from craft-based design, where the form of the product is determined by the creator at the time of its creation. The role of a designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability. The division of labour that underlies the practice of design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. The emergence of industrial design is linked to the growth of industrialisation and mechanisation that began with the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The first use of the industrial design is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers, Industrial designs origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. The earliest use of the term may have been in The Art Union, the Practical Draughtsmans Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the work explains, that it wants to offer a course of mechanical, engineering. The study of those types of drawing, according to Armengaud. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the drawing education in France, the United Kingdom. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the countrys first industrial design programs at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, educational programs in the U. S. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a school or university. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study, the study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Afterwards, the programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts. Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment, generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships
16.
Thomas Sheraton
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Thomas Sheraton was a furniture designer, one of the big three English furniture makers of the 18th century, along with Thomas Chippendale and George Hepplewhite. Sheraton was born in Stockton-on-Tees, County Durham, England and he was apprenticed to a local cabinet maker and continued working as a journeyman cabinet maker until he moved to London in 1790, aged 39. There he set up as professional consultant and teacher, teaching perspective, architecture and it is not known how he gained either the knowledge or the reputation which enabled him to do this but he appears to have been moderately successful. Starting in 1791 he published in four volumes The Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers Drawing Book, at least six hundred cabinet makers and joiners subscribed to his book and it was immediately widely influential over a large part of the country. During this period he did not have a workshop of his own, no pieces of furniture have ever been traced to him directly. So a piece of furniture described as being by Sheraton refers to the design, in 1803 he published The Cabinet Dictionary, a compendium of instructions on the techniques of cabinet and chair making. Then a year before his death, in 1805 he published the first volume of The Cabinet Maker, Upholsterer, sheratons name is associated with the styles of furniture fashionable in the 1790s and early 19th century. Many of the designs are based on architecture, knowledge of which was an essential part of a designers technical education. Luke Vincent Lockwood Lyre arm Yes
17.
Thomas Chippendale
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Thomas Chippendale was born in Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England in June 1718. He became a cabinet-maker in London, designing furniture in the mid-Georgian, English Rococo, in 1754 he published a book of his designs, titled The Gentleman and Cabinet Makers Director, upon which success he became renowned. The designs are regarded as reflecting the current British fashion for furniture of that period and are today reproduced globally and he was buried 16 November 1779, according to the records of St Martin-in-the-Fields, in the cemetery since built upon by the National Gallery. Chippendale furniture is highly valued, a cabinet that came up for auction by Christies in 2008 sold for £2,729,250. Chippendale was born the child of John Chippendale, joiner. He received an education at Prince Henrys Grammar School. Wood later ordered eight copies of the Director, on 19 May 1748 he married Catherine Redshaw at St Georges Chapel, Mayfair and they had five boys and four girls. In 1749 Chippendale rented a modest house in Conduit Court, near Covent Garden, in 1752 he moved to Somerset Court, off the Strand. In 1754 Chippendale moved to 60–62 St. Martins Lane in London, in 1754 he also went into partnership with James Rannie, a wealthy Scottish merchant, who put money into the business at the same time as Chippendale brought out the first edition of the Director. Rannie and his bookkeeper, Thomas Haig, probably looked after the finances of the business and his wife, Catherine, died in 1772. After James Rannie died in 1766, Thomas Haig seems to have borrowed £2,000 from Rannies widow, which he used to become Chippendales partner. One of Rannies executors, Henry Ferguson, became a partner and so the business became Chippendale, Haig. He moved to what was then called Lobs Fields in Kensington, Chippendale married Elizabeth Davis at Fulham Parish Church on 5 August 1777. In 1779 Chippendale moved to Hoxton where he died of tuberculosis and was buried at St Martin-in-the-Fields on 16 November 1779. There is a statue and memorial dedicated to Chippendale outside The Old Grammar School Gallery in Manor Square, in his home town of Otley, near Leeds. There is a sculpted figure of Thomas Chippendale on the façade of the Victoria and Albert Museum. After working as a cabinet maker in London, in 1754, he became the first cabinet-maker to publish a book of his designs, titled The Gentleman. Chippendale had considerable competition during his years, most notably Ince
18.
George Hepplewhite
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He is regarded as having been one of the big three English furniture makers of the 18th century, along with Thomas Sheraton and Thomas Chippendale. One characteristic that is seen in many of his designs is a shield-shaped chair back, very little is known about Hepplewhite himself. Some established sources list no birth information, however a George Hepplewhite was born in 1727 in Ryton, County Durham, according to some sources, he served his apprenticeship with Gillows in Lancaster, but the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography is sceptical about this. It is known that he based himself in London, where he opened a shop, after he died in 1786, the business was continued by his widow, Alice. In 1788 she published a book with about 300 of his designs, The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterers Guide, many are quick to praise the designer George Hepplewhite, but there are inconsistencies to his fame. The published guide books that claim George Hepplewhite as their author were released after his death by his widow and it was not until years after his death that his designs started to receive recognition. Little is known about the man George Hepplewhite, and only his death seems to offer any hard evidence of his existence. The question arises whether “George Hepplewhite” was a person or just a name for Alice Hepplewhite to publish under. With contemporaries such as Thomas Chippendale producing pieces in a variety of styles, Hepplewhite produced designs that were slender, more curvilinear in shape and well balanced. There are some characteristics that hint at a Hepplewhite design, such as more curved chair arms, straight legs, shield-shape chair backs. The design would receive ornamentation from paint and inlays used on the piece, the book influenced cabinet makers and furniture companies for several generations. The work of these generations influenced in turn copies of the original designs, luke Vincent Lockwood Geoff Nicholson, Americas First Lady and the Roddams of North West Durham, webpage, Unet-HRoddom. University of Wisconsin Digitised version of The Cabinetmaker and Upholsterers Guide Project Gutenberg article on Heppelwhite from Furnishing The Home of Good Taste by Lucy Abbot Throop
19.
Handicraft
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One of the worlds oldest handicraft is Dhokra, this is a sort of metal casting has been used in India for over 4,000 years and is still used. Collective terms for handicrafts include artisanry, handicrafting, crafting, many handicrafters use natural, even entirely indigenous, materials while others may prefer modern, non-traditional materials, and even upcycle industrial materials. The individual artisanship of an item is the paramount criterion. Most crafts require the development of skill and the application of patience, like folk art, handicraft output often has cultural and/or religious significance, and increasingly may have a political message as well, as in craftivism. The Arts and Crafts movement originated as a late 19th-century design reform and social movement principally in Europe, North America and Australia and this was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labor. These activities were called crafts because originally many of them were professions under the guild system, adolescents were apprenticed to a master craftsman, and refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. Simple arts and crafts projects are an elementary and middle school activity in both mainstream and alternative education systems around the world. e. The use of traditional handicrafting techniques by professional fine artists, many community centers and schools run evening or day classes and workshops, for adults and children, offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time. If sold, they are sold in Direct sales, Gift shops, Public markets, in developing countries, handicrafts are sold to locals and as Souvenirs to tourists. Sellers tend to speak at least a few words of common tourist languages
20.
Applied arts
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The applied arts are the application of design and decoration to everyday objects to make them aesthetically pleasing. The term is applied in distinction to the arts which aims to produce objects which are beautiful or provide intellectual stimulation. In practice, the two often overlap, the fields of industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, and the decorative arts are considered applied arts. In a creative or abstract context, the fields of architecture and photography are also considered applied arts
21.
Tortoiseshell
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The large size, fine colour and unusual form of the hawksbills scutes make it especially suitable. Tortoiseshell was widely used from ancient times in the West and in Asia, despite being expensive, tortoiseshell was attractive to manufacturers and consumers because of its beautiful mottled appearance, its durability, and its organic warmth against the skin. The initial processing involved separating the layers of the scutes from the animals carapace by heating, softening the plates by boiling them in salt water. Two pieces could be fused by use of a hot iron, finishing and polishing was done by various techniques mainly in Europe or in the US. Craftsmen in various Asian countries have also perfected this art, in 1973, the trade of tortoiseshell worldwide was banned under CITES. The material was often imitated in stained horn, plastic and other materials. The synthetic Delrin has been used especially for guitar picks, tortoiseshell has been used since ancient times, and the ancient Greek chelys or lyre often used a whole shell to form its body. Inlaid veneers of tortoiseshell were popular with wealthy ancient Romans for furniture, especially couches for dining, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, probably a work of the 1st century AD, distinguishes between shell from different species, with that regarded as the best probably the hawksbill. Small luxury objects such as snuff-boxes were decorated in piqué work, hopes of capturing a large store of tortoiseshell led to the Ngatik massacre by Australian beachcombers of up to 50 men of Sapwuahfik in Micronesia in July 1837
22.
Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
23.
John III Sobieski
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John III Sobieski, from 1674 until his death King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sobieskis military skill, demonstrated in wars against the Ottoman Empire, sobieskis 22-year reign marked a period of the Commonwealths stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and the Khmelnytsky Uprising. Popular among his subjects, he was a military commander. After his victories over them, the Ottomans called him the Lion of Lechistan, official title, Jan III, z łaski bożej, król Polski, wielki książę litewski, ruski, pruski, mazowiecki, żmudzki, kijowski, wołyński, podlaski i czernichowski, etc. His father, Jakub Sobieski, was the Voivode of Ruthenia and Castellan of Kraków, his mother, John Sobieski spent his childhood in Żółkiew. After graduating from the Nowodworski College in Kraków in 1643, young John Sobieski then graduated from the faculty of the Jagiellonian University in 1646. After finishing his studies, together with his brother Marek Sobieski, John left for western Europe and they visited Leipzig, Antwerp, Paris, London, Leiden and The Hague. Both brothers returned to the Commonwealth in 1648, upon receiving the news of the death of king Władysław IV Vasa and the hostilities of the Khmelnytsky Uprising, they volunteered for the army. They both fought in the siege of Zamość and they founded and commanded their own banners of cavalry. Soon, the fortunes of war separated the brothers, in 1649, Jakub fought in the Battle of Zboriv. In 1652, Marek died in Tatar captivity after his capture at the Battle of Batih, John was promoted to the rank of pułkownik and fought with distinction in the Battle of Berestechko. A promising commander, John was sent by King John II Casimir to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire as one of the envoys in a mission of Mikołaj Bieganowski. There, Sobieski learned the Tatar language and the Turkish language and studied Turkish military traditions and it is likely he participated as part of the briefly allied Polish-Tatar forces in the 1655 Battle of Okhmativ. By 26 May 1656 he received the position of the chorąży koronny, during the three-day-long battle of Warsaw of 1656, Sobieski commanded a 2, 000-man strong regiment of Tatar cavalry. He took part in a number of engagements over the two years, including in the Siege of Toruń in 1658. In 1659 he was elected a deputy to Sejm, and was one of the Polish negotiators in the Treaty of Hadiach with the Cossacks. In 1660 he took part in the last offensive against the Swedes in Prussia, through personal connections, he became a strong supporter of the French faction in the Polish royal court, represented by Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga. In 1662 he was elected a deputy to the Sejm
24.
Looting
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The term is also used in a broader sense to describe egregious instances of theft and embezzlement, such as the plundering of private or public assets by governments. The proceeds of all these activities can be described as booty, loot, plunder, spoils, looting by a victorious army during war has been common practice throughout recorded history. For foot soldiers, it was viewed as a way to supplement their meagre income and was part of the celebration of victory. To rob them of their wealth, in other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their easy portability. In many cases looting was an opportunity to obtain treasures that otherwise would not have been obtainable, since the 18th century, works of art have increasingly become a popular target. In the 1930s and even more so during World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in large scale and organized looting of art, looting, combined with poor military discipline, has occasionally been an armys downfall. In other cases, for example the Wahhabi sack of Karbala, not all looters in wartime are conquerors, the looting of Vistula Land by its retreating defenders in 1915 was among the factors sapping the loyalty of Poland in World War I. Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, the novel War and Peace describes widespread looting by Moscows citizens before Napoleons troops enter the town, and looting by French troops elsewhere. Looting can also refer to antiquities formerly removed from countries by outsiders, other examples include the obelisks of Pharaoh Amenhotep II, in the, Pharaoh Ptolemy IX. In the aftermath of the Second World War Soviet forces systematically plundered the Soviet occupation zone of Germany and they sent valuable industrial equipment, infrastructure and whole factories to the Soviet Union. Especially during natural disasters, some find themselves forced to take what is not theirs in order to survive. How to respond to this, and where the line between unnecessary looting and necessary scavenging lies, is often a dilemma for governments, in other cases, looting may be tolerated or even encouraged by governments for political or other reasons. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of property during wartime. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 obliges military forces not only to avoid destruction of enemy property, theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of the Custodian of Enemy Property, to be handled until the return to its owner. Around the same time of the Hyksos invasion and occupation of Egypt, in Genesis 15,14, the despoliation is an act of justifiable vengeance upon the oppressors of Israel. Yet in Exodus, God uses the plagues as an act of mercy to bring a knowledge of himself to Israel, Pharaoh, the Egyptians, and to the ends of the earth. See Hyksos Iconoclasm and Genesis 13,2 and Genesis 15,14 and Exodus 12,36 Following the death of Valentinian III in 455, in 870 AD, the Byzantine city of Melite was captured by the Aghlabids under Sawāda Ibn Muḥammad. The city was destroyed, its churches looted and its population massacred, marble from the citys churches was used to build the castle of Sousse
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
27.
Watt steam engine
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The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of a separate condenser. It was a vacuum or atmospheric engine using steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to create a vacuum beneath the piston. The difference between atmospheric pressure above the piston and the vacuum below drove the piston down the cylinder. James Watt avoided the use of pressure steam because of safety concerns. Watts design became synonymous with steam engines, due in no part to his business partner. The Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775, was an improvement on the design of the Newcomen engine and was a key point in the Industrial Revolution, Watts two most important improvements were the separate condenser and rotary motion. The separate condenser, located external to the cylinder, condensed steam without cooling the piston, Watts engines efficiency was more than double that of the Newcomen engine. Rotary motion was more suitable for power than the oscillating beam of Newcomens engine. In 1699, the English mechanical designer, Thomas Savery, invented a pumping appliance that used steam to draw directly from a well by means of a vacuum created by condensing steam. The appliance was also proposed for draining mines, but it could only draw fluid up approximately 25 feet, as mines became deeper, this was often impractical. It also consumed an amount of fuel compared with later engines. The solution to draining deep mines was found by Thomas Newcomen who developed an engine that also worked on the vacuum principle. It employed a cylinder containing a piston connected by a chain to one end of a rocking beam that worked a mechanical lift pump from its opposite end. At the bottom of each stroke, steam was allowed to enter the cylinder below the piston, as the piston rose within the cylinder, drawn upward by a counterbalance, it drew in steam at atmospheric pressure. At the top of the stroke the valve was closed. This water condensed the steam and created a vacuum below the piston. The atmospheric pressure outside the engine was then greater than the pressure within the cylinder, the piston, attached to a chain and in turn attached to one end of the rocking beam, pulled down the end of the beam, lifting the opposite end of the beam. Hence, the deep in the mine attached to opposite end of the beam via ropes
28.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
29.
Arts and Crafts movement
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It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial and it had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards. It was inspired by the ideas of architect Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, the movement developed earliest and most fully in the British Isles, and spread across the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and North America. It was largely a reaction against the perceived impoverished state of the arts at the time. The Arts and Crafts style emerged from the attempt to reform design, but it was as much a movement of social reform as design reform and its leading practitioners did not separate the two. The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner has said that exhibits in the Great Exhibition showed ignorance of basic need in creating patterns. Owen Jones, for example, declared that Ornament, fiona MacCarthy says that unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed. Morriss followers also had differing views or changed their minds over time. C. R. Ashbee, for example, a figure in the Arts and Crafts Movement. At the time of his Guild of Handicraft, initiated in 1888, he said, We do not reject the machine, but we would desire to see it mastered. Morris insisted that the artist should be a working by hand and advocated a society of free craftspeople. Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work, he wrote, the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the art of the common people. The treasures in our museums now are only the common used in households of that age. Medieval art was the model for much Arts and Crafts design and medieval life, before capitalism, the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society did not insist that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that The founders of the Society, never executed their own designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms. The Arts and Crafts Movement was associated with socialist ideas in the persons of Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, Ashbee, in the early 1880s Morris was spending more of his time on socialist propaganda than on designing and making. Ashbee established a community of craftsmen, the Guild of Handicraft, in east London and those adherents who were not socialists, for example, Alfred Hoare Powell, advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day, a successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer, was not a socialist either
30.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
31.
Craft
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A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan, the beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers and began to represent what we think of a craftsman today, historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work, once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could call himself a master of his craft. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution, thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science, roughly determinated, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge. Handicraft is the main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods, the individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods, handicraft goods are made with craft production processes. Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of working, glass blowing. A craft fair is an event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, a tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, media related to Crafts at Wikimedia Commons
32.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
33.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
34.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
35.
Hobby
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A hobby is a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during ones leisure time. Hobbies can include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, a list of hobbies is lengthy and always changing as interests and fashions change. By continually participating in a hobby, one can acquire substantial skill. Engagement in hobbies has increased since the nineteenth century as workers have more leisure time and advancing production. As some hobbies have become popular, like stamp collecting, others have been created following technological advances. Hobbyists are a part of a group of people engaged in leisure pursuits where the boundaries of each group overlap to some extent. The Serious Leisure Perspective groups hobbyists with amateurs and volunteers and identifies three broad groups of activity with hobbies being found mainly in the Serious leisure category. Casual leisure is intrinsically rewarding, short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no preparation b, Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer that is substantial, rewarding and results in a sense of accomplishment. Project-based leisure is a short-term often a one-off project that is rewarding, in the 16th century, the term hobyn had the meaning of small horse and pony. The term hobby horse was documented in a 1557 payment confirmation for a Hobbyhorse from Reading, the item, originally called a Tourney Horse, was made of a wooden or basketwork frame with an artificial tail and head. It was designed for a child to mimic riding a real horse, by 1816 the derivative, hobby, was introduced into the vocabulary of a number of English people. Over the course of subsequent centuries, the term came to be associated with recreation, a hobby became an activity that is practised regularly and usually with some worthwhile purpose. Hobbies are usually, but not always, practised primarily for interest and enjoyment, the origins pursuits that others thought somewhat childish or trivial. However, as early as 1676 Sir Matthew Hale, in Contemplations Moral and Divine and he was acknowledging that a hobby horse produces a legitimate sense of pride. By the mid 18th century there was a flourishing of hobbies as working people had more hours of work. They spent more time to pursue interests that brought them satisfaction, however, there was concern that these working people might not use their leisure time in worthwhile pursuits. The hope of weaning people away from bad habits by the provision of counter-attractions came to the fore in the 1830s, the flourishing book and magazine trade of the day encouraged worthwhile hobbies and pursuits. The burgeoning manufacturing trade made materials used in hobbies cheap and was responsive to the interests of hobbyists
36.
Scandinavian design
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While the term Scandinavia only refers to the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, it can be used colloquially to refer to all five of these countries. Since 2006, the tradition of a design award has been resumed with the Forum AID Award. The idea that beautiful and functional everyday objects should not only be affordable to the wealthy and this is probably most completely realized in post-WWII Scandinavian design. Scandinavian design often makes use of form-pressed wood, plastics, anodized or enameled aluminum or pressed steel, the concept of Scandinavian design has been the subject of many scholarly debates, exhibitions and marketing agendas since the 1950s. Many emphasize the democratic ideals that were a central theme of the movement and are reflected in the rhetoric surrounding contemporary Scandinavian. Others, however, have analyzed the reception of Scandinavian design abroad, seeing in it a form of myth-making and racial politics. Lindeberg – Sweden Marimekko – Finland Moods of Norway - Norway Nudie Jeans – Sweden Danish fashion stands as the fourth largest export out of all manufacturing industries in the country. Bringing in 30 billion dollars a year, fashion has become a catalyst in export, employment, according to the Danish Fashion Institute, Danish fashion companies have a higher shareholder value creation than any other fashion industry globally. The sixties and seventies were a period of growth of fashion in the country, from 1960–65 the clothing industry approximately doubled in size when its exports increased from 250 million to 500 million. During this time, designers and manufacturers realized the need to focus on product development, Fashion shows became a growing phenomenon, and clothing was put into mass production by new Danish designers. Because Danish fashion at the time was so distinctive, the supported the new. Bolander, Lars, MacIssac, Heather, Lars Bolanders Scandinavian Design, englund, Magnus, Schmidt, Chrystina, Wood, Andrew, Scandinavian Modern, Ryland Peters & Small. Fallan, Kjetil, Scandinavian Design, Alternative Histories, Berg, Fiell, Charlotte J, Fiell, Peter, Scandinavian Design, Taschen. Gura, Judith, Sourcebook of Scandinavian Furniture, Designs for the 21st Century, hard af Segerstad, Ulf, Scandinavian Design, Nordisk Rotogravyr. Halén, Widar, Wickman, Kerstin, Scandinavian Design Beyond the Myth, nelson, Katherine E, Cabra, Raul, New Scandinavian Design, Chronicle Books. Oriol, Anja Llorella, Asensio, Paco, ed, Wickman, Kerstin, Scandinavian Design, the dream is still alive, Swedish Information Service. Zahle, Erik, A Treasury of Scandinavian Design, Golden Press, inspiracje wnętrz Finnish Design Rilane Scandinavian Style Scandinavian Design
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French furniture
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There was also a conservative artisanal rural tradition of French country furniture which remained unbroken until the advent of the railroads in the mid-nineteenth century. Features typically associated with French Provincial furniture include cabriole legs, dining chairs often have a wheat pattern carving reflecting the country surroundings of the maker. The ladder back chair with a rush seat is the typical French Provincial dining chair. Perhaps the last of the Parisian ébénistes working from a traditional atelier was Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, favoured craftsmen would be eligible for premises in the galleries of the Palais du Louvre, a practice that had been initiated on a small scale under Henri IV. In Paris, the trade was divided among craft guilds with jealous regard for infringements. Menuisiers were solely occupied with carved furnishings, which included beds and all seat furniture, carvers and gilders worked directly for them. French furniture of the Ancien Régime, often characterised by dealers and collectors by reign-names, as Louis Quinze furniture, Art Nouveau provided one form of reaction to the battle of the historicist styles, and Modernism marked a more rigorous break with the past. Art Deco offered a version of Modernism. Since the Second World War, the manufacture of furniture in France, for a selection of outstanding Parisian ebénistes, see Ébéniste. Pierre Verlet Peter K. Thornton Francis J. B. Watson Salverte Nicolay Denise Ledoux-Lebard Nadine Neilson ONeill, dangerous liaisons, fashion and furniture in the eighteenth century. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, anticstore, ed. Ebenistes in the eighteenth century
38.
Rustic furniture
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Rustic furniture is furniture employing sticks, twigs or logs for a natural look. The term rustic is derived from National Park Service rustic style of architecture, many companies, artists and craftspeople make rustic furniture in a variety of styles and with a variety of historical and contemporary influences. Rustic furniture using recycled and reclaimed materials is becoming more and more popular, the use of recycled pallets to make furniture has taken the UK by storm. The rustic furniture movement developed during the mid- to late-1800s, Rustic furniture was originally made from whatever natural materials were in greatest supply, and often by poor people as items of trade for food or cash. Various rustic styles reflect the personality of their maker, with such as chip carving, silver or gold brushwork, milk paint, peeled bark. Many different wood species were used including willow, hickory, mountain laurel, in the American South, palm fronds were occasionally employed. Historical examples of furniture may be found in museums and antique shops. One showcase for this style of furniture is the Adirondack Museum in Blue Mountain Lake, the New York State Museum is home to, Rustic Furniture, The Clarence O. Nichols Collection. Typical items of furniture include chairs, love seats, tables, desks, smoking stands, clocks, chest of drawers, rockers, coat racks, mirror frames. There are two types of rustic-furniture construction, bentwood and twig work. Sometimes both types are used in the same piece, some rustic furniture makers use mortice and tenon construction, others simply nail or screw members together. Rustic furniture can sometimes refer to furniture displaying a lack of craftsmanship involved. Quite often, you will find untreated/minimally-treated logs sold off as rustic pieces of furniture commanding prices vastly in excess of their more modern, polished looking counterparts
39.
Log cabin
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A log cabin is a dwelling constructed of logs, especially a less finished or architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers, construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise De Architectura. He noted that in Pontus, dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with chips, historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age. C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having. accomplished in building several forms of log housing, having different methods of corner timbering, Log saunas or bathhouses of this type are still found in rural Finland. By stacking tree trunks one on top of another and overlapping the logs at the corners and they developed interlocking corners by notching the logs at the ends, resulting in strong structures that were easier to make weather-tight by inserting moss or other soft material into the joints. As the original coniferous forest extended over the coldest parts of the world, the insulating properties of the solid wood were a great advantage over a timber frame construction covered with animal skins, felt, boards or shingles. Over the decades, increasingly complex joints were developed to ensure more weather tight joints between the logs, but the profiles were still based on the round log. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary, the Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America. Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks are readily available, with suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out. In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1638, historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Many of its colonists were actually Forest Finns, because Finland was a part of Sweden at that time. New Sweden only briefly existed before it became the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the Swedish-Finnish colonists quick and easy construction techniques not only remained, but spread. Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique, the Scots and Scots-Irish had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method
40.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
41.
Cedrus
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Cedrus is a genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae. They are native to the mountains of the western Himalayas and the Mediterranean region, occurring at altitudes of 1, 500–3,200 m in the Himalayas and 1, 000–2,200 m in the Mediterranean. Cedrus trees can grow up to 30–40 m tall with spicy-resinous scented wood, thick ridged or square-cracked bark, the shoots are dimorphic, with long shoots, which form the framework of the branches, and short shoots, which carry most of the leaves. The seed cones are barrel-shaped, 6–12 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, green maturing grey-brown, and, as in Abies, disintegrate at maturity to release the winged seeds. The seeds are 10–15 mm long, with a 20–30 mm wing, as in Abies, cone maturation takes one year, with pollination in autumn and the seeds maturing the same time a year later. The pollen cones are ovoid, 3–8 cm long, produced in late summer. Cedars share a similar cone structure with the firs and were traditionally thought to be most closely related to them. L. libani — Lebanon cedar, mountains of Lebanon, western Syria, cedars are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including pine processionary and turnip moth. Cedars are very popular ornamental trees, widely used in horticulture in temperate climates where temperatures do not fall below about −25°C. The Turkish cedar is slightly hardier, to −30°C or just below, extensive mortality of planted specimens can occur in severe winters where temperatures do drop lower. Cedar wood and cedar oil are known to be a repellent to moths. This specific use of cedar is mentioned in The Iliad, referring to the cedar-roofed or lined storage chamber where Priam goes to fetch treasures to be used as ransom. However, the species used for cedar chests and closets in North America is Juniperus virginiana. Cedar is also used to make shoe trees as it can absorb moisture. Many species of trees are suitable for training as bonsai. They work well with many styles, including formal and informal upright, slanting, while some naturalized species of cedar can be found in the Americas, no species is native. Both the Latin word cedrus and the generic name cedrus are derived from Greek κέδρος kédros, ancient Greek and Latin used the same word, kédros and cedrus, respectively, for different species of plants now classified in the genera Cedrus and Juniperus. The name was applied to citron and the word citrus is derived from the same root
42.
Fir
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Firs are a genus of 48–56 species of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Pinaceae. They are found much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia. Firs are most closely related to the genus Cedrus, douglas firs are not true firs, being of the genus Pseudotsuga. They are large trees, reaching heights of 10–80 m tall, firs can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves and by their different cones. Firs can be distinguished from members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves to the twig by a base that resembles a small suction cup. The leaves are flattened, sometimes even looking like they are pressed. The leaves have two lines on the bottom, each of which is formed by wax-covered stomatal bands. In most species, the surface of the leaves is uniformly green and shiny, without stomata or with a few on the tip. Other species have the surface of leaves dull, gray-green or bluish-gray to silvery, coated by wax with variable number of stomatal bands. An example species with shiny green leaves is A. alba, the tips of leaves are usually more or less notched, but sometimes rounded or dull or sharp and prickly. The leaves of plants are usually sharper. In contrast to spruces, even large fir cones do not hang, Section Abies is found in central, south, and eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Abies alba—silver fir Abies nebrodensis—Sicilian fir Abies borisii-regis—Bulgarian fir Abies cephalonica—Greek fir Abies nordmanniana—Nordmann fir or Caucasian fir Abies nordmanniana subsp, equi-trojani—Kazdağı fir, Turkish fir Abies nordmanniana subsp. Abies grandis—grand fir or giant fir Abies grandis var. grandis—Coast grand fir Abies grandis var. idahoensis—interior grand fir Abies concolor—white fir Abies concolor subsp, concolor—Rocky Mountain white fir or Colorado white fir Abies concolor subsp. Salouenensis—Salween fir Abies pindrow—Pindrow fir Abies ziyuanensis—Ziyuan fir Section Amabilis is found in the Pacific Coast mountains in North America and Japan, Abies amabilis—Pacific silver fir Abies mariesii—Maries fir Section Pseudopicea is found in the Sino-Himalayan mountains at high altitudes. Abies delavayi—Delavays fir Abies delavayi var. nukiangensis— Abies delavayi var. motuoensis— Abies delavayi subsp, fansipanensis— Abies fabri—Fabers fir Abies fabri subsp. Abies religiosa—sacred fir Abies hickelii—Hickels fir Abies hickelii var. oaxacana—Oaxaca fir Section Nobilis Abies procera—noble fir Abies magnifica—red fir Abies magnifica var, because this genus has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only. This wood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12 to 18 months and it is commonly referred to by several different names, including North American timber, SPF and whitewood
43.
Spruce
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A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea /paɪˈsiːə/, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from about 20–60 m tall when mature, the needles, or leaves, of spruce trees are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion, each needle on a small, peg-like structure. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs, spruces are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids, the word spruce entered the English language from the Polish Prusy, Prussia. DNA analyses have shown that traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle, Spruce has been found in the fossil record from the early Cretaceous,136 million years ago. Thirty-five named species of spruce exist in the world, the Plant List has 59 accepted spruce names. Beyond that, determination can become more difficult, intensive sampling in the Smithers/Hazelton/Houston area of British Columbia showed Douglas, according to Coates et al. Daubenmire, after sampling, had already recognized the importance of the 2 latter characters. Without cones, morphological differentiation among spruce species and their hybrids is more difficult, but, if an extended photoperiod is provided for Sitka spruce, seedlings become unacceptably tall by the end of the first growing season. g. Growth rhythm, shoot and root weight, and needle serration, or some combination of, Spruce seedlings are most susceptible immediately following germination, and remain highly susceptible through to the following spring. Seedlings that germinate late in the season are particularly vulnerable because they are tiny and have not had time to harden off fully. Mortality rates generally decrease sharply thereafter, but losses often remain high for some years, establishment is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development. Growth remains very slow for several to many years, Spruce is useful as a building wood, commonly referred to by several different names including North American timber, SPF and whitewood. Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from construction work. The Wright brothers first aircraft, the Flyer, was built of spruce, because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only. Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to, Spruce is one of the most important woods for paper uses, as it has long wood fibres which bind together to make strong paper. The fibres are thin walled and collapse to thin bands upon drying, spruces are commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily bleached. Together with northern pines, northern spruces are commonly used to make NBSK, spruces are cultivated over vast areas as pulpwood
44.
Adirondack Architecture
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Adirondack Architecture refers to the rugged architectural style generally associated with the Great Camps within the Adirondack Mountains area in New York. The builders of these camps used native building materials and sited their buildings within a wooded landscape. These camps for the wealthy were built to provide a primitive, elements such as whole, split, or peeled logs, bark, roots, and burls, along with native granite fieldstone, were used to build interior and exterior components. Massive fireplaces and chimneys built of cut stone are common within the Great Camp architecture. The use of building materials was not only for promoting a natural appearance. The style drew upon Swiss chalet architecture, which had introduced to America by Andrew Jackson Downing around 1850. Log construction was popularized by Downings protégé, Calvert Vaux, in his pattern book Villas, Downings design principles emphasized utility, structural expression, and conformity to natural surroundings. The building form was influenced by Stick style, but using log framing instead of dimensional lumber to express the system of the buildings. Charles Eastlakes book Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, Upholstery, interior decorations such as rustic and Mission Style furniture, mounted trophies of fish and game, Japanese fans and screens, and American Indian artifacts were influenced by Eastlakes ideas. Camp Santanoni, Newcomb, New York, built for Robert C, pruyn of Albany, was the first Adirondack camp to be comprehensively designed as a unit by a professional architect, Robert Henderson Robertson of New York, who designed the Main Camp Complex. The Adirondacks buildings were recognized for their finish and outstanding craftsmanship especially by the wealthy locals. The Adirondacks style of architecture can be specialized into custom homes, rugged roofing, log cabins, boat houses, rustic furnishing, rustic kitchen, birch and cedar furniture, log and this style of architecture is found most prominently in and around the area of Adirondack Park. Adirondack Architectural Heritage Vernacular architecture Great Camps Sagamore Camp Santanoni Preserve Adirondack Park
45.
Mission style furniture
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Mission furniture is a style of furniture that originated in the late 19th Century. It traces its origins to a made by A. J. Forbes around 1894 for San Franciscos Swedenborgian Church, the word mission references the Spanish missions throughout colonial California, though the design of most Mission Style furniture owed little to the original furnishings of these missions. The style became popular following the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo in 1901. The style was associated with the American Arts and Crafts movement. Mission style is a design that emphasizes simple horizontal and vertical lines, people were looking for relief after the excesses of Victorian times and the influx of mass-produced furniture from the Industrial Revolution. The furniture maker Gustav Stickley produced Arts and Crafts furniture often referred to as being in the Mission Style, many designers and companies played an important role in the development of the design over the years. Stickley, Stickley Brothers, Charles Limbert, Grand Rapids Bookcase and Chair Company, The Shop of the Crafters, craftsman Furniture Mission Revival architecture Arts and Crafts Movement
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Penderel-Brodhurst, James (1911). "Boulle, André Charles". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 321–323.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
