1.
Coaxial cable
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Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, digital audio and this allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference, the cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor, the advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with signals inside the cable, larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less leakage. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, the characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should be matched to ensure maximum power transfer, other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality. Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, the inner conductor might be solid or stranded, stranded is more flexible. To get better performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry. The insulator surrounding the conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic. The properties of control some electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene insulator, used in lower-loss cables, solid Teflon is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air and have spacers to keep the conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield and this allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat
2.
Set-top box
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They are used in cable television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well as other uses. The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a dish, a coaxial cable. Content, in context, could mean any or all of video, audio, Internet web pages, interactive video games. Satellite and microwave-based services also require specific external receiver hardware, so the use of boxes of various formats has never completely disappeared. Set-top boxes can also enhance source signal quality, however, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most systems. These frequencies corresponded to non-television services over-the-air and were not on standard TV receivers. The box allowed an analog television set to receive analog encrypted cable channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices. Newer televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard converter built-in for selling premium television, several years later and slowly marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these devices. Set-top boxes were made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America. Some have also produced to mute the audio when profanity is detected in the captioning. Some also include a V-chip that allows programs of some television content ratings. A function that limits childrens time watching TV or playing games may also be built in. The transition to terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing television receivers unable to tune. Professional set-top boxes are referred to as IRDs or integrated receiver/decoders in the professional broadcast audio/video industry and they are designed for more robust field handling and rack mounting environments. IRDs are capable of outputting uncompressed serial digital interface signals, unlike consumer STBs which usually dont, advanced Digital Broadcast launched its first hybrid DTT/IPTV set-top box in 2005, which provided Telefónica with the digital TV platform for its Movistar TV service by the end of that year. UK based Inview Technology has over 8M STBs deployed in the UK for Teletext, in IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on an IP network and decoding the video streaming media. In the US and Europe, telephone companies use IPTV as a means to compete with local cable television monopolies. This type of service is distinct from Internet television, which involves third-party content over the public Internet not controlled by the system operator
3.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
4.
Optical fiber cable
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An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable, is a cable containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The optical fiber elements are typically coated with plastic layers. Different types of cable are used for different applications, for long distance telecommunication. Optical fiber consists of a core and a layer, selected for total internal reflection due to the difference in the refractive index between the two. In practical fibers, the cladding is coated with a layer of acrylate polymer or polyimide. This coating protects the fiber from damage but does not contribute to its optical waveguide properties, individual coated fibers then have a tough resin buffer layer and/or core tube extruded around them to form the cable core. Several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the application, are added to form the cable, rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications, for indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid, in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with an optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment. For use in more environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes and this protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be dry block or gel-filled, dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costs considerably less. Instead of a tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord, two non-conductive dielectric strengthening members, an aramid yarn, and 3 mm buffer tubing with an additional layer of Kevlar surrounding each fiber. The ripcord is a cord of strong yarn that is situated under the jacket of the cable for jacket removal. Distribution cables have an overall Kevlar wrapping, a ripcord, and these fiber units are commonly bundled with additional steel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for stretching. A critical concern in outdoor cabling is to protect the fiber from contamination by water and this is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber. Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, in September 2012, NTT Japan demonstrated a single fiber cable that was able to transfer 1 petabit per second over a distance of 50 kilometers
5.
Radio wave
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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, at 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 3 kHz is 100 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light, naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers, the radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and magnetic observations. Radio waves were first used for communication in the mid 1890s by Guglielmo Marconi, different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earths atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path, at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and this is the only method of propagation possible at microwave frequencies and above. On the surface of the Earth, line of propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles. This is the used by cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, wireless networks, FM and television broadcasting. Indirect propagation, Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction, diffraction allows a radio wave to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and these effects are used in short range radio communication systems. Ground waves allow mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, the nonzero resistance of the earth absorbs energy from ground waves, so as they propagate the waves lose power and the wavefronts bend over at an angle to the surface. As frequency decreases, the decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency and extremely low frequency communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth, and with submarines hundreds of feet underwater. Tropospheric propagation, In the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves can travel somewhat beyond the horizon due to refraction in the troposphere. This is due to changes in the index of air with temperature and pressure. At times, radio waves can travel up to 500 -1000 km due to tropospheric ducting and these effects are variable and not as reliable as ionospheric propagation, below. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon, by using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved
6.
Television antenna
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They can also be mounted in a loft or attic, where the dry conditions and increased elevation are advantageous for reception and antenna longevity. Outdoor antennas are more expensive and difficult to install, but are necessary for adequate reception in areas far from television stations. The most common types of antennas are the dipole and loop antennas, and for outdoor antennas the yagi, log periodic. To cover this range, antennas generally consist of multiple conductors of different lengths which correspond to the range the antenna is intended to receive. The length of the elements of a TV antenna are usually half the wavelength of the signal they are intended to receive, the wavelength of a signal equals the speed of light divided by the frequency. The design of a television broadcast receiving antenna is the same for the analog transmissions. Simple half-wave dipole antenna for VHF or UHF loop antennas that are made to be placed indoors are often used for television, these are often called rabbit ears or bunny aerials. The length of the ears can be adjusted by the user. These are not as efficient as a rooftop antenna since they are less directional. Dipole antennas are bi-directional, that is, they receive evenly forward and backwards and this makes them less efficient than antennas designed to maximize the signal from a narrower angle in one direction. These simple antennas are called set-top antennas because they were placed on top of the television set or receiver. The actual length of the ears is optimally about 91% of half the wavelength of the channel in free space. Quarter-wave television antennas are also used and these use a single element, and use the earth as a ground plane, therefore, no ground is required in the feed line. See also, Dipole antenna#Quarter-wave monopole Soon after television broadcasting switched from analog to digital broadcasting, RCA is one manufacturer which has commercially sold a flat antenna. Flat antennas are very lightweight, very thin, and square-shaped like a thin notebook and they connect to televisions, or to digital converter boxes, with a single coaxial cable, and may be sold with an optional signal amplifier. The amplifier must be plugged into a source, but the flat antenna does not require a power source. The flat antenna may need some moving around to achieve an optimum reception, an outdoor TV antenna generally consists of multiple conductive elements that are arranged such that it is a directional antenna. The length of the elements is one half of the signal wavelength
7.
Satellite television
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A direct-broadcast satellite is a type of artificial satellite which usually broadcasts satellite television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television or direct-to-home television and these services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, in 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, at present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations. By contrast, the term DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a range of frequencies transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band. The term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services received by relatively small dishes, a DBS service usually refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, the second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc, was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, by 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and it launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is used in the UK or Ireland. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB, PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined by DirecTV, in 1994. At the time, DirecTVs introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history, although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTV purchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporations controlling interest in DirecTV, in 1996, EchoStars Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTVs primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under, astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc. s Sky Angel launched on a platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith. It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming. Dominion, under its corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the satellites, transmission facilities
8.
Communications satellite
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Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth’s orbit, Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals. These waves require line-of-sight, and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth, the purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points. Communications satellites use a range of radio and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or bands certain organizations are allowed to use and this allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference. The concept of the communications satellite was first proposed by Arthur C. Clarke, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and on the 1929 work by Herman Potočnik Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-motor, in October 1945 Clarke published an article titled Extraterrestrial Relays in the British magazine Wireless World. The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying radio signals, thus, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the communications satellite and the term Clarke Belt employed as a description of the orbit. Decades later a project named Communication Moon Relay was a project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of communication by using the Moon as a passive reflector. The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1, put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, it was equipped with an on-board radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies,20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space, while incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the leading to todays satellite communications. The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in communications was a balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the worlds first artificial communications satellite capable of relaying signals to other points on Earth and it soared 1,600 kilometres above the planet after its Aug.12,1960 launch, yet relied on humanitys oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by NASA, Echo 1 was a 30-metre aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. The worlds first inflatable satellite — or satelloon, as they were informally known — helped lay the foundation of todays satellite communications, the idea behind a communications satellite is simple, Send data up into space and beam it back down to another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by serving as an enormous mirror,10 stories tall
9.
Satellite dish
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A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive electromagnetic signals from satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broadcasts, such as satellite television. The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the focal point. Mounted on brackets at the focal point is a device called a feedhorn. This feedhorn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point, the LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals and shifts the signals from the downlinked C-band and/or Ku-band to the L-band range. Direct broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feedhorn with the LNB, the theoretical gain of a dish increases as the frequency increases. The actual gain depends on factors including surface finish, accuracy of shape. A typical value for a consumer type 60 cm satellite dish at 11.75 GHz is 37.50 dB, with lower frequencies, C-band for example, dish designers have a wider choice of materials. The large size of dish required for lower frequencies led to the dishes being constructed from metal mesh on a metal framework, at higher frequencies, mesh type designs are rarer though some designs have used a solid dish with perforations. A common misconception is that the LNBF, the device at the front of the dish, modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm to 80 cm in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital position. Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally have a motorised C-band dish of up to 3 m in diameter for reception of channels from different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain fade, in Europe, the frequencies used by DBS services are 10. 7–12.75 GHz on two polarisations H and V. This range is divided into a low band with 10. 7–11.7 GHz, and this results in two frequency bands, each with a bandwidth of about 1 GHz, each with two possible polarizations. In the LNB they become down converted to 950–2150 MHz, which is the range allocated for the satellite service on the coaxial cable between LNBF and receiver. Lower frequencies are allocated to cable and terrestrial TV, FM radio, in a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB is provided through the coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In addition, control signals are transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable. The receiver uses different power supply voltages to select antenna polarization, a satellite finder may aid in aiming. A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a motor or a servo can be controlled and rotated to face any satellite position in the sky
10.
FM broadcasting
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FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
11.
Internet access
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Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email, Internet service providers offer Internet access through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates. Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s, by the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. By 2014 this was almost ubiquitous worldwide, with an average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s. Use by a wider audience came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 bit/s in the early 1980s, initially, dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support use of the Internet protocols. Broadband connections are made using a computers built in Ethernet networking capabilities. Most broadband services provide a continuous always on connection, there is no dial-in process required, made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses, in 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each, the broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in telephone and cable plants. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations, Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using 3G and 4G technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users laptops to local area networks, Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers, various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based and these services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park
12.
Telephony
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The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone. The term is used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software, and computer network systems. In this context the technology is referred to as Internet telephony. The first telephones were connected directly in pairs, each user had a separate telephone wired to the locations he might wish to reach. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when people wanted to communicate with more than a few people, the inventions of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange via one wire pair, nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines and long distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges. Initially the switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, a switchboard operator, when a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it turned on an indicator on the board in front of the operator who would plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the party by name, later by number. If the called station answered the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit, trunk calls were made with the assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network. In modern times, most telephones are plugged into telephone jacks, the jacks are connected by inside wiring to a drop wire which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, today, telephony uses digital technology in the provisioning of telephone services and systems. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services, the first implementation of this, ISDN, permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service was made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the IP protocol. The integration of software and computer systems is a major development in the evolution of the automated office. The term is used in describing the services of call centers. Its also sometimes used to describe the ability to use your personal computer to initiate, CTI is not a new concept and has been used in the past in large telephone networks, but only dedicated call centers could justify the costs of the required equipment installation. Dialed Number Identification Service on a scale is wide enough for its implementation to bring value to business or residential telephone usage
13.
Analog television
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Analog television or analogue television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by variations of either the amplitude. Analog signals vary over a range of possible values which means that electronic noise. So with analog, a weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, a moderately weak signal and a very strong digital signal transmit equal picture quality. Analog television may be wireless or can be distributed over a network using cable converters. All broadcast television systems preceding digital transmission of digital television used analog signals, analog television around the world has been in the process of shutting down since the late 2000s. The earliest systems were mechanical systems which used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver, synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. However these mechanical systems were slow, the images were dim and flickered severely, camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. Analog television did not really begin as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube, the electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a spinning disc system, all-electronic systems became popular with households after the Second World War. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using different systems, the official systems of transmission are named, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of lines, channel width, vision bandwidth, vision-sound separation, each frame of a television image is composed of lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness, the set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion, the analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information, so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal. The first commercial systems were black-and-white, the beginning of color television was in the 1950s. A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance, synchronization, and audio signals, the transmission system must include a means of television channel selection
14.
DirecTV
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DirecTV is an American direct broadcast satellite service provider based in El Segundo, California and is a subsidiary of AT&T. Its satellite service, launched on June 17,1994, transmits digital television and audio to households in the United States, Latin America. Its primary competitors are Dish Network and cable television providers, DirecTV provides television and audio services to subscribers through satellite transmissions. Services include the equivalent of local television stations, broadcast television networks, subscription television services, satellite radio services. Subscribers have access to hundreds of channels, so its competitors are cable television service, most subscribers use reception antennas which are much smaller than the first generation antennas, which were typically a few yards across. Advances in antenna technology, including fractal antennas, have allowed a reduction in antenna size across all industries. Receiving equipment includes a dish, an integrated receiver/decoder and a DirecTV access card. Consumers who purchase DirecTV subscribe to various packages of DirecTV programming for which the subscriber pays a monthly fee, additional monthly fees may include a protection plan, DVR, additional receivers, HD channels, and other premium channel packages. A subscriber also can order pay-per-view and video on demand events, all programming distributed by DirecTV is delivered to its broadcast centers in Castle Rock, Colorado, and Los Angeles, where it is then digitized and compressed. The resulting signal is encrypted by DirecTV to prevent its unauthorized reception, DirecTV then transmits these signals to several satellites located in geostationary orbit. As of the quarter ended September 30,2012, DirecTV U. S. had 19.981 million subscribers, for the same period, DirecTV Latin America ended with 9.666 million subscribers and revenues of US$1.577 billion. In addition to serving residences, DirecTV offers service to bars, restaurants, hotels, dorms, the company also offered mobile service for cars, boats, and RVs as well as aircraft in cooperation with Connexion by Boeing. On November 30,2016, DirecTV Now, an internet streaming TV service was launched, in 1953, Howard Hughes created the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, to which he transferred full ownership of Hughes Aircraft. Ostensibly created as a medical research foundation, HHMI was accused of being used by Hughes as a tax shelter. Following Hughes death in 1976, HHMI was incorporated in 1977, in 1984, the court appointed a new board for HHMI, which proceeded to sell off Hughes Aircraft to General Motors on December 20,1985, for an estimated $5.1 billion. General Motors then merged Hughes Aircraft with its subsidiary Delco Electronics to create Hughes Electronics Corporation, the new subsidiary was initially composed of four units, Delco Electronics Company, Hughes Aircraft Company, Hughes Space and Communications Company, and Hughes Network Systems. Stanley E. Hubbard founded United States Satellite Broadcasting in 1981 and was a proponent for the development of direct-broadcast satellite service in the United States. USSB was awarded five frequencies by the FCC, at the coveted 101 degree west satellite location, Hughes Communications, Inc. was also awarded 27 frequencies at the same 101-degree location
15.
Dish Network
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Dish Network is an American direct-broadcast satellite service provider. The company provides satellite television, satellite Internet access, audio programming, as of November 2016, the company provided services to 13.7 million television and 580,000 broadband subscribers. The company has approximately 16,000 employees, the company is headquartered in Meridian, Colorado, though the postal designation of nearby Englewood, Colorado is used in the corporate mailing address. In January 2008, Dish Network was spun off from its parent company EchoStar. The company began using Dish Network as its brand in March 1997, after the successful launch of its first satellite, EchoStar I. That launch marked the beginning of its television services, and EchoStar has since launched numerous satellites. EchoStar continues to be the technology partner to Dish Network. Joseph Clayton became president and chief officer of the company in June 2011. Clayton remained in the position until March 31,2015 when he retired leaving Ergen to resume the post, Dishs main service is satellite television. Its offerings are similar to satellite and cable companies. Viewers can choose from a series of bundles, paying more money for more channels. A la carte programming is available, however limited other than Premium channels, the company is currently working on diversifying its offerings. With its purchase of Blockbuster LLC, it now owns the Blockbuster trademarks and has used its intellectual property agreement to offer streaming, Dish Anywhere is Dishs subscriber-only streaming video service, which includes HBO and Cinemax programming. In May 2012, the American Customer Satisfaction Index ranked Dish second among American television providers and it weighs ten pounds, is protected from weather, and automatically searches for a signal. The only satellites that are compatible with the Tailgater are at Dishs 119,110. In March 2012, Dish began offering a video recorder called Dish Hopper that can automatically record all prime time programming on the four major television networks. The other half is for video on demand, a Hopper feature, called AutoHop, enables customers to view these programs without commercials, subject to time restrictions. AutoHop has attracted enthusiasts, critics, boycotts and legal action, at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show Dish won an award for their AutoHop feature on the Hopper
16.
Sky UK
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Sky UK Limited is a telecommunications company which serves the United Kingdom. Sky provides television and broadband services, fixed line and mobile telephone services to consumers. It is the UKs largest pay-TV broadcaster with 11 million customers as of 2015 and it was the UKs most popular digital TV service until it was overtaken by Freeview in April 2007. Its corporate headquarters are based in Isleworth, formed in November 1990 by the equal merger of Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting, Sky became the UKs largest digital subscription television company. Following Skys 2014 acquisition of Sky Italia and a majority 90. 04% interest in Sky Deutschland in November 2014, the United Kingdom operations also changed the company name from British Sky Broadcasting Limited to Sky UK Limited, still trading as Sky. Sky UK Limited is an owned subsidiary of Sky plc, with its current company directors being Andrew Griffith. Griffith acts as the Chief Financial Officer and the Managing Director for the commercial businesses division, after the two companies merged, subscribers could get access to both channels, and later the sports channel Sky Sports also became encrypted. In the autumn of 1991, talks were held for the broadcast rights for Premier League for a five-year period, ITV were the current rights holders, and fought hard to retain the new rights. ITV had increased its offer from £18m to £34m per year to control of the rights. BSkyB joined forces with the BBC to make a counter bid, Murdoch described sport as a battering ram for pay-television, providing a strong customer base. A few weeks after the deal, ITV went to the High Court to get an injunction as it believed their bid details had been leaked before the decision was taken. ITV also asked the Office of Fair Trading to investigate since it believed Rupert Murdochs media empire via its newspapers had influenced the deal. A few days later neither action took effect, ITV believed BSkyB was telephoned and informed of its £262m bid, and Premier League advised BSkyB to increase its counter bid. BSkyB retained the rights paying £670m 1997–2001 deal, but was challenged by On Digital for the rights from 2001–2004, in May 2006, the Irish broadcaster Setanta Sports was awarded two of the six Premier League packages that the English FA offered to broadcasters. Sky picked up the four for £1. 3bn. In February 2015, Sky bid £4. 2bn for a package of 120 premier league games across the three seasons from 2016 and this represented an increase of 70% on the previous contract and was said to be £1bn more than the company had expected to pay. The move has been followed by staff cuts, increased subscription prices, in September 1993, BSkyB launched Sky Multichannels which was the present digital platforms analogue predecessor. Sky Multichannels was a package that gave access not only to Skys own channels
17.
Verizon Fios
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Verizon Fios is a bundled Internet access, telephone, and television service that operates over a fiber-optic communications network with over 5 million customers in nine US states. The name, Fios, is an acronym for Fiber Optic Service, Fios service began in 2005, and networked areas expanded through 2010, although some areas do not have service or cannot receive TV and phone service because of franchise agreements. Verizon was one of the first major U. S. carriers to offer fiber to the home, other service providers use fiber optics in the network backbone and existing copper or coax infrastructure for residential users. Where available, select Verizon Wireless stores also sell Fios services, similar to AT&T offering DirecTV, the early stages of Fios began when Bell Atlantic was testing its video service Stargazer in 1995. This was the worlds first commercial VOD service, which was tested to 1,000 homes in northern VA, during this time there were talks of developing a fiber optic based service. This service was developed at a headquarters located in Reston, Virginia and this will be folded into our deployment of fiber to the curb, Mr. Townsend said, referring to Bell Atlantics plans to deploy a high-tech fiber-optic system. In September 2005, Verizon Communications, announced the launch of its Fios television service, Verizon aimed to replace copper wires with optical fibers, which would allow greater speed and quality of communication. In 2006, Verizon and Motorola partnered to bring its customers home DVR access, in 2006, The Wall Street Journal speculated, Verizon Communications Inc. is fielding offers for. Verizon also has been shopping a package dubbed GTE North that comprises about 3.4 million access lines in former GTE Corp. territories in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, in addition to expanding its customer base, Verizon expanded its services in the first few years. Home Media DVR, a video recorder, was released in 2006. Fios updated its user interface in 2007, allowing customers to access widgets for localized content, such as weather, Verizon announced in January 2008 that one million people subscribed to the service. By the end of 2008, Fios offered more than 150 HD channels, price increases were announced in April 2008, when Fios was available to 6.5 million households. In January 2009, Fios was available to 12.7 million homes, as of June 2009, Fios Internet had 3.1 million customers. Estimates on December 31,2009, were 3.4 million Internet customers and 2.86 million for Fios TV, doug Michelson, an analyst at Deutsche Bank, concluded that Verizon has been overspending to acquire Fios customers. Some viewed the halt in expansion as a violation of Verizons agreements with municipalities and states. In New Jersey, Verizon collected an additional $15 billion in fees from customers, the New Jersey government altered the deal in 2014 to allow Verizon to substitute wireless internet access to fulfill its promise instead. Verizon defended itself, claiming that they had spent $13 billion building fiber optics in New Jersey, critics pointed out that wireless internet was slower and less reliable. In April 2010, Verizon announced that three people were subscribed to Verizon Fios
18.
AT&T U-verse
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AT&T U-verse, commonly called U-verse, is an AT&T brand of triple-play telecommunications services, although the brand is now only used in reference to the television portion of the services. Launched on June 26,2006, using the FTTP, VDSL, and ADSL communication protocols, U-verse included broadband Internet, IP telephone, and IPTV services in 21 states. On March 27,2017, it was revealed that AT&T is seriously considering closing down the TV service website Uverse. com on May 30,2017. SBC announced its plans for a network and Internet Protocol television deployment in 2004. Beta testing began in San Antonio in 2005 and AT&T U-verse was commercially launched June 26,2006, a few months later on November 30,2006, the service was launched in Houston. In December 2006, the product launched in Chicago, San Francisco, Oakland, Hartford, Indianapolis, in February 2007, U-verse was launched in Milwaukee. One month later service was initiated in Dallas and Kansas City, in May 2007, U-verse launched in Detroit, Los Angeles, and surrounding areas. Launch continued in Cleveland, Akron, and San Diego in June 2007, the Oklahoma City and Sacramento launches occurred in August 2007. In November 2007, service was started in Austin, in December 2007, U-verse was launched in Orlando and St. Louis. A controlled launch was initiated in Atlanta that month marking the first launch in the Southeastern United States. On December 22,2008, the product debuted in Birmingham, on January 25,2010, AT&T announced that U-verse was available to over 2.8 million households. AT&T Phone was added on January 22,2008, and was first available in Detroit, in 2008, U-verse availability approached 8 million households and over 225,000 customers had been enrolled, with new installations reaching 12,000 per week. By 2009,1 million Phone customers and 2.1 million U-verse TV customers had been enrolled, at the end of 2011, U-verse was available to more than 30 million living units in 22 states and U-verse TV had 3.8 million customers. By mid-2012, AT&T had 4.1 million U-Verse TV subscribers,2.6 million Phone subscribers, by the third quarter of 2012, AT&T had 4.3 million TV subscribers,2.7 million Phone subscribers and 7.1 million Internet. This represents 7% growth quarter on quarter, the actual number of customers is lower, as most customers subscribe to a bundle and so are counted in both categories. On March 29,2016, AT&T announced that it will increase data caps on its Internet service on May 23,2016, the integration of AT&T and DirecTV is set to begin by the fourth quarter of 2016. On May 16,2016, AT&T announced that it will acquire Quickplay Media, on September 19,2016, AT&T announced that the U-verse brand would no longer apply to its broadband and phone services, renaming them AT&T Internet and AT&T Phone, respectively. AT&T delivers most U-verse service over a fiber-to-the-node or fiber-to-the-premises communications network, in the more common FTTN deployment, fiber-optic connections carry all data between the service provider and a distribution node
19.
HBO
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Home Box Office is an American premium cable and satellite television network that is owned by Time Warner through its respective flagship company Home Box Office, Inc. HBO is the oldest and longest continuously operating pay television service in the United States, in 2014, HBO had an adjusted operating income of US$1.79 billion, compared to the US$1.68 billion it accrued in 2013. HBO has 49 million subscribers in the United States and 130 million worldwide as of 2016, the network provides seven 24-hour multiplex channels, including HBO Comedy, HBO Latino, HBO Signature and HBO Family. It launched the streaming service HBO Now in April 2015, and has over 2 million subscribers in the United States as of February 2017. In addition to its U. S. subscriber base, HBO distributes content in at least 151 countries, HBO subscribers generally pay for an extra tier of service that includes other cable- and satellite-exclusive channels even before paying for the channel itself. Cable providers can require the use of a converter box – usually digital – in order to receive HBO, many HBO programs have been syndicated to other networks and broadcast television stations, and a number of HBO-produced series and films have been released on DVD. The new system, which Dolan named Sterling Information Services, became the first urban underground cable system in the United States. In that same year, Time-Life, Inc. purchased a 20% stake in Dolans company, in the summer of 1971, while on a family vacation in France, Charles Dolan began to think of ideas to make Sterling Manhattan profitable. He came up with the concept for a television service. Dolan later presented his idea to Time-Life management, though satellite distribution seemed only a distant possibility at the time, he persuaded Time-Life to back him on the project. To gauge whether consumers would be interested in subscribing to a pay television service, in a meeting of Dolan and some Time-Life executives who were working on the project, various other names were discussed for the new service. Home Box Office launched on November 8,1972, however, HBOs launch came without fanfare in the press, as it was not covered by any local or national media outlets. Home Box Office distributed its first sports event immediately after the film, Four months later in February 1973, Home Box Office aired its first television special, the Pennsylvania Polka Festival. Home Box Office would use a network of relay towers to distribute its programming to cable systems throughout its service area. Sterling Manhattan Cable continued to lose money because the company had only a small base of 20,000 customers in Manhattan. Time-Life dropped the Sterling name and the company was renamed Manhattan Cable Television under Time-Lifes control in March 1973, Gerald Levin, who had been with Home Box Office since it began operations as its vice president of programming, replaced Dolan as the companys president and chief executive officer. In September 1973, Time-Life, Inc. completed its acquisition of the pay service. HBO would eventually increase its fortunes within two years, by April 1975, the service had around 100,000 subscribers in Pennsylvania and New York state, in 1974, they settled on using a geostationary communications satellite to transmit HBO to cable providers throughout the United States
20.
MTV
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MTV is an American cable and satellite television channel owned by Viacom Media Networks and headquartered in New York City. Launched on August 1,1981, the originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys. In its early years, MTVs main target demographic was young adults and it has received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTVs influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years, in recent years, MTV had struggled with the secular decline of music-related cable media. In April 2016, MTV announced it would start to return to its original music roots with the reintroduction of the classic MTV series MTV Unplugged. It was also reported that the series MTV Cribs would be making a return on Snapchat, MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the US and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have gone independent. As of July 2015, approximately 92,188,000 US households have received MTV, several earlier concepts for music video-based television programming had been around since the early 1960s. The Beatles had used music videos to promote their records starting in the mid-1960s, CBS rejected the idea, but Williams premiered his own musical composition Classical Gas on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, where he was head writer. The series featured clips from various popular artists, but was canceled by its distributor in 1971. The channel, which featured video disc jockeys, signed a deal with US Cable in 1978 to expand its audience from retail to cable television, the service was no longer active by the time MTV launched in 1981. The QUBE system offered many specialized channels, One of these specialized channels was Sight on Sound, a music channel that featured concert footage and music-oriented television programs. With the interactive QUBE service, viewers could vote for their favorite songs, the original programming format of MTV was created by media executive Robert W. Pittman, who later became president and chief executive officer of MTV Networks. Pittman had test-driven the music format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, Album Tracks, the inspiration for PopClips came from a similar program on New Zealands TVNZ network named Radio with Pictures, which premiered in 1976. The concept itself had been in the works since 1966, when record companies began supplying the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with promotional music clips to play on the air at no charge. Few artists made the trip to New Zealand to appear live. A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of hour in various forms. The first music video shown on MTV was The Buggles Video Killed the Radio Star and this was followed by the video for Pat Benatars You Better Run. Sporadically, the screen would go black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR, MTVs lower third graphics that appeared near the beginning and end of music videos would eventually use the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years
21.
Cartoon Network
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Cartoon Network is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by Time Warner through the Turner Broadcasting System subsidiary. It was founded by Betty Cohen and launched on October 1,1992, the channel primarily broadcasts childrens shows, mostly animated programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It operates daily from 6,00 AM to 11,00 PM, a Spanish language audio track for select programs is accessible via second audio programing, some cable and satellite companies offer the Spanish feed as a separate channel. It is also the channel of Turner-owned Boomerang. As of January 2016, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94.0 million pay television households in the United States, however, Turner kept much of MGMs film and television library made prior to May 1986 and formed Turner Entertainment. On October 3,1988, its cable channel Turner Network Television was launched and had gained an audience with its film library. In 1991, Turner Entertainment purchased animation studio Hanna-Barbera Productions for US $320 million, on February 18,1992, Turner Broadcasting System announced its plans to launch the Cartoon Network as an outlet for Turners considerable library of animation. Initial programming on the channel consisted exclusively of reruns of classic Warner Bros. cartoons, the 1933–1957 Popeye cartoons, MGM cartoons, at first, cable providers in New York City, Philadelphia, Washington D. C. and Detroit carried the channel. By the time the network launched, Cartoon Network had an 8, from its launch until 1995, the networks announcers said the networks name with the word The added before Cartoon Network, thus calling the network The Cartoon Network. By the time that the network debuted, Cartoon Network also operated a block that aired on TNT. Cartoon Network was not the first cable channel to have relied on cartoons to attract an audience, however, Turner Broadcasting System had defied conventional wisdom before by launching CNN, a channel providing 24-hour news coverage. Initially, the channel would broadcast cartoons 24 hours a day, late Night Black and White showed early black-and-white cartoons, and ToonHeads would show three shorts with a similar theme and provide trivia about the cartoons. There was also an afternoon block called High Noon Toons. The majority of the animation that was shown on Cartoon Network no longer air on a regular basis, with the exception of Tom and Jerry. A challenge for Cartoon Network was to overcome its low penetration of existing cable systems, when launched on October 1,1992, the channel was only carried by 233 cable systems. However, it benefited from package deals, New subscribers to sister channels TNT and TBS could also get access to Cartoon Network through such deals. The high ratings of Cartoon Network over the couple of years led to more cable systems including it. By the end of 1994, Cartoon Network had become the fifth most popular channel in the United States
22.
E!
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Entertainment Television, LLC is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the NBCUniversal Cable division of NBCUniversal, all owned by Comcast. It features entertainment-related programming, reality television, feature films, and occasionally series, as of February 2015, E. has an audience reach of approximately 94,296,000 American households. The channel is available in Canada, which broadcasts original programming at the same as the United States and localized versions across Europe, Asia. The channel was founded by Larry Namer and Alan Mruvka, early Movietime hosts included Greg Kinnear, Paula Abdul, Katie Wagner, Julie Moran, Suzanne Kay, Mark DeCarlo, Sam Rubin and Richard Blade. In 1997, Comcast, one of the minority partners, teamed up with Disney/ABC Cable Networks to buy the channel after Time-Warner had exercised their put agreement. In November 2006, Comcast acquired Disneys 39. 5% share of E. for $1.23 billion to gain ownership of the network as part of a broader programming carriage agreement between Disney/ABC and Comcast. E. s only sister networks prior to the NBC Universal merger were Style Network and G4, along with Comcasts sports networks, Versus, Comcast SportsNet, the network also started the process of introducing scripted programming, in addition to its existing reality and documentary series. The changes were announced during E. s programming upfront presentation on April 30,2012. E. is one of the few U. S. general-entertainment cable channels that broadcasts a news program, its flagship entertainment news program is E. News. It was first hosted by Dagny Hultgreen, steve Kmetko was a host from 1994-2002. It has been hosted by Terrence Jenkins and Giuliana Rancic since 2012 and 2006, respectively, E. announced that the weekday editions of E. News would be expanded to one hour starting on October 25,2010. During its time on E. the 5 to 8 a. m. block was the most watched period for the network, outside of E. News telecasts, the channel runs an E. E. The network also produces a decent amount of documentary and biographical series, true Hollywood Story, many of E. s original specials are entertainment-related ranging from light fare to serious fare. In recent years, the network has become known for its reality television programs. Its most popular series as of 2011 is Keeping Up with the Kardashians, other original programming airing on the network includes Hello Ross, The Soup, Fashion Police, and Married to Jonas. However, feature films airing on the display the original studio production credits at the traditional end of program placement. The only programming currently airing on E. with higher-grossing films premiering on USA Network, the HD feed is available on most cable and telco providers, along with both satellite services. Columnists featured on the website include Kristin dos Santos, Ted Casablanca, as part of the rebrand of the cable channel on July 9,2012, EOnline. com was redesigned for HTML5, including tablet and mobile devices
23.
Eurosport
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Eurosport is a pan-European television sports network, owned and operated by Discovery Communications. Discovery took a 20% minority interest share in December 2012, and became the majority shareholder in the Eurosport venture with TF1 in January 2014, on 22 July 2015 Discovery agreed to acquire TF1s remaining 49% stake in the venture. Eurosport owns a range of rights across many sports but generally does not bid for premium priced rights such as those to major football leagues. However, in 2015 it was awarded rights to broadcast the Olympic Games from 2018 for most of Europe and 2022 for the UK, Eurosport has also expanded its deal with The All England Club to show all the Wimbledon matches live in 16 additional countries. It is a 3-year deal that includes exclusive TV and digital rights and this expands their tennis portfolio to show all four Grand Slams. The network of channels is available in 54 countries, in 20 different languages, providing viewers with European, Eurosport first launched on European satellites on 5 February 1989. In February 2017, Discovery Communications launched the channel in India, the channel was made available on various platforms in both SD and HD feeds. Eurosport provides viewers with European and international sporting events, in June 2015 it was announced that Eurosport had secured the pan-European rights to the winter and summer Olympic Games between 2018 and 2024. Eurosport broadcasts every WTCC race live and every ERC rally either live or with daily highlights, Eurosport Events was also the promoter of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge, a rival rallying series to the World Rally Championship. The IRC ceased at the end of the 2012 season, with Eurosport taking over series promotion of the ERC from 2013, since 2008, the Eurosport Group has also been broadcasting the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans in full. On 29 September 2015, Eurosport acquired the Portuguese broadcasting rights for Formula One between 2016 and 2018, Eurosport broadcasts different sporting events in each region. Region-specific events are noted in the table below with a flag indicating the country it is broadcast in, if no flag is present, the broadcast is multi territory. Prior to the creation of Eurosport, the European Broadcasting Union was acquiring substantial amounts of sports rights and this provided the impetus for setting up the Eurosport Consortium, made up of several EBU members, to establish an outlet where these rights could be exploited. Sky Television plc was chosen as a partner, and the channel could launch on 5 February 1989. Eurosport was closed down in May 1991 after the competing Screensport channel had filed a complaint to the European Commission over the corporate structure, the channel was however saved when the TF1 Group stepped in to replace BSkyB as joint-owners. A new Eurosport channel was able to start its broadcasts the same month, on 1 March 1993, the cable and satellite channel Screensport merged with Eurosport. Eurosport eventually came under a French consortium comprising the TF1 Group, Canal+ Group, in January 2001, TF1 took full ownership of Eurosport. Europe and Eurosport formed a website which Eurosport used as its web portal, including an online TV guide, in the UK, Ireland, Spain, Italy
24.
CNN International
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The channel carries news, current affairs, politics, sports, opinions, features and business programming worldwide, it cooperates with parent network CNNs national and international news bureaus. CNN International is available in most countries, its international reach includes more than 200 million households, for most viewers it is free-to-air, though some pay television providers include it in their programming packages, or issue a virtual channel to the FTA version on the same satellite. The current managing director of CNN International is Tony Maddox, CNN International, in large part a result of Ted Turners globalization ideals, began broadcasting on September 1,1985, at first primarily broadcasting to American business travelers in hotels. The first studio for CNNI was at CNNs original studio building known as Techwood, Today, it is home to the Turner Studios complex that houses the entertainment channels. Other early studios in Atlanta were tucked away in various corners of the CNN Center, the vast majority of the networks programming originally consisted of simulcasts of the two domestic CNN channels. In 1990, however, the amount of programming produced by CNNI especially for international viewers increased significantly. A new newsroom and studio complex was built in 1994, as CNN decided to compete against BBC World Service Televisions news programming, CNNI emerged as an internationally oriented news channel, with staff members of various national backgrounds, even though some accusations of a pro-U. S. CNN International was awarded the Liberty Medal on July 4,1997, Ted Turner, in accepting the medal on behalf of the network, said, My idea was, were just going to give people the facts. We didnt have to show liberty and democracy as good, if we just showed them both the way they were. Clearly everybodys going to choose liberty and democracy, the network undertook another major rebranding effort in 2006 overseen by the award winning creative vision of Mark Wright and London agency Kemistry. The ticker was replaced by a flipper, on-screen graphics were more unified and from October 2007 until August 2008, new studios were progressively rolled out. However, on January 1,2009, CNN International adopted the lower-thirds that CNN/US had introduced a month earlier which were inspired by the modern design of the CNNI rebrand efforts. In the U. S. CNNI North America was distributed overnight and on weekends over the CNNfn financial channel, until that channels demise in December 2004. It is now available as a standalone, full-time channel, usually as part of packages of cable providers including Time Warner Cable, AT&T U-Verse, Verizon FiOS. On September 21,2009, the channel launched a new tagline Go Beyond Borders, along with a new logo, the slogan Go Beyond Borders emphasizes the international perspective that gives the information in this string and the plurality of the audiences. With this tagline, CNN also refers to the platforms to disseminate their contents. The new image was created by the creativity and marketing department, an important element of the rebrand was a new evening program that adds the broadcast of programs Amanpour and World One. The makeover of CNN International has subject to a lot of criticism on both the new prime time lineup and the redesigned graphics, then, CNN International adapted half-hour shows in its schedule with a new evening prime program for Middle East viewers, Prism
25.
Broadcasting
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Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, the receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset, the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio. The U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines broadcasting as transmissions intended for reception by the general public, private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur and citizens band radio operators are not allowed to broadcast, as defined, transmitting and broadcasting are not the same. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like television, are also considered broadcasts. In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well, the earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph signals over the airwaves, using Morse code, a system developed in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse, physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail and they developed an electrical telegraph system which sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, Morse therefore developed the forerunner to modern International Morse code. Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century, by the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM. Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s and became widespread after World War II, satellite broadcasting was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS emerging in the 1980s. Originally all broadcasting was composed of signals using analog transmission techniques but in the 2000s. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information, Analog audio vs. HD Radio Analog television vs.9 zettabytes. This is the equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986. Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting electronic media audio and/or video to the public, Telephone broadcasting. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include telephone services for news and entertainment programming which were introduced in the 1890s. These telephone-based subscription services were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, audio signals sent through the air as radio waves from a transmitter, picked up by an antenna and sent to a receiver
26.
Service drop
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In electric power distribution, a service drop is an overhead electrical line running from a utility pole, to a customers building or other premises. It is the point where electric utilities provide power to their customers, the customer connection to an underground distribution system is usually called a service lateral. Conductors of a drop or lateral can be owned and maintained by the utility company or by the customer. The utilitys portion of the ends, and the customers wiring begins. There is always a main switch to turn off all power. In North America and countries use their system, the 120/240 V split phase system is used. A pole-mounted distribution transformer usually provides power for one or two residences, the service drop is made up of two 120 V lines and a neutral line. The neutral line from the pole is connected to a ground near the service panel, in many European countries and other countries that use European systems, three phase service drops are often used for domestic residences. Using three phase power allows longer service drops to serve multiple residences, which is economical with the density of housing in Europe. Several slightly different voltage standards have used, 220Y380, 230Y400 and 240Y415. The service drop consists of three wires and a neutral wire which is grounded. Each phase wire provides around 230 V to loads connected between it and the neutral, each of the phase wires carries 50 Hz alternating current which is 120° out of phase with the other two. Other countries, such as the UK and Republic of Ireland, generally provide a single phase and neutral per house, in this case the available current is higher. Single phase supplies with a fuse of up to 100 A are common. Commercial and industrial service drops can be bigger, and are usually three phase. In the USA, common services are 120Y/208,240 V three phase, and 480 V three phase,600 V three phase is common in Canada, and 380-415 V or 690 V three phase is found in many other countries. Generally, higher voltages are used for industrial loads. In North America where single-phase distribution transformers for service drops are the norm, wired in a Y configuration, this is called a transformer bank
27.
RG-6
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RG-6/U is a common type of coaxial cable used in a wide variety of residential and commercial applications. RG was originally a unit indicator for bulk radio frequency cable in the U. S. militarys Joint Electronics Type Designation System, the suffix /U means for general utility use. The RG unit indicator is no part of the JETDS system. In practice, the term RG-6 is generally used to refer to cables with an 18 AWG center conductor and 75 ohm characteristic impedance. CATV distribution coax typically has a steel center conductor and a combination aluminum foil/aluminum braid shield. Note RG6/U is also larger than its family RG6 as RG6U measures 7mm OD, RG-6 is available in three different types designed for various applications. Plain or house wire is designed for indoor or external house wiring, flooded cable is infused with water blocking gel for use in underground conduit or direct burial. Messenger or Aerial may contain some waterproofing but is distinguished by the addition of a steel messenger wire along its length to carry the tension involved in a drop from a utility pole. Plenum wire comes with a special Teflon outer jacket designed for use in ventilation ducts to meet fire codes, cables attenuate the signal proportional with the length. Attenuation increases with frequency due to the skin effect, RG-6 has many specifications, F6TSSV, F6TSSVcu, F6TVS, F6TVScu, F660BV, F660BVcu, F660BVF, F660BVM, F690BV, F690BVcu, F690BVF, F690BVM maximum range. COAX History What Does RG-6 Mean
28.
F connector
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The F connector was invented by Eric E. Winston in the early 1950s while working for Jerrold Electronics on their development of cable television, in the 1970s it became commonplace on VHF television antenna connections in the United States, as coaxial cables replaced twin-lead, and later for UHF also. The F connector is inexpensive, yet has good 75 Ω impedance match for well over 1 GHz and has usable bandwidth up to several GHz. One reason for its low cost is that it uses the solid conductor of the specified types of coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector. This design is subject to the properties of the inner conductor and is not corrosion resistant. Corrosion resistance can be improved by coating all bare copper wires with silicone grease, the male connector body is typically crimped, or sometimes screwed, on to the exposed outer braid. Female F Type connectors have an external 3/8-32 UNEF thread, most male connectors have a matching internally threaded connecting ring, though push-on versions are also available. The cable and satellite television entities use compression fittings with F Type Connectors on customer premises, F Type Coax connectors are probably the most suitable for domestic terrestrial, cable, and satellite TV installations where the delivery of very high frequency information is required. Belling-Lee connectors are not well suited for long haul building delivery of frequencies above 500 MHz, because the standard was designed around tube receivers and Mediumwave antennas. Type F Connectors require slightly more care to properly install the Male connectors to the cable than the Belling-Lee type, some component suppliers have in their catalog weatherproof F connectors. Tightness is achieved by inserting an O-ring of about 7 mm between the plug and the socket before tightening, making the union watertight, push-on F Type connectors provide poorer shielding against microwave signals of high field strength. This leakage problem is more an artifact of bent or partly broken push on connectors, Belling-Lee connector Coaxial cable Diplexer Satellite dish TV aerial plug MCX connector Compression Tool for crimping Antenna-cables&connectors
29.
Power dividers and directional couplers
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Power dividers and directional couplers are passive devices used mostly in the field of radio technology. They couple a defined amount of the power in a transmission line to a port enabling the signal to be used in another circuit. An essential feature of directional couplers is that they only couple power flowing in one direction, power entering the output port is coupled to the isolated port but not to the coupled port. A directional coupler designed to split equally between two ports is called a hybrid coupler. Directional couplers are most frequently constructed from two coupled transmission lines set close enough such that energy passing through one is coupled to the other. This technique is favoured at the microwave frequencies where transmission line designs are used to implement many circuit elements. However, lumped component devices are also possible at lower frequencies, also at microwave frequencies, particularly the higher bands, waveguide designs can be used. Many of these waveguide couplers correspond to one of the transmission line designs. Directional couplers and power dividers have many applications, the symbols most often used for directional couplers are shown in figure 1. The symbol may have the coupling factor in dB marked on it, port 1 is the input port where power is applied. Port 3 is the port where a portion of the power applied to port 1 appears. Port 2 is the port where the power from port 1 is outputted. Directional couplers are frequently symmetrical so there also exists port 4, a portion of the power applied to port 2 will be coupled to port 4. However, the device is not normally used in this mode and this termination can be internal to the device and port 4 is not accessible to the user. Effectively, this results in a 3-port device, hence the utility of the symbol for directional couplers in figure 1. Symbols of the form, P a, b in this article have the meaning parameter P at port a due to an input at port b, a symbol for power dividers is shown in figure 2. Power dividers and directional couplers are in all essentials the same class of device, directional coupler tends to be used for 4-port devices that are only loosely coupled – that is, only a small fraction of the input power appears at the coupled port. Power divider is used for devices with tight coupling and is considered a 3-port device
30.
Cable television
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This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels
31.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
32.
Digital video recorder
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A digital video recorder is an electronic device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card, SSD or other local or networked mass storage device. The term includes set-top boxes with direct to disk recording, portable media players and TV gateways with recording capability, and digital camcorders. Personal computers are connected to video capture devices and used as DVRs. Many DVRs are classified as electronic devices, such devices are sometimes referred to as personal video recorders. Consumer digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo were launched at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability, but this did not become available until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Networks DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31,1999, ReplayTV won the Best of Show award in the video category with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member, but TiVo was more successful commercially. Many DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digital video, video recording capabilities have become an essential part of the modern set-top box, as TV viewers have wanted to take control of their viewing experiences. Digital video recorders tied to a video service At the 1999 CES, which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, in the UK, digital video recorders are often referred to as plus boxes. Freeview+ have been around in the UK since the late 2000s, british Sky Broadcasting markets a popular combined receiver and DVR as Sky+. TiVo launched a UK model in 2000, and is no longer supported, except for third party services, south African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their DStv platform. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX, which was the first PVR in Malaysia but was phased out two years after its introduction. In the case of television, there is no encoding necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The digital video recorder simply stores the digital stream directly to disk and it can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically expiring recordings. The overall net effect on video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market. In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner digital video recorders, in the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two independent tuners within the same receiver, kogan. com introduced a dual-tuner PVR in the Australian market allowing free-to-air television to be recorded on a removable hard drive. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to output to two television sets at the same time
33.
HDMI
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HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the EIA/CEA-861 standards, which video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed, uncompressed, and LPCM audio, auxiliary data. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the visual interface. No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The CEC capability allows HDMI devices to each other when necessary. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since initial release of the technology but all use the same cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTV camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 6,2015, over 4 billion HDMI devices have been sold, the HDMI founders are Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, RCA and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP for HDMI, HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI1.0 on April 16,2002, at the time, DVI-HDCP and DVI-HDTV were being used on HDTVs. HDMI1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a connector and adding audio capability and enhanced YCbCr capability. The first Authorized Testing Center, which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23,2003, in California, the first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1,2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25,2005, in Caen, the first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21,2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12,2008, the HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004,17.4 million in 2005,63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8,2008 there were over 850 consumer electronics, on January 7,2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices
34.
Component video
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Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with composite video in all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component-video cables do not carry audio and are paired with audio cables. When used without any qualifications the term component video usually refers to analog YPBPR component video with sync on luma. Reproducing a video signal on a device is a straightforward process complicated by the multitude of signal sources. DVD, VHS, computers and video game consoles all store, process and transmit video signals using different methods, one way of maintaining signal clarity is by separating the components of a video signal so that they do not interfere with each other. A signal separated in this way is called component video, S-Video, RGB and YPBPR signals comprise two or more separate signals, and thus are all component-video signals. In the past, for most consumer-level applications, analog component video was used, however, component video is capable of carrying various signals, such as 480i, 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p, 2160p and beyond. Many new high definition TVs support the use of component video up to their native resolution, most modern computers offer this signal via a VGA port. Many televisions, especially in Europe, utilize RGB via the SCART connector, all arcade games, other than early vector and black-and-white games, use RGB monitors. In addition to the red, green and blue color signals, sync on luma, where the Y signal from S-Video is used alongside the RGB signal only for the purposes of sync. Composite sync is common in the European SCART connection scheme, RGBS requires four wires – red, green, blue and sync. If separate cables are used, the cable is usually colored yellow or white. Separate sync is most common with VGA, used worldwide for analog computer monitors and this is sometimes known as RGBHV, as the horizontal and vertical synchronization pulses are sent in separate channels. If separate cables are used, the lines are usually yellow and white, yellow and black, or gray. Sync on Green is less common, and while some VGA monitors support it, sony is a big proponent of SoG, and most of their monitors use it. Like devices that use video or S-video, SoG devices require additional circuitry to remove the sync signal from the green line
35.
Digital television adapter
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The input digital signal may be over-the-air terrestrial television signals received by an television antenna, or signals from a digital cable system. In North America, these ATSC tuner boxes convert from ATSC to NTSC, while in most of Europe and other such as Australia. On June 12,2009, all analog television transmissions ended in the United States. Viewers who watch broadcast television on older analog TV sets must use a DTA, viewers who receive their television signals through cable or satellite were not affected by this change and did not need a digital television adapter. Additionally, viewers who have newer televisions with built-in digital ATSC tuners will not need a digital television adapter. The United States government had set up a program to offer consumers a $40 coupon which could be used toward the purchase of a converter box. Furthermore, he said, too many people were still buying analog TV sets, and even if people found out what they would have to do, converter boxes might not do the job adequately. Tribune Broadcasting chief technology officer Ira Goldstone said just buying a box did not necessarily mean getting the latest technology. Bob Seidel of CBS said companies might use cheaper tuners, prototypes of the first converter boxes appeared at the NAB show in 2006. LG Electronics, which took over Zenith Electronics in 1999, showed its model connected to a Zenith TV from 1980, both boxes shown used electronic program guides using Program and System Information Protocol. The devices showed program details, V-chip ratings and signal strength, thomsons model stored three days of TV listings, allowed parental controls, and could set a VCR. Cable TV systems are under no deadline to convert to digital TV, however, many Comcast customers are finding all of their non-local and non-shopping networks eliminated on various dates, even though only a few are needed for additional digital cable channels. CECBs will not work on these systems because cable ATSC uses 256QAM modulation instead of 8VSB, cable companies were required to provide some analog service until October 2006. After that, taking away analog channels allowed faster Internet and more HD channels, an adapter from the cable provider was needed even for digital TVs if the company scrambled its digital signals to prevent piracy. A digital transport adapter will allow viewing of channels, often as many as 99. It will also not allow video on demand or pay-per-view, simple DTAs only allow analog sets to receive digital signals using RF output on channel 3 or 4, using coaxial cable. Other versions of the DTA are available, pace plc developed the XiD-P digital transport adapter for Comcast, allowing 4K service and offering the potential to expand the DTA from one-way to two-way. This would involve adding IP capability, most countries that have switched to digital TV use DVB-T broadcasting with MPEG-2 MP@ML or H.264 encoding
36.
TV gateway
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TV gateways allow users to stream broadcast live TV content to connected devices on the IP network, including tablets, smartphones, computers, gaming consoles and smart TVs. They also allow users to watch and record different channels at the same time. The device offers multi-platform, multi-screen broadcast television with rich live TV content, most TV gateways support free-to-air television services found in many countries. These include services such as Freeview and Freesat in the United Kingdom, TNT in France and TDT in Spain, and basic cable packages in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and others. While many first-generation TV gateways support only one channel or a number of channels. The more channels a TV gateway provides the more users it can service at the same time, modern TV gateways also allow users to record TV programs to a USB flash drive, or external hard disk and in some cases, shared folders or network attached storage. An electronic program guide is like a traditional TV listing magazine but available online or on a TV service like aerial and it allows viewers to find out what shows will air and search for programs they’d like to watch. EPGs also allow users to set reminders and record shows automatically, most TV gateways with PVR functionality offer EPG data. This can be free of charge for data processed from the broadcaster TV stream or via a service provided by a third party online EPG provider. Whole house HD-digital video recorder allows users to record programs on a centralized TV gateway DVR, TV gateways with whole house HD-DVR require storage to record live TV programs or schedule future recordings using the EPG. Multicast, is used in professional-grade TV gateways to enable efficient broadcast of a preset number of channels to a large number of simultaneous viewers. Multicast TV gateways are used primarily by IPTV broadcasters, hotels, hospitals, M3U - The m3u8 file format is a de facto standard playlist format suitable for carrying lists of media file URL. Advanced TV gateways use M3U in addition to UPnP to offer better support, allowing for faster channel zapping
37.
DVB-C
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DVB-C stands for Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable and it is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 family digital audio/digital video stream, the standard was first published by the ETSI in 1994, and subsequently became the most widely used transmission system for digital cable television in Europe, Asia and South America. It is deployed worldwide in systems ranging from the cable television networks down to smaller satellite master antenna TV systems. On February 18,2008 it was announced that a new standard – DVB-C2 – would be developed during 2008, proposals including simulation programs and information on patent rights could be submitted until June 16,2008. The final DVB-C2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in April 2009, modes and features of DVB-C2 in comparison to DVB-C, With reference to the figure, a short description of the single processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing, video, audio, and data streams are multiplexed into an MPEG program stream, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream. This is the digital stream which is being transmitted and received by home set top boxes or relevant integrable decoder module. Allowed bitrates for the transported MPEG-2 depend on a number of modulation parameters, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal, the MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver, convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, byte/m-tuple conversion, data bytes are encoded into bit m-tuples. Differential coding, In order to get a rotation-invariant constellation, this unit shall apply a differential encoding of the two Most Significant Bits of each symbol, QAM Mapper, the bit sequence is mapped into a base-band digital sequence of complex symbols. There are 5 allowed modulation modes, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, base-band shaping, the QAM signal is filtered with a raised-cosine shaped filter, in order to remove mutual signal interference at the receiving side. DAC and front-end, the signal is transformed into an analog signal, with a digital-to-analog converter. The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those used in the transmission
38.
DVB-C2
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DVB-C stands for Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable and it is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 family digital audio/digital video stream, the standard was first published by the ETSI in 1994, and subsequently became the most widely used transmission system for digital cable television in Europe, Asia and South America. It is deployed worldwide in systems ranging from the cable television networks down to smaller satellite master antenna TV systems. On February 18,2008 it was announced that a new standard – DVB-C2 – would be developed during 2008, proposals including simulation programs and information on patent rights could be submitted until June 16,2008. The final DVB-C2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in April 2009, modes and features of DVB-C2 in comparison to DVB-C, With reference to the figure, a short description of the single processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing, video, audio, and data streams are multiplexed into an MPEG program stream, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream. This is the digital stream which is being transmitted and received by home set top boxes or relevant integrable decoder module. Allowed bitrates for the transported MPEG-2 depend on a number of modulation parameters, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal, the MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver, convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, byte/m-tuple conversion, data bytes are encoded into bit m-tuples. Differential coding, In order to get a rotation-invariant constellation, this unit shall apply a differential encoding of the two Most Significant Bits of each symbol, QAM Mapper, the bit sequence is mapped into a base-band digital sequence of complex symbols. There are 5 allowed modulation modes, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, base-band shaping, the QAM signal is filtered with a raised-cosine shaped filter, in order to remove mutual signal interference at the receiving side. DAC and front-end, the signal is transformed into an analog signal, with a digital-to-analog converter. The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those used in the transmission
39.
Hybrid fiber-coaxial
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Hybrid fiber-coaxial is a telecommunications industry term for a broadband network that combines optical fiber and coaxial cable. It has been commonly employed globally by cable television operators since the early 1990s, in a hybrid fiber-coaxial cable system, the television channels are sent from the cable systems distribution facility, the headend, to local communities through optical fiber trunk lines. At the local community, a box called an optical node translates the signal from a beam to electrical signal. The fiberoptic trunk lines provide adequate bandwidth to allow future expansion, a master headend will usually have satellite dishes for reception of distant video signals as well as IP aggregation routers. Some master headends also house telephony equipment for providing services to the community. The various services are encoded, modulated and upconverted onto radio frequency carriers, combined onto an electrical signal. This optical transmitter converts the signal to a downstream optically modulated signal that is sent to the nodes. Fiber optic cables connect the headend or hub to optical nodes in a point-to-point or star topology, or in some cases, in a protected ring topology. A fiber optic node has an optical receiver, which converts the downstream optically modulated signal coming from the headend or hub to an electrical signal going to the homes. As of 2015, the signal is a RF modulated signal that typically begins at 50 MHz. The fiber optic node also contains a reverse- or return-path transmitter that sends communication from the back to the headend. In North America, this signal is a modulated RF ranging from 5–42 MHz while in other parts of the world. The optical coupler combined with the receiver forms a node. The optical portion of the network provides an amount of flexibility. If there are not many fiber-optic cables to the node, wavelength division multiplexing can be used to combine multiple optical signals onto the same fiber, optical filters are used to combine and split optical wavelengths onto the single fiber. For example, the signal could be on a wavelength at 1490 nm. The coaxial portion of the network connects 25–2000 homes in a tree-and-branch configuration off of the node, RF amplifiers are used at intervals to overcome cable attenuation and passive losses of the electrical signals caused by splitting or tapping the coaxial cable. Trunk coaxial cables are connected to the node and form a coaxial backbone to which smaller distribution cables connect
40.
Cable television headend
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A cable television headend is a master facility for receiving television signals for processing and distribution over a cable television system. One can also find head ends in power line communication substations, most cable TV systems also carry local over-the-air television stations for distribution. Since each terrestrial channel represents a frequency, a dedicated commercial-grade receiving antenna is needed for each channel that the cable company wishes to receive. Smaller systems may use an antenna to share several channels. These antenna are often built into a tower structure called a master antenna television structure. Commercial TV pre-amplifiers strengthen the weakened terrestrial TV signals for distribution, some cable TV systems receive the local television stations programming by dedicated coaxial, microwave link or fiber-optic line, installed between the local station and the headend. A device called a modulator at the stations facilities feed their programming over this line to the cable TV headend. It is then distributed through the cable TV headend to subscribers and this is usually more reliable than receiving the local stations broadcasts over the air with an antenna. However, off-air reception is used as a backup by the headend in case of failure, in some cases systems receive local channels by satellite. Once a television signal is received, it must be processed and they output video and stereo audio signals as well as a digital signal for digital plants. Analog terrestrial TV signals require a processor which is a RF receiver that outputs video, in some cases the processor will include a built-in modulator. Digital terrestrial TV signals require a digital processor. Digital channels are received on an L band QAM stream from a satellite. Using special receivers such as the Motorola MPS, the signal can be demultiplexed or Demuxed to extract specific channels from the multiplexed signal, at this point, local insertion may be performed to add content specifically targeted to the local geographic area. The mixed signals are sent into an amplifier, then sent into the cable system by the trunk line. Modulators essentially take a signal and attach it to a specific frequency. Digital channels are modulated as well, however, instead of each channel being modulated on to a specific frequency, multiple digital channels are modulated on to one specific NTSC frequency. Using QAM, a CATV operator can place usually up to eight subchannels on each channel so channel 2 may actually be carrying channels 1 -8 in a viewers city
41.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
