1.
Coaxial cable
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Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, digital audio and this allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference, the cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor, the advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with signals inside the cable, larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less leakage. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, the characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should be matched to ensure maximum power transfer, other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality. Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, the inner conductor might be solid or stranded, stranded is more flexible. To get better performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry. The insulator surrounding the conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic. The properties of control some electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene insulator, used in lower-loss cables, solid Teflon is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air and have spacers to keep the conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield and this allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat
2.
Set-top box
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They are used in cable television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well as other uses. The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a dish, a coaxial cable. Content, in context, could mean any or all of video, audio, Internet web pages, interactive video games. Satellite and microwave-based services also require specific external receiver hardware, so the use of boxes of various formats has never completely disappeared. Set-top boxes can also enhance source signal quality, however, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most systems. These frequencies corresponded to non-television services over-the-air and were not on standard TV receivers. The box allowed an analog television set to receive analog encrypted cable channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices. Newer televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard converter built-in for selling premium television, several years later and slowly marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these devices. Set-top boxes were made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America. Some have also produced to mute the audio when profanity is detected in the captioning. Some also include a V-chip that allows programs of some television content ratings. A function that limits childrens time watching TV or playing games may also be built in. The transition to terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing television receivers unable to tune. Professional set-top boxes are referred to as IRDs or integrated receiver/decoders in the professional broadcast audio/video industry and they are designed for more robust field handling and rack mounting environments. IRDs are capable of outputting uncompressed serial digital interface signals, unlike consumer STBs which usually dont, advanced Digital Broadcast launched its first hybrid DTT/IPTV set-top box in 2005, which provided Telefónica with the digital TV platform for its Movistar TV service by the end of that year. UK based Inview Technology has over 8M STBs deployed in the UK for Teletext, in IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on an IP network and decoding the video streaming media. In the US and Europe, telephone companies use IPTV as a means to compete with local cable television monopolies. This type of service is distinct from Internet television, which involves third-party content over the public Internet not controlled by the system operator
3.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
4.
Optical fiber cable
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An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable, is a cable containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The optical fiber elements are typically coated with plastic layers. Different types of cable are used for different applications, for long distance telecommunication. Optical fiber consists of a core and a layer, selected for total internal reflection due to the difference in the refractive index between the two. In practical fibers, the cladding is coated with a layer of acrylate polymer or polyimide. This coating protects the fiber from damage but does not contribute to its optical waveguide properties, individual coated fibers then have a tough resin buffer layer and/or core tube extruded around them to form the cable core. Several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the application, are added to form the cable, rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications, for indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid, in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with an optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment. For use in more environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes and this protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be dry block or gel-filled, dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costs considerably less. Instead of a tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord, two non-conductive dielectric strengthening members, an aramid yarn, and 3 mm buffer tubing with an additional layer of Kevlar surrounding each fiber. The ripcord is a cord of strong yarn that is situated under the jacket of the cable for jacket removal. Distribution cables have an overall Kevlar wrapping, a ripcord, and these fiber units are commonly bundled with additional steel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for stretching. A critical concern in outdoor cabling is to protect the fiber from contamination by water and this is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber. Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, in September 2012, NTT Japan demonstrated a single fiber cable that was able to transfer 1 petabit per second over a distance of 50 kilometers
5.
Radio wave
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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, at 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 3 kHz is 100 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light, naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers, the radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and magnetic observations. Radio waves were first used for communication in the mid 1890s by Guglielmo Marconi, different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earths atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path, at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and this is the only method of propagation possible at microwave frequencies and above. On the surface of the Earth, line of propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles. This is the used by cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, wireless networks, FM and television broadcasting. Indirect propagation, Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction, diffraction allows a radio wave to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and these effects are used in short range radio communication systems. Ground waves allow mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, the nonzero resistance of the earth absorbs energy from ground waves, so as they propagate the waves lose power and the wavefronts bend over at an angle to the surface. As frequency decreases, the decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency and extremely low frequency communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth, and with submarines hundreds of feet underwater. Tropospheric propagation, In the VHF and UHF bands, radio waves can travel somewhat beyond the horizon due to refraction in the troposphere. This is due to changes in the index of air with temperature and pressure. At times, radio waves can travel up to 500 -1000 km due to tropospheric ducting and these effects are variable and not as reliable as ionospheric propagation, below. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon, by using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved
6.
Television antenna
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They can also be mounted in a loft or attic, where the dry conditions and increased elevation are advantageous for reception and antenna longevity. Outdoor antennas are more expensive and difficult to install, but are necessary for adequate reception in areas far from television stations. The most common types of antennas are the dipole and loop antennas, and for outdoor antennas the yagi, log periodic. To cover this range, antennas generally consist of multiple conductors of different lengths which correspond to the range the antenna is intended to receive. The length of the elements of a TV antenna are usually half the wavelength of the signal they are intended to receive, the wavelength of a signal equals the speed of light divided by the frequency. The design of a television broadcast receiving antenna is the same for the analog transmissions. Simple half-wave dipole antenna for VHF or UHF loop antennas that are made to be placed indoors are often used for television, these are often called rabbit ears or bunny aerials. The length of the ears can be adjusted by the user. These are not as efficient as a rooftop antenna since they are less directional. Dipole antennas are bi-directional, that is, they receive evenly forward and backwards and this makes them less efficient than antennas designed to maximize the signal from a narrower angle in one direction. These simple antennas are called set-top antennas because they were placed on top of the television set or receiver. The actual length of the ears is optimally about 91% of half the wavelength of the channel in free space. Quarter-wave television antennas are also used and these use a single element, and use the earth as a ground plane, therefore, no ground is required in the feed line. See also, Dipole antenna#Quarter-wave monopole Soon after television broadcasting switched from analog to digital broadcasting, RCA is one manufacturer which has commercially sold a flat antenna. Flat antennas are very lightweight, very thin, and square-shaped like a thin notebook and they connect to televisions, or to digital converter boxes, with a single coaxial cable, and may be sold with an optional signal amplifier. The amplifier must be plugged into a source, but the flat antenna does not require a power source. The flat antenna may need some moving around to achieve an optimum reception, an outdoor TV antenna generally consists of multiple conductive elements that are arranged such that it is a directional antenna. The length of the elements is one half of the signal wavelength
7.
Satellite television
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A direct-broadcast satellite is a type of artificial satellite which usually broadcasts satellite television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television or direct-to-home television and these services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really intended for cable distribution, in 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage areas, at present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations. By contrast, the term DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a range of frequencies transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band. The term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services received by relatively small dishes, a DBS service usually refers to either a commercial service, or a group of free channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, the second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc, was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, by 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay model, and it launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is used in the UK or Ireland. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB, PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined by DirecTV, in 1994. At the time, DirecTVs introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history, although PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTV purchased PrimeStar in 1999 and moved all of that subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporations controlling interest in DirecTV, in 1996, EchoStars Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTVs primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under, astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc. s Sky Angel launched on a platform in the United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith. It grew from six to 36 television and radio channels of entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming. Dominion, under its corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc. Sky Angel, although a separate and independent DBS service, used the satellites, transmission facilities
8.
Communications satellite
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Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth’s orbit, Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals. These waves require line-of-sight, and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth, the purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points. Communications satellites use a range of radio and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or bands certain organizations are allowed to use and this allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference. The concept of the communications satellite was first proposed by Arthur C. Clarke, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and on the 1929 work by Herman Potočnik Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-motor, in October 1945 Clarke published an article titled Extraterrestrial Relays in the British magazine Wireless World. The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying radio signals, thus, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the communications satellite and the term Clarke Belt employed as a description of the orbit. Decades later a project named Communication Moon Relay was a project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of communication by using the Moon as a passive reflector. The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1, put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, it was equipped with an on-board radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies,20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space, while incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the leading to todays satellite communications. The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in communications was a balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the worlds first artificial communications satellite capable of relaying signals to other points on Earth and it soared 1,600 kilometres above the planet after its Aug.12,1960 launch, yet relied on humanitys oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by NASA, Echo 1 was a 30-metre aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. The worlds first inflatable satellite — or satelloon, as they were informally known — helped lay the foundation of todays satellite communications, the idea behind a communications satellite is simple, Send data up into space and beam it back down to another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by serving as an enormous mirror,10 stories tall
9.
Satellite dish
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A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive electromagnetic signals from satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broadcasts, such as satellite television. The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the focal point. Mounted on brackets at the focal point is a device called a feedhorn. This feedhorn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point, the LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals and shifts the signals from the downlinked C-band and/or Ku-band to the L-band range. Direct broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feedhorn with the LNB, the theoretical gain of a dish increases as the frequency increases. The actual gain depends on factors including surface finish, accuracy of shape. A typical value for a consumer type 60 cm satellite dish at 11.75 GHz is 37.50 dB, with lower frequencies, C-band for example, dish designers have a wider choice of materials. The large size of dish required for lower frequencies led to the dishes being constructed from metal mesh on a metal framework, at higher frequencies, mesh type designs are rarer though some designs have used a solid dish with perforations. A common misconception is that the LNBF, the device at the front of the dish, modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm to 80 cm in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital position. Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally have a motorised C-band dish of up to 3 m in diameter for reception of channels from different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain fade, in Europe, the frequencies used by DBS services are 10. 7–12.75 GHz on two polarisations H and V. This range is divided into a low band with 10. 7–11.7 GHz, and this results in two frequency bands, each with a bandwidth of about 1 GHz, each with two possible polarizations. In the LNB they become down converted to 950–2150 MHz, which is the range allocated for the satellite service on the coaxial cable between LNBF and receiver. Lower frequencies are allocated to cable and terrestrial TV, FM radio, in a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB is provided through the coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In addition, control signals are transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable. The receiver uses different power supply voltages to select antenna polarization, a satellite finder may aid in aiming. A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a motor or a servo can be controlled and rotated to face any satellite position in the sky
10.
FM broadcasting
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FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
11.
Internet access
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Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email, Internet service providers offer Internet access through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates. Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s, by the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. By 2014 this was almost ubiquitous worldwide, with an average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s. Use by a wider audience came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 bit/s in the early 1980s, initially, dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support use of the Internet protocols. Broadband connections are made using a computers built in Ethernet networking capabilities. Most broadband services provide a continuous always on connection, there is no dial-in process required, made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses, in 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each, the broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in telephone and cable plants. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations, Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using 3G and 4G technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users laptops to local area networks, Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers, various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based and these services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park
12.
Telephony
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The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone. The term is used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software, and computer network systems. In this context the technology is referred to as Internet telephony. The first telephones were connected directly in pairs, each user had a separate telephone wired to the locations he might wish to reach. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when people wanted to communicate with more than a few people, the inventions of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange via one wire pair, nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines and long distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges. Initially the switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, a switchboard operator, when a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it turned on an indicator on the board in front of the operator who would plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the party by name, later by number. If the called station answered the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit, trunk calls were made with the assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network. In modern times, most telephones are plugged into telephone jacks, the jacks are connected by inside wiring to a drop wire which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, today, telephony uses digital technology in the provisioning of telephone services and systems. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services, the first implementation of this, ISDN, permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service was made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the IP protocol. The integration of software and computer systems is a major development in the evolution of the automated office. The term is used in describing the services of call centers. Its also sometimes used to describe the ability to use your personal computer to initiate, CTI is not a new concept and has been used in the past in large telephone networks, but only dedicated call centers could justify the costs of the required equipment installation. Dialed Number Identification Service on a scale is wide enough for its implementation to bring value to business or residential telephone usage
13.
Analog television
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Analog television or analogue television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by variations of either the amplitude. Analog signals vary over a range of possible values which means that electronic noise. So with analog, a weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, a moderately weak signal and a very strong digital signal transmit equal picture quality. Analog television may be wireless or can be distributed over a network using cable converters. All broadcast television systems preceding digital transmission of digital television used analog signals, analog television around the world has been in the process of shutting down since the late 2000s. The earliest systems were mechanical systems which used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver, synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. However these mechanical systems were slow, the images were dim and flickered severely, camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. Analog television did not really begin as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube, the electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a spinning disc system, all-electronic systems became popular with households after the Second World War. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using different systems, the official systems of transmission are named, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of lines, channel width, vision bandwidth, vision-sound separation, each frame of a television image is composed of lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness, the set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion, the analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information, so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal. The first commercial systems were black-and-white, the beginning of color television was in the 1950s. A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance, synchronization, and audio signals, the transmission system must include a means of television channel selection
14.
DirecTV
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DirecTV is an American direct broadcast satellite service provider based in El Segundo, California and is a subsidiary of AT&T. Its satellite service, launched on June 17,1994, transmits digital television and audio to households in the United States, Latin America. Its primary competitors are Dish Network and cable television providers, DirecTV provides television and audio services to subscribers through satellite transmissions. Services include the equivalent of local television stations, broadcast television networks, subscription television services, satellite radio services. Subscribers have access to hundreds of channels, so its competitors are cable television service, most subscribers use reception antennas which are much smaller than the first generation antennas, which were typically a few yards across. Advances in antenna technology, including fractal antennas, have allowed a reduction in antenna size across all industries. Receiving equipment includes a dish, an integrated receiver/decoder and a DirecTV access card. Consumers who purchase DirecTV subscribe to various packages of DirecTV programming for which the subscriber pays a monthly fee, additional monthly fees may include a protection plan, DVR, additional receivers, HD channels, and other premium channel packages. A subscriber also can order pay-per-view and video on demand events, all programming distributed by DirecTV is delivered to its broadcast centers in Castle Rock, Colorado, and Los Angeles, where it is then digitized and compressed. The resulting signal is encrypted by DirecTV to prevent its unauthorized reception, DirecTV then transmits these signals to several satellites located in geostationary orbit. As of the quarter ended September 30,2012, DirecTV U. S. had 19.981 million subscribers, for the same period, DirecTV Latin America ended with 9.666 million subscribers and revenues of US$1.577 billion. In addition to serving residences, DirecTV offers service to bars, restaurants, hotels, dorms, the company also offered mobile service for cars, boats, and RVs as well as aircraft in cooperation with Connexion by Boeing. On November 30,2016, DirecTV Now, an internet streaming TV service was launched, in 1953, Howard Hughes created the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, to which he transferred full ownership of Hughes Aircraft. Ostensibly created as a medical research foundation, HHMI was accused of being used by Hughes as a tax shelter. Following Hughes death in 1976, HHMI was incorporated in 1977, in 1984, the court appointed a new board for HHMI, which proceeded to sell off Hughes Aircraft to General Motors on December 20,1985, for an estimated $5.1 billion. General Motors then merged Hughes Aircraft with its subsidiary Delco Electronics to create Hughes Electronics Corporation, the new subsidiary was initially composed of four units, Delco Electronics Company, Hughes Aircraft Company, Hughes Space and Communications Company, and Hughes Network Systems. Stanley E. Hubbard founded United States Satellite Broadcasting in 1981 and was a proponent for the development of direct-broadcast satellite service in the United States. USSB was awarded five frequencies by the FCC, at the coveted 101 degree west satellite location, Hughes Communications, Inc. was also awarded 27 frequencies at the same 101-degree location
15.
Dish Network
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Dish Network is an American direct-broadcast satellite service provider. The company provides satellite television, satellite Internet access, audio programming, as of November 2016, the company provided services to 13.7 million television and 580,000 broadband subscribers. The company has approximately 16,000 employees, the company is headquartered in Meridian, Colorado, though the postal designation of nearby Englewood, Colorado is used in the corporate mailing address. In January 2008, Dish Network was spun off from its parent company EchoStar. The company began using Dish Network as its brand in March 1997, after the successful launch of its first satellite, EchoStar I. That launch marked the beginning of its television services, and EchoStar has since launched numerous satellites. EchoStar continues to be the technology partner to Dish Network. Joseph Clayton became president and chief officer of the company in June 2011. Clayton remained in the position until March 31,2015 when he retired leaving Ergen to resume the post, Dishs main service is satellite television. Its offerings are similar to satellite and cable companies. Viewers can choose from a series of bundles, paying more money for more channels. A la carte programming is available, however limited other than Premium channels, the company is currently working on diversifying its offerings. With its purchase of Blockbuster LLC, it now owns the Blockbuster trademarks and has used its intellectual property agreement to offer streaming, Dish Anywhere is Dishs subscriber-only streaming video service, which includes HBO and Cinemax programming. In May 2012, the American Customer Satisfaction Index ranked Dish second among American television providers and it weighs ten pounds, is protected from weather, and automatically searches for a signal. The only satellites that are compatible with the Tailgater are at Dishs 119,110. In March 2012, Dish began offering a video recorder called Dish Hopper that can automatically record all prime time programming on the four major television networks. The other half is for video on demand, a Hopper feature, called AutoHop, enables customers to view these programs without commercials, subject to time restrictions. AutoHop has attracted enthusiasts, critics, boycotts and legal action, at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show Dish won an award for their AutoHop feature on the Hopper
16.
Sky UK
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Sky UK Limited is a telecommunications company which serves the United Kingdom. Sky provides television and broadband services, fixed line and mobile telephone services to consumers. It is the UKs largest pay-TV broadcaster with 11 million customers as of 2015 and it was the UKs most popular digital TV service until it was overtaken by Freeview in April 2007. Its corporate headquarters are based in Isleworth, formed in November 1990 by the equal merger of Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting, Sky became the UKs largest digital subscription television company. Following Skys 2014 acquisition of Sky Italia and a majority 90. 04% interest in Sky Deutschland in November 2014, the United Kingdom operations also changed the company name from British Sky Broadcasting Limited to Sky UK Limited, still trading as Sky. Sky UK Limited is an owned subsidiary of Sky plc, with its current company directors being Andrew Griffith. Griffith acts as the Chief Financial Officer and the Managing Director for the commercial businesses division, after the two companies merged, subscribers could get access to both channels, and later the sports channel Sky Sports also became encrypted. In the autumn of 1991, talks were held for the broadcast rights for Premier League for a five-year period, ITV were the current rights holders, and fought hard to retain the new rights. ITV had increased its offer from £18m to £34m per year to control of the rights. BSkyB joined forces with the BBC to make a counter bid, Murdoch described sport as a battering ram for pay-television, providing a strong customer base. A few weeks after the deal, ITV went to the High Court to get an injunction as it believed their bid details had been leaked before the decision was taken. ITV also asked the Office of Fair Trading to investigate since it believed Rupert Murdochs media empire via its newspapers had influenced the deal. A few days later neither action took effect, ITV believed BSkyB was telephoned and informed of its £262m bid, and Premier League advised BSkyB to increase its counter bid. BSkyB retained the rights paying £670m 1997–2001 deal, but was challenged by On Digital for the rights from 2001–2004, in May 2006, the Irish broadcaster Setanta Sports was awarded two of the six Premier League packages that the English FA offered to broadcasters. Sky picked up the four for £1. 3bn. In February 2015, Sky bid £4. 2bn for a package of 120 premier league games across the three seasons from 2016 and this represented an increase of 70% on the previous contract and was said to be £1bn more than the company had expected to pay. The move has been followed by staff cuts, increased subscription prices, in September 1993, BSkyB launched Sky Multichannels which was the present digital platforms analogue predecessor. Sky Multichannels was a package that gave access not only to Skys own channels
17.
Verizon Fios
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Verizon Fios is a bundled Internet access, telephone, and television service that operates over a fiber-optic communications network with over 5 million customers in nine US states. The name, Fios, is an acronym for Fiber Optic Service, Fios service began in 2005, and networked areas expanded through 2010, although some areas do not have service or cannot receive TV and phone service because of franchise agreements. Verizon was one of the first major U. S. carriers to offer fiber to the home, other service providers use fiber optics in the network backbone and existing copper or coax infrastructure for residential users. Where available, select Verizon Wireless stores also sell Fios services, similar to AT&T offering DirecTV, the early stages of Fios began when Bell Atlantic was testing its video service Stargazer in 1995. This was the worlds first commercial VOD service, which was tested to 1,000 homes in northern VA, during this time there were talks of developing a fiber optic based service. This service was developed at a headquarters located in Reston, Virginia and this will be folded into our deployment of fiber to the curb, Mr. Townsend said, referring to Bell Atlantics plans to deploy a high-tech fiber-optic system. In September 2005, Verizon Communications, announced the launch of its Fios television service, Verizon aimed to replace copper wires with optical fibers, which would allow greater speed and quality of communication. In 2006, Verizon and Motorola partnered to bring its customers home DVR access, in 2006, The Wall Street Journal speculated, Verizon Communications Inc. is fielding offers for. Verizon also has been shopping a package dubbed GTE North that comprises about 3.4 million access lines in former GTE Corp. territories in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, in addition to expanding its customer base, Verizon expanded its services in the first few years. Home Media DVR, a video recorder, was released in 2006. Fios updated its user interface in 2007, allowing customers to access widgets for localized content, such as weather, Verizon announced in January 2008 that one million people subscribed to the service. By the end of 2008, Fios offered more than 150 HD channels, price increases were announced in April 2008, when Fios was available to 6.5 million households. In January 2009, Fios was available to 12.7 million homes, as of June 2009, Fios Internet had 3.1 million customers. Estimates on December 31,2009, were 3.4 million Internet customers and 2.86 million for Fios TV, doug Michelson, an analyst at Deutsche Bank, concluded that Verizon has been overspending to acquire Fios customers. Some viewed the halt in expansion as a violation of Verizons agreements with municipalities and states. In New Jersey, Verizon collected an additional $15 billion in fees from customers, the New Jersey government altered the deal in 2014 to allow Verizon to substitute wireless internet access to fulfill its promise instead. Verizon defended itself, claiming that they had spent $13 billion building fiber optics in New Jersey, critics pointed out that wireless internet was slower and less reliable. In April 2010, Verizon announced that three people were subscribed to Verizon Fios
18.
AT&T U-verse
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AT&T U-verse, commonly called U-verse, is an AT&T brand of triple-play telecommunications services, although the brand is now only used in reference to the television portion of the services. Launched on June 26,2006, using the FTTP, VDSL, and ADSL communication protocols, U-verse included broadband Internet, IP telephone, and IPTV services in 21 states. On March 27,2017, it was revealed that AT&T is seriously considering closing down the TV service website Uverse. com on May 30,2017. SBC announced its plans for a network and Internet Protocol television deployment in 2004. Beta testing began in San Antonio in 2005 and AT&T U-verse was commercially launched June 26,2006, a few months later on November 30,2006, the service was launched in Houston. In December 2006, the product launched in Chicago, San Francisco, Oakland, Hartford, Indianapolis, in February 2007, U-verse was launched in Milwaukee. One month later service was initiated in Dallas and Kansas City, in May 2007, U-verse launched in Detroit, Los Angeles, and surrounding areas. Launch continued in Cleveland, Akron, and San Diego in June 2007, the Oklahoma City and Sacramento launches occurred in August 2007. In November 2007, service was started in Austin, in December 2007, U-verse was launched in Orlando and St. Louis. A controlled launch was initiated in Atlanta that month marking the first launch in the Southeastern United States. On December 22,2008, the product debuted in Birmingham, on January 25,2010, AT&T announced that U-verse was available to over 2.8 million households. AT&T Phone was added on January 22,2008, and was first available in Detroit, in 2008, U-verse availability approached 8 million households and over 225,000 customers had been enrolled, with new installations reaching 12,000 per week. By 2009,1 million Phone customers and 2.1 million U-verse TV customers had been enrolled, at the end of 2011, U-verse was available to more than 30 million living units in 22 states and U-verse TV had 3.8 million customers. By mid-2012, AT&T had 4.1 million U-Verse TV subscribers,2.6 million Phone subscribers, by the third quarter of 2012, AT&T had 4.3 million TV subscribers,2.7 million Phone subscribers and 7.1 million Internet. This represents 7% growth quarter on quarter, the actual number of customers is lower, as most customers subscribe to a bundle and so are counted in both categories. On March 29,2016, AT&T announced that it will increase data caps on its Internet service on May 23,2016, the integration of AT&T and DirecTV is set to begin by the fourth quarter of 2016. On May 16,2016, AT&T announced that it will acquire Quickplay Media, on September 19,2016, AT&T announced that the U-verse brand would no longer apply to its broadband and phone services, renaming them AT&T Internet and AT&T Phone, respectively. AT&T delivers most U-verse service over a fiber-to-the-node or fiber-to-the-premises communications network, in the more common FTTN deployment, fiber-optic connections carry all data between the service provider and a distribution node
19.
HBO
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Home Box Office is an American premium cable and satellite television network that is owned by Time Warner through its respective flagship company Home Box Office, Inc. HBO is the oldest and longest continuously operating pay television service in the United States, in 2014, HBO had an adjusted operating income of US$1.79 billion, compared to the US$1.68 billion it accrued in 2013. HBO has 49 million subscribers in the United States and 130 million worldwide as of 2016, the network provides seven 24-hour multiplex channels, including HBO Comedy, HBO Latino, HBO Signature and HBO Family. It launched the streaming service HBO Now in April 2015, and has over 2 million subscribers in the United States as of February 2017. In addition to its U. S. subscriber base, HBO distributes content in at least 151 countries, HBO subscribers generally pay for an extra tier of service that includes other cable- and satellite-exclusive channels even before paying for the channel itself. Cable providers can require the use of a converter box – usually digital – in order to receive HBO, many HBO programs have been syndicated to other networks and broadcast television stations, and a number of HBO-produced series and films have been released on DVD. The new system, which Dolan named Sterling Information Services, became the first urban underground cable system in the United States. In that same year, Time-Life, Inc. purchased a 20% stake in Dolans company, in the summer of 1971, while on a family vacation in France, Charles Dolan began to think of ideas to make Sterling Manhattan profitable. He came up with the concept for a television service. Dolan later presented his idea to Time-Life management, though satellite distribution seemed only a distant possibility at the time, he persuaded Time-Life to back him on the project. To gauge whether consumers would be interested in subscribing to a pay television service, in a meeting of Dolan and some Time-Life executives who were working on the project, various other names were discussed for the new service. Home Box Office launched on November 8,1972, however, HBOs launch came without fanfare in the press, as it was not covered by any local or national media outlets. Home Box Office distributed its first sports event immediately after the film, Four months later in February 1973, Home Box Office aired its first television special, the Pennsylvania Polka Festival. Home Box Office would use a network of relay towers to distribute its programming to cable systems throughout its service area. Sterling Manhattan Cable continued to lose money because the company had only a small base of 20,000 customers in Manhattan. Time-Life dropped the Sterling name and the company was renamed Manhattan Cable Television under Time-Lifes control in March 1973, Gerald Levin, who had been with Home Box Office since it began operations as its vice president of programming, replaced Dolan as the companys president and chief executive officer. In September 1973, Time-Life, Inc. completed its acquisition of the pay service. HBO would eventually increase its fortunes within two years, by April 1975, the service had around 100,000 subscribers in Pennsylvania and New York state, in 1974, they settled on using a geostationary communications satellite to transmit HBO to cable providers throughout the United States
20.
MTV
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MTV is an American cable and satellite television channel owned by Viacom Media Networks and headquartered in New York City. Launched on August 1,1981, the originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys. In its early years, MTVs main target demographic was young adults and it has received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTVs influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years, in recent years, MTV had struggled with the secular decline of music-related cable media. In April 2016, MTV announced it would start to return to its original music roots with the reintroduction of the classic MTV series MTV Unplugged. It was also reported that the series MTV Cribs would be making a return on Snapchat, MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the US and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have gone independent. As of July 2015, approximately 92,188,000 US households have received MTV, several earlier concepts for music video-based television programming had been around since the early 1960s. The Beatles had used music videos to promote their records starting in the mid-1960s, CBS rejected the idea, but Williams premiered his own musical composition Classical Gas on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, where he was head writer. The series featured clips from various popular artists, but was canceled by its distributor in 1971. The channel, which featured video disc jockeys, signed a deal with US Cable in 1978 to expand its audience from retail to cable television, the service was no longer active by the time MTV launched in 1981. The QUBE system offered many specialized channels, One of these specialized channels was Sight on Sound, a music channel that featured concert footage and music-oriented television programs. With the interactive QUBE service, viewers could vote for their favorite songs, the original programming format of MTV was created by media executive Robert W. Pittman, who later became president and chief executive officer of MTV Networks. Pittman had test-driven the music format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, Album Tracks, the inspiration for PopClips came from a similar program on New Zealands TVNZ network named Radio with Pictures, which premiered in 1976. The concept itself had been in the works since 1966, when record companies began supplying the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with promotional music clips to play on the air at no charge. Few artists made the trip to New Zealand to appear live. A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of hour in various forms. The first music video shown on MTV was The Buggles Video Killed the Radio Star and this was followed by the video for Pat Benatars You Better Run. Sporadically, the screen would go black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR, MTVs lower third graphics that appeared near the beginning and end of music videos would eventually use the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years
21.
Cartoon Network
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Cartoon Network is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by Time Warner through the Turner Broadcasting System subsidiary. It was founded by Betty Cohen and launched on October 1,1992, the channel primarily broadcasts childrens shows, mostly animated programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It operates daily from 6,00 AM to 11,00 PM, a Spanish language audio track for select programs is accessible via second audio programing, some cable and satellite companies offer the Spanish feed as a separate channel. It is also the channel of Turner-owned Boomerang. As of January 2016, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94.0 million pay television households in the United States, however, Turner kept much of MGMs film and television library made prior to May 1986 and formed Turner Entertainment. On October 3,1988, its cable channel Turner Network Television was launched and had gained an audience with its film library. In 1991, Turner Entertainment purchased animation studio Hanna-Barbera Productions for US $320 million, on February 18,1992, Turner Broadcasting System announced its plans to launch the Cartoon Network as an outlet for Turners considerable library of animation. Initial programming on the channel consisted exclusively of reruns of classic Warner Bros. cartoons, the 1933–1957 Popeye cartoons, MGM cartoons, at first, cable providers in New York City, Philadelphia, Washington D. C. and Detroit carried the channel. By the time the network launched, Cartoon Network had an 8, from its launch until 1995, the networks announcers said the networks name with the word The added before Cartoon Network, thus calling the network The Cartoon Network. By the time that the network debuted, Cartoon Network also operated a block that aired on TNT. Cartoon Network was not the first cable channel to have relied on cartoons to attract an audience, however, Turner Broadcasting System had defied conventional wisdom before by launching CNN, a channel providing 24-hour news coverage. Initially, the channel would broadcast cartoons 24 hours a day, late Night Black and White showed early black-and-white cartoons, and ToonHeads would show three shorts with a similar theme and provide trivia about the cartoons. There was also an afternoon block called High Noon Toons. The majority of the animation that was shown on Cartoon Network no longer air on a regular basis, with the exception of Tom and Jerry. A challenge for Cartoon Network was to overcome its low penetration of existing cable systems, when launched on October 1,1992, the channel was only carried by 233 cable systems. However, it benefited from package deals, New subscribers to sister channels TNT and TBS could also get access to Cartoon Network through such deals. The high ratings of Cartoon Network over the couple of years led to more cable systems including it. By the end of 1994, Cartoon Network had become the fifth most popular channel in the United States
22.
E!
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Entertainment Television, LLC is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the NBCUniversal Cable division of NBCUniversal, all owned by Comcast. It features entertainment-related programming, reality television, feature films, and occasionally series, as of February 2015, E. has an audience reach of approximately 94,296,000 American households. The channel is available in Canada, which broadcasts original programming at the same as the United States and localized versions across Europe, Asia. The channel was founded by Larry Namer and Alan Mruvka, early Movietime hosts included Greg Kinnear, Paula Abdul, Katie Wagner, Julie Moran, Suzanne Kay, Mark DeCarlo, Sam Rubin and Richard Blade. In 1997, Comcast, one of the minority partners, teamed up with Disney/ABC Cable Networks to buy the channel after Time-Warner had exercised their put agreement. In November 2006, Comcast acquired Disneys 39. 5% share of E. for $1.23 billion to gain ownership of the network as part of a broader programming carriage agreement between Disney/ABC and Comcast. E. s only sister networks prior to the NBC Universal merger were Style Network and G4, along with Comcasts sports networks, Versus, Comcast SportsNet, the network also started the process of introducing scripted programming, in addition to its existing reality and documentary series. The changes were announced during E. s programming upfront presentation on April 30,2012. E. is one of the few U. S. general-entertainment cable channels that broadcasts a news program, its flagship entertainment news program is E. News. It was first hosted by Dagny Hultgreen, steve Kmetko was a host from 1994-2002. It has been hosted by Terrence Jenkins and Giuliana Rancic since 2012 and 2006, respectively, E. announced that the weekday editions of E. News would be expanded to one hour starting on October 25,2010. During its time on E. the 5 to 8 a. m. block was the most watched period for the network, outside of E. News telecasts, the channel runs an E. E. The network also produces a decent amount of documentary and biographical series, true Hollywood Story, many of E. s original specials are entertainment-related ranging from light fare to serious fare. In recent years, the network has become known for its reality television programs. Its most popular series as of 2011 is Keeping Up with the Kardashians, other original programming airing on the network includes Hello Ross, The Soup, Fashion Police, and Married to Jonas. However, feature films airing on the display the original studio production credits at the traditional end of program placement. The only programming currently airing on E. with higher-grossing films premiering on USA Network, the HD feed is available on most cable and telco providers, along with both satellite services. Columnists featured on the website include Kristin dos Santos, Ted Casablanca, as part of the rebrand of the cable channel on July 9,2012, EOnline. com was redesigned for HTML5, including tablet and mobile devices
23.
Eurosport
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Eurosport is a pan-European television sports network, owned and operated by Discovery Communications. Discovery took a 20% minority interest share in December 2012, and became the majority shareholder in the Eurosport venture with TF1 in January 2014, on 22 July 2015 Discovery agreed to acquire TF1s remaining 49% stake in the venture. Eurosport owns a range of rights across many sports but generally does not bid for premium priced rights such as those to major football leagues. However, in 2015 it was awarded rights to broadcast the Olympic Games from 2018 for most of Europe and 2022 for the UK, Eurosport has also expanded its deal with The All England Club to show all the Wimbledon matches live in 16 additional countries. It is a 3-year deal that includes exclusive TV and digital rights and this expands their tennis portfolio to show all four Grand Slams. The network of channels is available in 54 countries, in 20 different languages, providing viewers with European, Eurosport first launched on European satellites on 5 February 1989. In February 2017, Discovery Communications launched the channel in India, the channel was made available on various platforms in both SD and HD feeds. Eurosport provides viewers with European and international sporting events, in June 2015 it was announced that Eurosport had secured the pan-European rights to the winter and summer Olympic Games between 2018 and 2024. Eurosport broadcasts every WTCC race live and every ERC rally either live or with daily highlights, Eurosport Events was also the promoter of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge, a rival rallying series to the World Rally Championship. The IRC ceased at the end of the 2012 season, with Eurosport taking over series promotion of the ERC from 2013, since 2008, the Eurosport Group has also been broadcasting the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans in full. On 29 September 2015, Eurosport acquired the Portuguese broadcasting rights for Formula One between 2016 and 2018, Eurosport broadcasts different sporting events in each region. Region-specific events are noted in the table below with a flag indicating the country it is broadcast in, if no flag is present, the broadcast is multi territory. Prior to the creation of Eurosport, the European Broadcasting Union was acquiring substantial amounts of sports rights and this provided the impetus for setting up the Eurosport Consortium, made up of several EBU members, to establish an outlet where these rights could be exploited. Sky Television plc was chosen as a partner, and the channel could launch on 5 February 1989. Eurosport was closed down in May 1991 after the competing Screensport channel had filed a complaint to the European Commission over the corporate structure, the channel was however saved when the TF1 Group stepped in to replace BSkyB as joint-owners. A new Eurosport channel was able to start its broadcasts the same month, on 1 March 1993, the cable and satellite channel Screensport merged with Eurosport. Eurosport eventually came under a French consortium comprising the TF1 Group, Canal+ Group, in January 2001, TF1 took full ownership of Eurosport. Europe and Eurosport formed a website which Eurosport used as its web portal, including an online TV guide, in the UK, Ireland, Spain, Italy
24.
CNN International
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The channel carries news, current affairs, politics, sports, opinions, features and business programming worldwide, it cooperates with parent network CNNs national and international news bureaus. CNN International is available in most countries, its international reach includes more than 200 million households, for most viewers it is free-to-air, though some pay television providers include it in their programming packages, or issue a virtual channel to the FTA version on the same satellite. The current managing director of CNN International is Tony Maddox, CNN International, in large part a result of Ted Turners globalization ideals, began broadcasting on September 1,1985, at first primarily broadcasting to American business travelers in hotels. The first studio for CNNI was at CNNs original studio building known as Techwood, Today, it is home to the Turner Studios complex that houses the entertainment channels. Other early studios in Atlanta were tucked away in various corners of the CNN Center, the vast majority of the networks programming originally consisted of simulcasts of the two domestic CNN channels. In 1990, however, the amount of programming produced by CNNI especially for international viewers increased significantly. A new newsroom and studio complex was built in 1994, as CNN decided to compete against BBC World Service Televisions news programming, CNNI emerged as an internationally oriented news channel, with staff members of various national backgrounds, even though some accusations of a pro-U. S. CNN International was awarded the Liberty Medal on July 4,1997, Ted Turner, in accepting the medal on behalf of the network, said, My idea was, were just going to give people the facts. We didnt have to show liberty and democracy as good, if we just showed them both the way they were. Clearly everybodys going to choose liberty and democracy, the network undertook another major rebranding effort in 2006 overseen by the award winning creative vision of Mark Wright and London agency Kemistry. The ticker was replaced by a flipper, on-screen graphics were more unified and from October 2007 until August 2008, new studios were progressively rolled out. However, on January 1,2009, CNN International adopted the lower-thirds that CNN/US had introduced a month earlier which were inspired by the modern design of the CNNI rebrand efforts. In the U. S. CNNI North America was distributed overnight and on weekends over the CNNfn financial channel, until that channels demise in December 2004. It is now available as a standalone, full-time channel, usually as part of packages of cable providers including Time Warner Cable, AT&T U-Verse, Verizon FiOS. On September 21,2009, the channel launched a new tagline Go Beyond Borders, along with a new logo, the slogan Go Beyond Borders emphasizes the international perspective that gives the information in this string and the plurality of the audiences. With this tagline, CNN also refers to the platforms to disseminate their contents. The new image was created by the creativity and marketing department, an important element of the rebrand was a new evening program that adds the broadcast of programs Amanpour and World One. The makeover of CNN International has subject to a lot of criticism on both the new prime time lineup and the redesigned graphics, then, CNN International adapted half-hour shows in its schedule with a new evening prime program for Middle East viewers, Prism
25.
Broadcasting
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Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, the receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset, the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio. The U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines broadcasting as transmissions intended for reception by the general public, private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur and citizens band radio operators are not allowed to broadcast, as defined, transmitting and broadcasting are not the same. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like television, are also considered broadcasts. In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well, the earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph signals over the airwaves, using Morse code, a system developed in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse, physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail and they developed an electrical telegraph system which sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, Morse therefore developed the forerunner to modern International Morse code. Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century, by the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM. Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s and became widespread after World War II, satellite broadcasting was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS emerging in the 1980s. Originally all broadcasting was composed of signals using analog transmission techniques but in the 2000s. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information, Analog audio vs. HD Radio Analog television vs.9 zettabytes. This is the equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986. Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting electronic media audio and/or video to the public, Telephone broadcasting. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include telephone services for news and entertainment programming which were introduced in the 1890s. These telephone-based subscription services were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, audio signals sent through the air as radio waves from a transmitter, picked up by an antenna and sent to a receiver
26.
Cable television in the United States
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Cable television first became available in the United States in 1948, with subscription services following in 1949. Data by SNL Kagan shows that as of 2006 about 58. 4% of all American homes subscribe to cable television services. Most cable viewers in the U. S. reside in the suburbs and tend to be middle class, cable television is less common in low income, urban, and rural areas. According to reports released by the Federal Communications Commission, traditional cable television subscriptions in the US peaked around the year 2000, since then, cable subscriptions have been in slow decline, dropping to 54.4 million subscribers by December 2013. Some telephone service providers have started offering television, reaching to 11.3 million video subscribers as of December 2013, walsons first claim is highly disputed, however, since his claimed starting date cannot be verified. The United States Congress and the National Cable Television Association have recognized Walson as having invented cable television in the spring of 1948. A CATV system was developed in the late 1940s by James F. Reynolds in his town of Maple Dale, Pennsylvania, which grew to include Sandy Lake, Stoneboro, Polk, Cochranton, and Meadville. Davidson was the movie theater manager and ran a radio repair business on the side. In 1948, Parsons owned a station in Astoria, Oregon. A year earlier he and his wife had first seen television at a broadcasters convention, in the spring of 1948, Parsons learned that radio station KRSC in Seattle –125 miles away – was going to launch a television station that fall. He found that with a large antenna he could receive KRSCs signal on the roof of the Hotel Astoria, when the station went on the air in November 1948, Parsons was the only one in town able to see television. According to MSNBCs Bob Sullivan, Parsons charged a $125 one-time set-up fee, in May 1968, Parsons was acknowledged as the father of community antenna television. In 1950, Robert Tarlton developed the first commercial television system in the United States. The system was featured in stories in The New York Times, Newsweek, the publicity of this successful early system set off a wave of cable system construction throughout the United States, and Tarlton himself became a highly sought-after consultant. Tarlton used equipment manufactured by a new company, Jerrold Electronics, after seeing the success of the Tarlton system in 1950, Jerrold President Milton Shapp reorganized his company to build equipment for the now-growing cable industry. In 1952, Tarlton went to work for Jerrold, helping to construct most of the systems built by that company in the 1950s. Tarlton was also responsible for training many of the operators of cable systems in the 1950s. In 2003, Tarlton was inducted in the Cable Television Hall of Fame for his building the first widely publicized cable television company in America
27.
Hobbyist
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A hobby is a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during ones leisure time. Hobbies can include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, a list of hobbies is lengthy and always changing as interests and fashions change. By continually participating in a hobby, one can acquire substantial skill. Engagement in hobbies has increased since the nineteenth century as workers have more leisure time and advancing production. As some hobbies have become popular, like stamp collecting, others have been created following technological advances. Hobbyists are a part of a group of people engaged in leisure pursuits where the boundaries of each group overlap to some extent. The Serious Leisure Perspective groups hobbyists with amateurs and volunteers and identifies three broad groups of activity with hobbies being found mainly in the Serious leisure category. Casual leisure is intrinsically rewarding, short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no preparation b, Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer that is substantial, rewarding and results in a sense of accomplishment. Project-based leisure is a short-term often a one-off project that is rewarding, in the 16th century, the term hobyn had the meaning of small horse and pony. The term hobby horse was documented in a 1557 payment confirmation for a Hobbyhorse from Reading, the item, originally called a Tourney Horse, was made of a wooden or basketwork frame with an artificial tail and head. It was designed for a child to mimic riding a real horse, by 1816 the derivative, hobby, was introduced into the vocabulary of a number of English people. Over the course of subsequent centuries, the term came to be associated with recreation, a hobby became an activity that is practised regularly and usually with some worthwhile purpose. Hobbies are usually, but not always, practised primarily for interest and enjoyment, the origins pursuits that others thought somewhat childish or trivial. However, as early as 1676 Sir Matthew Hale, in Contemplations Moral and Divine and he was acknowledging that a hobby horse produces a legitimate sense of pride. By the mid 18th century there was a flourishing of hobbies as working people had more hours of work. They spent more time to pursue interests that brought them satisfaction, however, there was concern that these working people might not use their leisure time in worthwhile pursuits. The hope of weaning people away from bad habits by the provision of counter-attractions came to the fore in the 1830s, the flourishing book and magazine trade of the day encouraged worthwhile hobbies and pursuits. The burgeoning manufacturing trade made materials used in hobbies cheap and was responsive to the interests of hobbyists
28.
Alfred, New York
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Alfred is a town in Allegany County, New York, United States. The population was 5,237 at the 2010 census, the Town of Alfred has a village named Alfred in the center of the town. Alfred University and Alfred State College are located in the Village of Alfred, Allegany County was re-organized on March 11,1808. At the same time, the town of Alfred was named and organized by the legislature as one of five towns formed from the larger town of Angelica, Angelica, Alfred, Caneadea, Nunda. The naming of Alfred has traditionally been attributed to Alfred the Great, despite that missing documentation—There is, however, evidence in support of the legend, and there are no records that point to any other source for the name. Nineteenth-century accounts do cite Alfred the Great as the source, in addition, there was no early settler named Alfred for whom the town might have been named. But New York and Massachusetts each claimed ownership under conflicting patents, in 1786 New York conceded the lands to Massachusetts but retained the sovereignty. Ownership of the land changed several times until 1791, when most of the lands of Alfred were sold to the settlers at from $2 to $4 per acre. The earliest settlers followed Indian trails, the one leading from Fort Niagara to and down the Canisteo, Chemung. This passed near the corner of Alfred and had become well worn by war parties during the Revolution. Settlers from the far east might come by Albany, and the Schoharie and Susquehanna valleys or by Schenectady, Utica, Geneva, whatever way they chose the roads were mostly bridgeless and of the most primitive kind, making travel tedious and difficult. From Hornellsville westward for many years the roads were little more than wood paths marked by blazed trees. 1807, The first settlers moved in the Alfred area, began clearing forests and these settlers were three men – Seventh Day Baptists – from Berlin and Brookfield, New York, Clark Crandall, Nathan Green, and Edward Green. Crandall later became a county judge and joined the state legislature, the original settlers were mainly Seventh-day Baptists. Their first church in this country was organized by members who withdrew from the First Baptist church at Newport, R. I. in 1671. This church was the sixth Baptist church organized in America, and they differed from their church only in the observance of the seventh day, or Saturday. During the latter half of the 17th century, and the whole of the 18th, out of these by 1800 grew strong settlements and churches in Rensselaer, Jefferson, Madison, Cortland and other counties of this state. From these out-stations and from the original settlements emigration set westward to the Genesee country, the log schoolhouse early sprang up in each neighborhood, and the district school, the singing-school, the spelling-school and the Sabbath-meeting became a part of the life of the community
29.
Very high frequency
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Very high frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding wavelengths of ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency, and the higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency. Air traffic control communications and air navigation systems work at distances of 100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude, some older DVB-T receivers included channels E2 to E4 but newer ones only go down to channel E5. VHF propagation characteristics are suited for terrestrial communication, with a range generally somewhat farther than line-of-sight from the transmitter. VHF waves are restricted to the radio horizon less than 100 miles. VHF is less affected by noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower frequencies. Unlike high frequencies, the ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves, the distance to the radio horizon is slightly extended over the geometric line of sight to the horizon, as radio waves are weakly bent back toward the Earth by the atmosphere. These approximations are only valid for antennas at heights that are compared to the radius of the Earth. They may not necessarily be accurate in mountainous areas, since the landscape may not be transparent enough for radio waves, in engineered communications systems, more complex calculations are required to assess the probable coverage area of a proposed transmitter station. The accuracy of calculations for digital TV signals is being debated. Portable radios usually use whips or rubber ducky antennas, while base stations usually use larger fiberglass whips or collinear arrays of vertical dipoles, for directional antennas, the Yagi antenna is the most widely used as a high gain or beam antenna. For television reception, the Yagi is used, as well as the log periodic antenna due to its wider bandwidth, helical and turnstile antennas are used for satellite communication since they employ circular polarization. For even higher gain, multiple Yagis or helicals can be mounted together to make array antennas, vertical collinear arrays of dipoles can be used to make high gain omnidirectional antennas, in which more of the antennas power is radiated in horizontal directions. Television and FM broadcasting stations use arrays of specialized dipole antennas such as batwing antennas. Certain subparts of the VHF band have the same use around the world, some national uses are detailed below. 108–118 MHz, Air navigation beacons VOR and Instrument Landing System localiser, 118–137 MHz, Airband for air traffic control, AM,121.5 MHz is emergency frequency 144–146 MHz, Amateur radio. Other capital cities and regional areas used a combination of these, the initial commercial services in Hobart and Darwin were respectively allocated channels 6 and 8 rather than 7 or 9. By the early 1960s it became apparent that the 10 VHF channels were insufficient to support the growth of television services and this was rectified by the addition of three additional frequencies—channels 0, 5A and 11
30.
Ghosting (television)
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In television, a ghost is a replica of the transmitted image, offset in position, that is super-imposed on top of the main image. Common causes of ghosts are, Mismatched impedance along the communication channel, the technical term for this phenomenon is ringing. Multipath distortion, because radio frequency waves may take paths of different length to reach the receiver, by getting a better antenna or cable system it can be eliminated or mitigated. Note that ghosts are a specific to the video portion of television. SECAM TV uses FM for the signal, hence ghosting only affects the luma portion of its signal. TV is broadcast on VHF and UHF, which have line-of-sight propagation, and easily reflect off of buildings, mountains, the audio portion uses FM, which has the desirable property that a stronger signal tends to overpower interference from weaker signals due to the capture effect. Even when ghosts are particularly bad in the picture, there may be little audio interference, for instance, plugging in an additional aerial to a TV which already has a communal TV aerial connection can cause this condition. Ghosting is not specific to analog transmission and it may appear in digital television when interlaced video is incorrectly deinterlaced for display on progressive-scan output devices. Ghost-canceling reference Onion skinning http, //www1. electusdistribution. com. au/images_uploaded/tvrecepe. pdf http, //www. ofcom. org. uk/static/archive/ra/publication/ra_info/ra323/ra323. htm#15
31.
Z Channel
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The Z Channel was one of the first pay television stations in the United States. Launched in 1974 from Los Angeles, California, this station was known for its devotion to the art of cinema due to the choice of films by the programming chief. It also popularized the use of letterboxing on television, as well as showing directors cut versions of films, Z Channels devotion to cinema and choice of rare and important films had an important influence on such directors as Robert Altman, Quentin Tarantino, and Jim Jarmusch. Z Channel was owned by Theta Cable which was acquired by Group W in 1981, operations were located in Santa Monica, California. In 1989, Z Channel faded to black and was replaced by SportsChannel Los Angeles, the channel was the subject of the 2004 documentary Z Channel, A Magnificent Obsession, which was directed by Alexandra Cassavetes, daughter of John Cassavetes. Z Channel, A Magnificent Obsession at the Internet Movie Database
32.
Popular Science
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Popular Science is an American bi-monthly magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the American Society of Magazine Editors awards for its excellence in both 2003 and 2004. With roots beginning in 1872, PopSci has been translated into over 30 languages and is distributed to at least 45 countries. The Popular Science Monthly, as the publication was called, was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans to disseminate scientific knowledge to the educated layman. Youmans had previously worked as an editor for the weekly Appletons Journal, early issues were mostly reprints of English periodicals. William Jay Youmans, Edwards brother, helped found Popular Science Monthly in 1872 and was an editor as well and he became editor-in-chief on Edwards death in 1887. The publisher, D. Appleton & Company, was forced for economic reasons to sell the journal in 1900, james McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers, by 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. The existing journal would continue the tradition as Scientific Monthly. Existing subscribers would remain subscribed under the new name, Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science. The Modern Publishing Company acquired the Popular Science Monthly name and this company had purchased Electrician and Mechanic magazine in 1914 and over the next two years merged several magazines together into a science magazine for a general audience. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and Worlds Advance, the volume number was that of Popular Science but the content was that of Worlds Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, an editor of Scientific American. The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic, the old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations, the new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaempffert was writing for the craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science. The circulation doubled in the first year, from the mid-1930s to the 1960s, the magazine featured fictional stories of Gus Wilsons Model Garage, centered on car problems. An annual review of changes to the new model year cars ran in 1940 and 41 and it continued until the mid-1970s when the magazine reverted to publishing the new models over multiple issues as information became available
33.
Popular Electronics
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Popular Electronics was an American magazine started by Ziff-Davis Publishing Company in October 1954 for electronics hobbyists and experimenters. It soon became the Worlds Largest-Selling Electronics Magazine, in April 1957 Ziff-Davis reported an average net paid circulation of 240,151 copies. Popular Electronics was published until October 1982 when, in November 1982, Ziff-Davis launched a successor magazine, during its last year of publication by Ziff-Davis, Popular Electronics reported an average monthly circulation of 409,344 copies. The title was sold to Gernsback Publications, and their Hands-On Electronics magazine was renamed to Popular Electronics in February 1989, a cover story on Popular Electronics could launch a new product or company. The most famous issue, January 1975, had the Altair 8800 computer on the cover, paul Allen showed that issue to Bill Gates. They wrote a BASIC interpreter for the Altair computer and started Microsoft, Radio & Television News was a magazine for professionals and the editors wanted to create a magazine for hobbyists. Ziff-Davis had started Popular Aviation in 1927 and Popular Photography in 1934 and it was used in Radio-Craft from 1943 until 1948. Ziff-Davis bought the trademark and started Popular Electronics with the October 1954 issue, many of the editors and authors worked for both Ziff-Davis magazines. Initially Oliver Read was the editor of both Radio & Television News and Popular Electronics, Read was promoted to Publisher in June 1956. Oliver Perry Ferrell took over as editor of Popular Electronics and William A. Stocklin became editor of Radio & Television News. In Radio & TV News John T. Frye wrote a column on a repair shop where the proprietor, Mac, would interact with other technicians. The reader would learn techniques for servicing radios and TVs. In Popular Electronics his column was about two high school boys, Carl and Jerry, each month the boys would have an adventure that would teach the reader about electronics. By 1954 building audio and radio kits was a growing pastime, Heathkit and many others offered kits that included all of the parts with detailed instructions. The premier cover shows the assembly of a Heathkit A-7B audio amplifier, Popular Electronics would offer projects that were built from scratch, that is, the individual parts were purchased at a local electronics store or by mail order. The early issues often showed these as father and son projects, Lou Garner wrote the feature story for the first issue, a battery-powered tube radio that could be used on a bicycle. Later he was given a column called Transistor Topics, transistors soon cost less than a dollar and transistor projects became common in every issue of Popular Electronics. The column was renamed to Solid State in 1965 and ran under his byline until December 1978, the July 1962 issue had 112 pages, the editor was Oliver P. Ferrell and the monthly circulation was 400,000
34.
Cornwall, Ontario
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Cornwall is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada, and the seat of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry. Andrews and Avonmore to the north, and Glen Walter, Martintown, Apple Hill, Williamstown, and Lancaster to the east. It is named after the English Duchy of Cornwall, the Citys coat of arms is based on that of the duchy with its colours reversed and the addition of a royal tressure and its largest industries include logistics distribution and call centres. Aboriginal peoples have lived in and around the area of present-day Cornwall for millennia, the first serious European settlement was established in 1784 by United Empire Loyalists primarily from New York. Disbanded soldiers and their families began to settle at the site of Cornwall and they were led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sir John Johnson and were soldiers from the First Battalion Kings Royal Regiment of New York and a contingent of the 84th Royal Highland Emigrants. Following the success of rebellious colonists in the American Revolution, the United Empire Loyalists migrated to Canada, the British government helped them settle there in reward for their loyalty and compensation for their losses in the United States. They founded a settlement on the formerly called Pointe Maligne by French colonists and renamed it Royal Settlement #2. The construction of the Cornwall Canal between 1834 and 1842 accelerated the development into a regional and industrial economic capital for a growing hinterland of towns. Canal and lock construction in the late 1800s and early 1900s brought work international business, the Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational School received heavy damage from masonry work falling through the roof of the gymnasium. Situated west of Cornwall along the St. Lawrence River were several smaller communities, Eastern Ontario has always been a highway or corridor through which people moved, a corridor used by migration and conquest. Prior to European colonization, the Mohawks and Six Nations Iroquois settled and raided through the St. Lawrence valley, the French and British fought over the waterway and, after the American revolution in 1812–14, it became a battleground between Americans and Canadians. Formally founded to be a new home for refugees, it remained a home for refugees, early settlement of the region is largely undocumented although oral histories and early accounts suggest that settlers, traders and farmers existed in the area long before formal recognition. The post-contact regional population was a mixture of French Canadian, Ojibwe and these different groups mixed and integrated over time with family names and histories reflecting a blending of different backgrounds that was typical of Eastern Ontario. Smaller but nevertheless impressive contributions in the region were made by everyone from Jewish traders, craftsmen and merchants, Eastern European refugees, many of these stories go unreported. A good example is that of John Baker who died in Cornwall in 1871 at the age of 93. Born in Lower Canada, he was said to be the last Canadian born into slavery, most of these former slaves settled and integrated into the same communities where they were freed. By 1833, all slaves in the British Empire were free, John Baker, the last slave to be born into slavery in Canada, died in Cornwall. Cornwall and the area, originally called Royal Settlement #2
35.
Media market
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They can coincide or overlap with one or more metropolitan areas, though rural regions with few significant population centers can also be designated as markets. Conversely, very large areas can sometimes be subdivided into multiple segments. Market regions may overlap, meaning that people residing on the edge of one market may be able to receive content from other nearby markets. They are widely used in measurements, which are compiled in the United States by Nielsen Media Research. Nielsen measures both television and radio audiences since its acquisition of Arbitron, which was completed in September 2013, markets are identified by the largest city, which are usually located in the center of the market region. In the United States, radio markets are generally a bit smaller than their counterparts, as broadcast power restrictions are stricter for radio than TV. AM band and FM band radio ratings are separated, as are broadcast. This information is used by advertisers to determine how to reach a specific audience, a Television Market Area is a group of counties in the United States covered by a specific group of television stations. The term is used by the U. S, governments Federal Communications Commission to regulate broadcast, cable, and satellite transmissions, according to the Code of Federal Regulations, at 47 CFR §76.51 and FCC. gov. The TMAs not only have control over local broadcasts. These market areas can also be used to define restrictions on rebroadcasting of broadcast television signals, generally speaking, only stations within the same market area can be rebroadcast. The only exception to rule is the significantly viewed list. Virtually all of the United States is located within the boundaries of exactly one TMA, a similar term used by Nielsen Media Research is the Designated Market Area, and they control the trademark on it. DMAs are used by Nielsen Media Research to identify TV stations that best reach an area, there are 210 Nielsen DMAs in the United States,56 of which are metered. TMAs may cover a larger area than the stations that serve it. This is particularly true in markets that have hilly or mountainous terrain that is ill-suited for digital broadcasting, in these cases, the outlying areas of a TMA may only be served by cable and satellite, or perhaps by small translators. Conversely, a small market such as Erie, Pennsylvania may have stations where their signal spills well over into neighboring TMAs. Arbitron at one time also maintained similar areas for television ratings, there were 286 ADIs in the United States
