1.
Automotive industry
–
The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
2.
Cadillac
–
Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
3.
V8 engine
–
A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
4.
Cylinder block
–
A cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder of a reciprocating engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures. The term engine block is used synonymously with cylinder block. In the basic terms of elements, the various main parts of an engine are conceptually distinct. However, it is no longer the way of building most petrol engines and diesel engines, because for any given engine configuration. These generally involve integrating multiple machine elements into one discrete part and this yields lower unit cost of production. Thus engine block, cylinder block, or simply block are the likely to be heard in the garage or on the street. This evolution has occurred throughout the history of reciprocating engines, with instances of every conceptual variation coexisting here and there. The increase in prevalence of ever-more-integrated designs relied on the development of foundry. For example, a practical low-cost V8 engine was not feasible until Ford developed the techniques used to build the Ford flathead V8 engine, which soon also disseminated to the larger society. Today the foundry and machining processes for manufacturing engines are highly automated. A cylinder block is a unit comprising several cylinders, in the earliest decades of internal combustion engine development, monobloc cylinder construction was rare, cylinders were usually cast individually. Combining their castings into pairs or triples was a win of monobloc design. A wet liner cylinder block features cylinder walls that are entirely removable and they are referred to as wet liners because their outer sides come in direct contact with the engines coolant. In other words, the liner is the wall, rather than being merely a sleeve. Wet liner designs are popular with European manufacturers, most notably Renault and Peugeot, dry liner designs use either the blocks material or a discrete liner inserted into the block to form the backbone of the cylinder wall. Additional sleeves are inserted within, which dry on their outside. It is likelier to be scrapped, with new equipment—engine or entire vehicle—replacing it, most early engines, particularly those with more than four cylinders, had their cylinders cast as pairs or triplets of cylinders, then bolted to a single crankcase. As casting techniques improved, a cylinder block of 4,6
5.
Aluminium
–
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
6.
Cylinder head
–
In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head sits above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion chamber and this joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, the head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors. With a chain drive to a camshaft, the extra length of chain needed for an overhead cam design could give trouble from wear. Early sidevalve engines were in use at a time of simple fuel chemistry, low octane ratings and this made their combustion chamber design less critical and there was less need to design their ports and airflow carefully. One difficulty experienced at this time was that the low compression ratio also implied a low expansion ratio during the power stroke, exhaust gases were thus still hot, hotter than a contemporary engine, and this led to frequent trouble with burnt exhaust valves. A major improvement to the engine was the advent of Ricardos turbulent head design. This reduced the space within the chamber and the ports. Most importantly, it used turbulence within the chamber to thoroughly mix the fuel and this, of itself, allowed the use of higher compression ratios and more efficient engine operation. Despite common knowledge, the limit on performance is not the gas flow through the valves. With high speed engines and high compression, the limiting difficulty becomes that of achieving complete and efficient combustion, modern, efficient engines thus tend towards the pent roof or hemi designs, where the valves are brought close in to the centre of the space. Where fuel quality is low and octane rating is poor, compression ratios will be restricted, in these cases, the sidevalve engine still has much to offer. Such engines remained in production into the 1990s, only being replaced when the fuels available in the field became more likely to be diesel than petrol. In the overhead valve design, the head contains the poppet valves. In the overhead camshaft design, the head contains the valves, spark plugs and inlet/exhaust tracts just like the OHV engine. The number of heads in an engine is a function of the engine configuration. Almost all inline engines today use a cylinder head that serves all the cylinders. A V engine has two heads, one for each cylinder bank of the V
7.
Cast iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
8.
Valvetrain
–
A valve train or valvetrain is a mechanical system that controls operation of the valves in an internal combustion engine, in which a sequence of components transmits motion throughout the assembly. A traditional reciprocating internal combustion engine uses valves to control air and fuel flow into and out of the cylinders, the valve train consists of valves, rocker arms, pushrods, lifters, and camshaft. Valve train opening/closing and duration, as well as the geometry of the train, controls the amount of air. Timing for open/close/duration is controlled by the camshaft that is synchronized to the crankshaft by a chain, belt, camless This layout uses no camshafts at all. Technologies such as solenoids are used to actuate the valves. The valve train is the system responsible for operation of the valves. Valves are usually of the type, although many others have been developed such as sleeve, slide. Poppet valves typically require small coil springs, appropriately named valve springs and they are attached to the valve stem ends, seating within spring retainers. Depending on the used, the valves are actuated directly by a rocker arm, finger. Overhead camshaft engines use fingers or bucket tappets, upon which the cam lobes contact, rocker arms are actuated by a pushrod, and pivot on a shaft or individual ball studs in order to actuate the valves. Pushrods are long, slender metal rods seated within the engine block, at the bottom ends the pushrods are fitted with lifters, either solid or hydraulic, upon which the camshaft, located within the cylinder block, makes contact. The camshaft pushes on the lifter, which pushes on the pushrod, which pushes on the rocker arm, camshafts must actuate the valves at the appropriate time in the combustion cycle. In order to accomplish this the camshaft is linked to and kept in synchronisation with the crankshaft through the use of a chain, rubber belt. Because these mechanisms are essential to the timing of valve actuation they are named timing chains, timing belts. Typical normal-service engine valve-train components may be too lightweight for operating at high revolutions per minute, valve float will damage the valvetrain over time, and could cause the valve to be damaged as it is still partially open while the piston comes to the top of its stroke. Upgrading to high pressure valve springs could allow higher valvetrain speeds, high-output and engines used in competition feature camshafts and valvetrain components that are designed to withstand higher RPM ranges. These changes also include additional modifications such as larger-sized valves combined with freer breathing intake, automakers offer factory-approved performance parts to increase engine output, and numerous aftermarket parts vendors specialize in valvetrain modifications for various engine applications
9.
Overhead valve engine
–
An overhead valve engine is an engine in which the valves are placed in the cylinder head. This was an improvement over the flathead engine, where the valves were placed in the block next to the piston. Overhead camshaft engines, while overhead valve by definition, are usually categorized apart from other OHV engines. Lifters or tappets are located in the block between the camshaft and pushrods. By contrast, overhead camshaft design avoids the use of pushrods by putting the camshaft directly above the valves in the cylinder head, in 1900, Marr was hired as chief engineer at the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company in Detroit, where he worked until 1902. Marr said he got the idea of overhead valves when making the small tricycle engine, marrs engine employed pushrod-actuated rocker arms, which in turn pushed valves parallel to the pistons, and this is still in use today. This contrasts with previous designs which use of side valves. Marr left Buick briefly to start his own company in 1902, the Marr Auto-Car. The OHV engine was patented in 1902 by Buicks second chief engineer Eugene Richard, at the Buick Manufacturing Company, precursor to the Buick Motor Company. The worlds first production overhead valve engine was put into the first production Buick automobile, the 1904 Model B, the engine was designed by Marr and David Buick. Eugene Richard of the Buick Manufacturing Company was awarded US Patent #771,095 in 1904 for the valve in head engine. Arthur Chevrolet was awarded US Patent #1,744,526 for an adapter that could be applied to an existing engine, in 1949, Oldsmobile introduced the Rocket V8. It was the first high-compression I-head design, and is the archetype for most modern pushrod engines, general Motors is the worlds largest pushrod engine producer, producing both I4, V6 and V8 pushrod engines. Nowadays, automotive use of side-valves has virtually disappeared, and valves are almost all overhead, however, most are now driven more directly by the overhead camshaft system. Few pushrod-type engines remain in production outside of the United States market and this is in part a result of some countries passing laws to tax engines based on displacement, because displacement is somewhat related to the emissions and fuel efficiency of an automobile. This has given OHC engines a regulatory advantage in those countries, however, in 2002, Chrysler introduced a new pushrod engine, a 5. 7-litre Hemi engine. The new Chrysler Hemi engine presents advanced features such as variable displacement technology and has been an option with buyers. The Hemi was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, Chrysler also produced the worlds first production variable-valve OHV engine with independent intake and exhaust phasing
10.
Fuel
–
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
11.
Fuel injection
–
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. All diesel engines use fuel injection by design, petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke. On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward, the functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the task of supplying fuel to the combustion process. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better, Fuel injection also dispenses with the need for a separate mechanical choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be adjusted as the engine warms up to normal temperature. Furthermore, on spark ignition engines, fuel injection has the advantage of being able to facilitate stratified combustion which have not been possible with carburetors, Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the power output. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as catalytic converters more effective, herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection, using a jerk pump to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch. Fuel injection was in commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Another early use of direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle, fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke and they are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene. Direct fuel injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB601, the BMW801, German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point fuel injection, due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines utilizing fuel injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei. Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic systems in Alfa Romeo 6C2500 with Ala spessa body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system, all diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the V8 engine configuration, Leon Levavasseur in 1902, the first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925
12.
Gasoline
–
Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
13.
Motor oil
–
Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances are often used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds, motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins, and polyinternal olefins, organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters, on September 6,1866 American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company. While studying the healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively in high temperatures and this meant no more gummed valves, corroded cylinders or leaking seals. In 1873 Ellis officially renamed the company to Valvoline after the engine valves the product lubricated. Motor oil is a lubricant used in combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and it also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and can lead to engine failure, in petrol engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 160 °C. In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C, motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures. Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to keep the engine clean. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself and it is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running. Rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type. In the crankcase of an engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings, and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase
14.
Internal combustion engine cooling
–
Internal combustion engine cooling uses either air or a liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal combustion engine. For small or special purpose engines, air cooling makes for a lightweight, the more complex circulating liquid-cooled engines also ultimately reject waste heat to the air, but circulating liquid improves heat transfer from internal parts of the engine. Engines for watercraft may use open-loop cooling, but air and surface vehicles must recirculate a fixed volume of liquid, heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a water wheel extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are inefficient, so more heat energy enters the engine comes out as mechanical power. Internal combustion engines remove waste heat through cool intake air, hot exhaust gases, Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat is essential, it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some exit velocity in the water to carry it away. Thus, all heat engines need cooling to operate, Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants. Cooling becomes more important in when the climate very hot. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the temperature of engine materials. Engine cooling removes energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive, some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only incidental heat loss, a design called adiabatic. Such engines can achieve high efficiency but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using either air or a liquid coolant run through a heat exchanger cooled by air. Marine engines and some engines have ready access to a large volume of water at a suitable temperature. The water may be used directly to cool the engine, but often has sediment, which can clog coolant passages, or chemicals, such as salt, thus, engine coolant may be run through a heat exchanger that is cooled by the body of water. Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and chemicals such as antifreeze, the industry term for the antifreeze mixture is engine coolant. Some antifreezes use no water at all, instead using a liquid with different properties, such as propylene glycol or a combination of propylene glycol, most air-cooled engines use some liquid oil cooling, to maintain acceptable temperatures for both critical engine parts and the oil itself. Most liquid-cooled engines use air cooling, with the intake stroke of air cooling the combustion chamber. An exception is Wankel engines, where parts of the combustion chamber are never cooled by intake. There are many demands on a cooling system, one key requirement is to adequately serve the entire engine, as the whole engine fails if just one part overheats
15.
Water cooling
–
Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor, the main mechanism for water cooling is convective heat transfer. Cooling water is the water removing heat from a machine or system, cooling water may be recycled through a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling system. Recirculating systems may be if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of cooling water. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water, the advantages of using water cooling over air cooling include waters higher specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to heat over greater distances with much less volumetric flow. The water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises. Water accelerates corrosion of parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale, an open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling, lowering the temperature of the remaining water. This method was common in internal combustion engines, until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water, but this requires higher rates than deionized or distilled water. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, modern automotive cooling systems are slightly pressurized, often to 15 psi. This raises the boiling-point of the coolant and reduces evaporation, the use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water, antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air conditioning system inside the car by means of the heater core, other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension
16.
Power (physics)
–
In physics, power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit time, having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the SI system, the unit of power is the joule per second, known as the watt in honour of James Watt, another common and traditional measure is horsepower. Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written, because this integral depends on the trajectory of the point of application of the force and torque, this calculation of work is said to be path dependent. As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the universe and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical universe. The output power of a motor is the product of the torque that the motor generates. The power involved in moving a vehicle is the product of the force of the wheels. The dimension of power is divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt, which is equal to one joule per second, other units of power include ergs per second, horsepower, metric horsepower, and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second. Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference, food calories per hour, Btu per hour. This shows how power is an amount of energy consumed per unit time. If ΔW is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration Δt and it is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is simply called power when the context makes it clear. The instantaneous power is then the value of the average power as the time interval Δt approaches zero. P = lim Δ t →0 P a v g = lim Δ t →0 Δ W Δ t = d W d t. In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by, W = P t
17.
Torque
–
Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
18.
Cadillac V8 engine
–
Cadillac was the first automobile maker in the world to mass-produce V8 engines. The company has produced many generations and variations of V8s since 1914, the Type 51 was the first Cadillac V8. Introduced in 1914, it was the engine for 1915 Cadillac models. It was a 90° design with an L-head configuration and was water-cooled, bore was 3.125 in and stroke was 5.125 in, for a total of 314 cu in of displacement. This engine was designed under the leadership of Cadillacs chief engineer 1914-1917, Scottish-born D McCall White, hired by Henry Leland for his V-engine expertise from his employment as chief engineer at Napier, and previously Daimler at Coventry, he was later to move to Nash with LaFayette. White was appointed to a committee of three to supervise the development of the V12 Liberty Aircraft Motor, the engine was refined for 1923 with a new split crankshaft that introduced the 90° offset for each pair of cylinders. The L-Head was on the Wards 10 Best Engines of the 20th century list and it was a 341 in³ engine and produced 90 hp. The same year saw the introduction of the synchromesh transmission and this engine was used in the Series 341 and 341B cars of 1928 and 1929. From 1930 through 1935, Cadillac produced a version with a displacement of 353 cu in. This used a 3.38 in bore and 4.94 in stroke and this engine was used in the Cadillac Series 353 and Series 355. A322 cu in engine was used in 1936s Series 60. It was designed to be the companys next-generation powerplant at reduced cost from the 353, the monoblocs cylinders and crankcase were cast as a single unit, and it used hydraulic valve lifters for durability. This design allowed the creation of the mid-priced Series 60 line, bore was 3.375 in and stroke was 4.5 in. This engine was modified with a 3.5 in bore for the 1936-1948346 cu in engine and this was used in the Series 60/60S/61/62/63/65/67 and 70/72/75. It was also used in tanks, e. g. M5 Stuart and these engines were produced through 1948. For 1949, Cadillac and Oldsmobile each produced a new V8 design, both of the engines were Overhead valve designs. The Cadillac 331 engine featured a dry, open runner intake manifold, rear-mounted distributor, crankshaft end play is carried by the rear bearing on the two GM engines. 1955331 engines went to a flat back that bolted to a clutch
19.
Northstar engine series
–
The Northstar engine is a family of General Motors most technically complex 90° V engines. Displacing 4.6 L in its form, the double overhead cam design is most associated with Cadillacs Northstar V8. These went out of production in 2003, but the Northstar family expanded with longitudinal and 4.4 L supercharged versions, Northstar engines also were used in several top-end Pontiacs and Buicks in the 2000s. GM ceased production of the Northstar series in July 2010, with the cars to receive it, the Cadillac DTS, Buick Lucerne. Newer Cadillac V8 models like the CTS-V use the GM LS small-block OHV engine, GM initiated the Northstars design as a response to the advanced dual overhead cam V8 engines introduced by European and Japanese competitors of Cadillac in the late 1980s. At that time, Cadillac was using the aluminum HT Overhead Valve V8 which GM pushed hastily into production because the CAFE standards for 1982 would not allow for the use of the V8-6-4 of 1981. At the time it was GMs corporate policy not to pass the gas guzzler tax on to the consumer, GM developed a laundry list of items to be included in these new models, including sophisticated steering, braking, and suspension technologies. This became known as the Northstar System, one key element was a high-tech V8 engine with all of the features and performance of the competitors offerings. Capable of producing 300 hp out of its 4565 cc displacement, the lower crankcase assembly supported the crankshaft without conventional main bearing caps. An oil manifold plate with a silicone gasket forms the oil gallery under this. A typical oil change used 7. 5–8 quarts of oil, GM specified cast-iron cylinder liners and the cast aluminum pistons included valve clearance. Northstar is an engine, the valves will strike the pistons if they lose timing. It has bronze piston pin bushings and free-floating piston pins, GM used cast aluminum cylinder heads featuring 4 valves per cylinder. The heads used dual overhead cams driven through the maintenance-free cam-drive chain case, the cams act directly on hydraulic lifters on the ends of the valves and are fed with a lubrication passage drilled through the cylinder head lengthwise. The intake valves are inclined at 25°, while the exhaust valves are canted to 7° with center-mounted platinum-tipped spark plugs, the cam covers are magnesium for light weight and sound damping. Eight thermoplastic tubes were used in the system, providing for sequential fuel injection. The engine used a distributorless ignition system with a waste spark setup, the PCM controls spark and fuel injection timing as well as the shift points for the new 4T80-E transmission. One notable feature advertised at the time was the limp home fail-safe mode which allowed the engine to continue running for a time without any coolant
20.
General Motors
–
With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
21.
Corporate average fuel economy
–
The Energy Policy and Conservation Act, as amended by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act, requires that the U. S. DOT has delegated the responsibilities to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Congress established both of these provisions explicitly in EPCA, as amended in 2007 by EISA. In addition, a Gas Guzzler Tax is levied on individual passenger car models that get less than 22.5 miles per US gallon, a complicated 2011 mathematical formula was replaced starting in 2012 with a simpler inverse-linear formula with cutoff values. CAFE footprint requirements are set up such that a vehicle with a larger footprint has a fuel economy requirement than a vehicle with a smaller footprint. e. 17 miles per US gallon published, individual vehicles do not have to meet their fuel economy targets, CAFE compliance is enforced at the fleet level. The compliance fuel economy of electric vehicles such as the Plug-in Prius or LEAF is complicated by accounting for the energy used in generating electricity. CAFE has separate standards for cars and light trucks even if the majority of light trucks are being used as passenger vehicles. The market share of light trucks grew steadily from 9. 7% in 1979 to 47% in 2001, more than 500,000 vehicles in the 1999 model year exceeded the 8,500 lb GVWR cutoff and were thus omitted from CAFE calculations. More recently, coverage of medium duty trucks has been added to the CAFE regulations starting in 2012, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regulates CAFE standards and the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency measures vehicle fuel efficiency. Thus higher fuel efficiency was associated with traffic safety, intertwining the issues of fuel economy, road-traffic safety, air pollution. In the mid-2000s, increasing safety of cars and the poor safety record of light trucks began to reverse this association. In 2002, a committee of the National Academy of Sciences wrote a report on the effects of the CAFE standard. One cost of this increase in economy is a possible increase in fatalities, estimated to be 1,300 to 2,600 increased fatalities in 1993. In the case of cars, U. S. Most recently, fuel economy has increased about one mpg from 2006 to 2007 and this increase is due primarily to increased fuel efficiency of imported cars. S. consumers would otherwise have to pay. Reductions in petroleum demand in the United States helped create the collapse of OPEC market power in 1986, fleet fuel economy is calculated using a harmonic mean, not a simple arithmetic mean – namely, the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocal values. For the purposes of CAFE, a manufacturers car output is divided into a domestic fleet, each of these fleets must separately meet the requirements. The two-fleet requirement was developed by the United Automobile Workers as a means to ensure job creation in the United States, the UAW successfully lobbied Congress to write this provision into the enabling legislation – and continues to advocate this position
22.
Oldsmobile Aurora
–
The Oldsmobile Aurora is a mid-size luxury sports sedan made by Oldsmobile from 1994 to 2003. The Aurora rides on the same Cadillac-derived G platform as the two-door Buick Riviera, despite front-wheel drive, it was noted for its competent handling. The Aurora became the sport sedan Oldsmobile, powered by a four-cam, 32-valve 4.0 L V8 supplanting the Oldsmobile Toronado coupe and eventually the Oldsmobile 98. The Aurora offered both a V8- and a V6-powered version from 2001-02 and it is equipped with a four-speed automatic transmission with performance algorithm shifting. No manual transmission was offered on any model years Aurora. Since the 1980s GM had wanted a new car to rejuvenate Oldsmobile, thus the Aurora was developed, stylistically, the Oldsmobile Aurora was based on the 1989 Oldsmobile Tube Car concept car and, mechanically, it adopted a version of Cadillacs Northstar 4. 6-liter V-8 engine. By the time the Aurora was released, Oldsmobile badly needed hope for a comeback of the marque, as a symbol of its clean break from other cars in the lineup, the Aurora bore no Oldsmobile badging or script save for the radio-CD-cassette deck and engine cover. Instead, a new emblem consisting of a stylized A was used, the Oldsmobile rocket logo was even updated to be more in-line with the Auroras emblem. Early design work on what would become the Aurora began as early as the late 1980s, unlike the eventual production car, the Tube Car was of a pillarless hardtop design with suicide doors. The final production design was signed off on in July 1989, after much research and development, the Aurora went into production on January 24,1994, and was released for the 1995 model year. Only several options were available on the Aurora including heated seats, power sunroof, the Aurora also came standard with Oldsmobiles 4.0 L L47 V8 engine, a DOHC engine based on Cadillacs 4.6 L Northstar V8. The Northstar engine and 4T80-E had been exclusive to Cadillac prior to the Aurora, the L47 put out 250 hp at 5600 rpm and 260 lb·ft torque at 4400 rpm. The Aurora used an automatic transmission with driver selectable normal. Both engines retained the 4.0 L capacity, but the Northstar LMP version was twin-turbocharged, the Aurora had a drag coefficient of 0.32. The Aurora was highly regarded at the time for its engine, excellent build quality, well-balanced ride. During normal crush-to-failure tests done by automakers to evaluate body rigidity, a frame-crusher otherwise used to test stronger truck frames had to be used instead, with the car exceeding federal standards for passenger cars by two times. First year sales were strong, with the Aurora selling over 45,000 units, all first-generation Auroras were built in Lake Orion, Michigan, along with the Buick LeSabre, Buick Park Avenue, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile 88, Oldsmobile 98 and the Pontiac Bonneville. Production for this ended on June 25,1999
23.
Pontiac
–
Pontiac was a brand of automobile manufactured and sold by General Motors between 1926 and 2010. Introduced as a make for GMs more expensive line of Oakland automobiles, Pontiac overtook Oakland in popularity. Sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico by GM, the last Pontiac badged cars were built in December 2009, with one final vehicle in January,2010. Franchise agreements for Pontiac dealers expired October 31,2010, leaving GM to focus on its four remaining North American brands, Chevrolet, Buick, Cadillac, and GMC. The Pontiac brand was introduced by General Motors in 1926 as the marque to GMs Oakland division. It was named after the famous Ottawa chief who had given his name to the city of Pontiac. Within months of its introduction, Pontiac was outselling Oakland, which was essentially a 1920s Chevrolet with a six-cylinder engine installed. Body styles offered included a sedan with two and four doors, Landau Coupe, with the Sport Phaeton, Sport Landau Sedan, Sport Cabriolet. As a result of Pontiacs rising sales, versus Oaklands declining sales, Pontiac became the companion marque to survive its parent. It was also manufactured from knock-down kits at GMs short-lived Japanese factory at Osaka Assembly in Osaka, Japan from 1927-1941. Pontiac produced cars offering 40 hp 186.7 cu in L-head straight 6-cylinder engines in the Pontiac Chief of 1927, the Chief sold 39,000 units within six months of its appearance at the 1926 New York Auto Salon, hitting 76,742 at twelve months. The next year, it became the six in the U. S. ranking seventh in overall sales. By 1933, it had moved up to producing the least expensive cars available with straight eight-cylinder engines, in the late 1930s, Pontiac used the so-called torpedo body of the Buick for one of its models, just prior to its being used by Chevrolet. This body style brought some attention to the marque, an unusual feature of the torpedo body exhibition car, was that with push of a button the front half of the car body would open showing the engine and the cars front seat interior. In 1937, the eight-cylinder had a 122-inch wheelbase, while the six-cylinder had a 117-inch wheelbase, for an extended period of time—prewar through the early 1950s—the Pontiac was a quiet, solid car, but not especially powerful. It came with a straight eight. Straight 8s were slightly less expensive to produce than the increasingly popular V8s, additionally, the long crankshaft suffered from excessive flex, restricting straight 8s to a relatively low compression ratio with a modest redline. However, in application, inexpensive flatheads were not a liability
24.
Buick
–
Buick, formally the Buick Motor Division, is an upscale automobile brand of the American manufacturer General Motors. Buick-branded vehicles are known for reliability, ranking high for reliability in Consumer Reports brand reliability rankings. Buick has the distinction of being the oldest active American marque of automobile, before the establishment of General Motors, GM founder William C. Durant had served as Buicks general manager and major investor. Buick also has the distinction of being the first automobile maker in the world to equip its cars with overhead valve engines, in 2015, Buick sold 1,231,941 vehicles, a record for the brand. The main market is in China, where 80% of Buick-branded automobiles are sold, Buicks are also sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Since restructuring in 2009, GM has also started to share technology, vehicles, Buick was founded in 1899 in Jackson, Michigan by David Dunbar Buick as the Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company, an internal combustion engine manufacturer. Buick is one of the oldest automobile brands in the world and his replacement was Eugene Richard, who applied for a patent in 1902 for Marrs valve-in-head engine, which patent, number 771,095, was awarded to Richard in the name of Buick in 1904. This was the worlds first overhead valve internal combustion engine, although it was called valve-in-head because the cylinders were horizontal so the valves were not actually overhead. In 1903, the third Buick automobile was made, this time by Richard, but in 1904 Buick moved to Flint, Michigan, Marr was rehired in Flint as chief engineer, to begin making automobiles in production. David Dunbar Buick incorporated his company as the Buick Motor Company on May 19,1903, in Detroit, Michigan. In March,1904, the company was purchased by Benjamin Briscoe, Whiting moved Buick to Flint that summer, to a location across the street from his factory, with the idea of adding Buicks engines to his wagons. David Buick stayed on as a manager, and re-hired Walter Marr as chief engineer, the engine Buick and Marr developed for this automobile was a 2-cyinder valve-in-head engine of 159 cubic inches, with each cylinder horizontal and opposed to each other by 180 degrees. Durant that year as controlling investor, Durant was co-owner, also in Flint, of the Durant-Dort Carriage Company, which was the largest carriage-making company in the country. Durant spent the next 4 years turning Buick into the automobile brand in the US. David Buick sold his stock upon departure in 1906, and died in modest circumstances 25 years later, in 1907, Durant agreed to supply motors to R. S. McLaughlin in Canada, an auto maker, and in 1908 he founded General Motors. Between 1899 and 1902, two vehicles were built in Detroit, Michigan by Walter Lorenzo Marr. Some documentation exists of the 1901 or 1902 prototype with tiller steering similar to the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, in mid-1904, another prototype was constructed for an endurance run, which convinced James H. Whiting to authorize production of the first models offered to the public. The architecture of this prototype was the basis for the Model B, the first Buick made for sale, the 1904 Model B, was built in Flint, Michigan at a re-purposed factory that was known as the Flint Wagon Works
25.
Pontiac Bonneville
–
The Pontiac Bonneville was a full-sized automobile which was built by Pontiac from 1957 to 2005. It was introduced as a limited production performance convertible during the 1957 model year, the Bonneville name first appeared in 1954 on a pair of bubble-topped GM Motorama concept cars called the Bonneville Special.00 - more than double the base price of a Chieftain four-door sedan. A fully equipped Bonneville could cost more than a Cadillac, only 630 units were produced that first year, making it one of the most collectible Pontiacs of all time. The following year it became a model, and it would endure until 2005 as the divisions top-of-the-line model. Bonneville became a model in 1958, available as a two-door hardtop or a convertible. It paced the Indianapolis 500 in its first year, also a 300 horsepower 370 cubic inches V8 with four-barrel carburetor and dual exhausts was now standard equipment. For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. In its third year, the 1959 Bonneville became a full series with the addition of the four-door hardtop sedan. The Bonneville played an important part that year in the introduction of two of Pontiacs greatest marketing inspirations — the split grille and the Wide Track slogan, both the grille design and the Wide Track phrase remained part of Pontiacs image up to its termination. A Safe-T-Track differential, used to wheel spin, was an option beginning in 1959. The Bonneville remained Pontiacs costliest and most luxurious model throughout the 1960s and was instrumental in pushing Pontiac to third place in sales from 1962 to 1970, Bonnevilles were also built on a longer wheelbase version of GMs B-Body. The two-door hardtop was marketed as the Sports Coupe, the four door models were called Vistas. Bonneville models were equipped with Hydra-Matic or Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmissions. Other options included power steering and power brakes as well as air conditioning, other popular options included power windows, power seats, radio, cruise control, and 8-lug aluminum wheels that included integral brake drums for improved stopping power. For 1962, Pontiac also offered the 421 cu in Super Duty with two carburetors, rated at 405 hp, as a US$2,250 option. For 1965, All GM B body cars were dramatically restyled, swooping rooflines, rakish fender lines and the Coke bottle profile contributed to making one of the most popular body styles ever produced. The Bonneville got the new styling, with plenty of bright trim on the body sides. Inside, new upholstery and instrumentation were featured, a General Motors corporate edict that took effect with the 1967 model year led Pontiac to discontinue the Tri-Power engine options on all of its cars
26.
Buick Lucerne
–
The Buick Lucerne is a full-size upscale sedan sold by Buick from 2006 to 2011. It was introduced at the 2005 Chicago Auto Show to replace both the LeSabre, then Americas best-selling full-sized sedan, and the flagship, the Park Avenue. Based on a revised G platform, it debuted with a 3.8 liter GM L26 V6 as standard, with GMs 4.6 litre Northstar LD8 available as an option. In 2008 the higher-performance 4.6 litre Northstar L37 became available on the Super model, named for elegant financial and cultural center Lucerne, Switzerland, it served as Buicks top of the line model until replaced by the second generation Buick LaCrosse. The Lucerne replaced both the upscale LeSabre and top of the line Park Avenue in the Buick line-up, with a price below The Lucernes that could equal the Park Avenues with the V8 option. It was based on a revised G platform, though GM continued to refer to it as the H. It was introduced with the standard 3.8 liter Buick V6, with a 4.6 litre Cadillac Northstar LD8 V8, all General Motors 3.8 L V6 powered cars become the first SULEV-compliant vehicles. The CXL trim package added numerous premium features, the Lucerne was built at GMs Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly Plant alongside the Cadillac DTS. The plant won Initial Quality Awards from J. D. Power, GM leads all other automakers in Strategic Visions Total Quality Index Sales remained brisk throughout much of 2007. Two new trim levels, CXL Special Edition and Super, were added for 2008, the Super was Introduced at the 2007 New York Auto Show, featuring the sophisticated 4.6 litre Northstar L37 V8 and upscale trim. Flex-fuel technology was available at no additional cost. For 2010, the Supers rocker panels, grille, and fog lights were added to the entire Lucerne lineup, the last was built on June 15,2011. The second generation LaCrosse replaced it as Buicks flagship for 2012, the Buick Lucerne earns a Good overall score in the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety front impact test, and an Acceptable score in the side impact test. The IIHS also found that 2006-08 model year Lucerne had the highest fatality rate in the large 4-door car class
27.
LS based GM small-block engine
–
Not to be confused with the Chevrolet small-block engine. The LS based GM small-block engine is the primary V-8 used in General Motors line of rear-wheel-drive cars, the LS basic layout owes a good deal to Ed Coles original small-block design of 1954-55, though it also uses cues from Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac V8s. The basic LS variations use cast iron blocks, while performance editions are all aluminum with cast iron cylinder liners, GM recycled the LT designation previously used on Chevrolet small-block V8-derived GM engines beginning with the LS Generation V LT1 in 2014. Several versions of the LS were used in the Chevrolet Corvette, beginning with the LS1 in 1997 through the LS9, variants of the LT version of the GM small-block have been used since. The GM Generation I and Generation II engine families both derived from the longstanding Chevrolet small block V8, the Generation III small-block V-8 was a clean sheet design, which replaced the Gen I and Gen II engine families in 2003 and 1996 respectively. Like the previous two generations, the Buick and Oldsmobile small blocks, the gen III/IV can be found in different brands. The engine blocks were cast in aluminium for car applications, the architecture of the LS series makes for an extremely strong engine block with the aluminium engines being nearly as strong as the iron generation I and II engines. The LS engine also used coil-near-plug style ignition to replace the distributor setup of all previous small-block based engines, the cylinder firing order was changed to 1-8-7-2-6-5-4-3, so that the LS series now corresponds to the firing pattern of other modern V8 engines. The first of the Generation IIIs, the LS1 was the progenitor of the new design that would transform the entire V8 line. The Generation III5.7 L shares little other than similar displacement, external dimensions and it is an all-aluminum 5,665 cc pushrod engine with a bore of 3.898 in and a stroke of 3.62 in. LS1 When introduced in the 1997 Corvette the LS1 was rated at 345 hp at 5,600 rpm and 350 lbf·ft at 4,400 rpm, after improvements to the intake and exhaust manifolds in 2001 the rating improved to 350 hp and 365 lbf·ft. The LS1 was used in the Corvette from 97-04 and it was also used in 98-02 GM F-Body cars with a rating of 305–325+ HP, which was rumored to be conservative. The extra horsepower was claimed to come from the intake ram-air effect available in the SS, the initial 2001 LS6 produced 385 bhp and 385 lbf·ft, but the engine was modified for 2002 through 2004 to produce 405 bhp and 400 lbf·ft of torque. The LS6 was originally used in the high-performance C5 Corvette Z06 model. The V-Series used the LS6 for two years before being replaced by the LS2 in 2006, for 2006, the Z06 replaced the LS6 with the new LS7.5,1, sodium filled valves, and a revised oiling system better suited to high lateral acceleration. LS6 intake manifolds were used on all 2001+ LS1/6 engines. The casting number, located on the top edge of the block, is 12561168. Both the 4.8 L and the 5.3 L share the same block, heads and as they share architecture
28.
Chevrolet
–
Chevrolet, colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors. Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3,1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2,1918. Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide, with the exception of Oceania. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe, with the exception of the Camaro, Chevrolet vehicles will continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, in North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Durant was cast out from the management of General Motors in 1910 for five years and he took over the Flint Wagon Works, incorporating the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick Motor Company prior to founding GM, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races, Durant planned to use Chevrolets reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. Actual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, the first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However the first actual production wasnt until the 1913 model, so in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only the 1 pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show, Chevrolet first used the bowtie emblem logo in 1914 on the H series models and The L Series Model. It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room, more recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the Coalettes coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12,1911, others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolets parents. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, Louis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1917, Durant became president of General Motors, in 1919, Chevrolets factories were located at Flint, Michigan, branch assembly locations were located in Tarrytown, N. Y. Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, mcLaughlins were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article Sept.23,1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919
29.
Oldsmobile
–
Oldsmobile was a brand of American automobiles produced for most of its existence by General Motors. Olds Motor Vehicle Co. was founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897, in its 107-year history, it produced 35.2 million cars, including at least 14 million built at its Lansing, Michigan factory. When it was phased out in 2004, Oldsmobile was the oldest surviving American automobile marque, though it was discontinued in 2004, it still remains an active trademark of the General Motors Company. The closing of the Oldsmobile division presaged a larger consolidation of GM brands, Oldsmobiles were first manufactured by the Olds Motor Vehicle Co. in Lansing, Michigan, a company founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897. In 1901, the company produced 425 cars, making it the first high-volume gasoline-powered automobile manufacturer, Oldsmobile became the top selling car company in the United States for a few years around 1903-4. Ransom Olds left the company in 1904 because of a dispute, the 1901 to 1904 Oldsmobile Curved Dash was the first mass-produced car, made from the first automotive assembly line, an invention that is often miscredited to Henry Ford and the Ford Motor Company. By March 1901, the company had a line of models ready for mass production. However, a mistake by a worker caused the factory to catch fire, the only car that survived the fire was a Curved Dash prototype, which was wheeled out of the factory by two workers while escaping the fire. A new factory was built in Lansing, and production of the Curved Dash commenced, officially, the cars were called Olds automobiles, but were colloquially referred to as Oldsmobiles. It was this moniker, as applied especially to the Curved Dash Olds, the last Oldsmobile Curved Dash was made in 1907. General Motors purchased the company in 1908, the 1910 Limited Touring was a high point for the company. Riding atop 42-inch wheels, and equipped with white tires. The Limited retailed for US$4,600, an amount greater than the purchase of a new, buyers received goatskin upholstery, a 60 hp 707 CID straight-six engine, Bosch Magneto starter, running boards and room for five. Options included a speedometer, clock, and a glass windshield. A limousine version was priced at $5,800, in 1926, the Oldsmobile Six came in five body styles, and ushered in a new GM bodystyle platform called the GM B platform, shared with Buick products. In 1929, as part of General Motors companion make program, Oldsmobile introduced the higher standard Viking brand, Viking was discontinued already at the end of the 1930 model year although an additional 353 cars were marketed as 1931 models. This transmission features a conventional clutch pedal, which the driver presses before selecting either low or high range, in low, the car shifts between first and second gears. In high, the car shifts among first, third and fourth gears, for the 1940 model, Oldsmobile was the first auto manufacturer to offer a fully automatic transmission, called the Hydramatic, which features four forward speeds
30.
Camshaft
–
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC, the camshaft was later described in Turkey by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, the cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly earlier. In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves and it consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include, Chilled iron castings, Commonly used in volume production. Other elements are added to the iron casting to make the material more suitable for its application. Billet Steel, When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders and this is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production, different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding and it gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines, the relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, for this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost, the frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent, where gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a life span and must be replaced regularly. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil, some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors, honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750 due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive
31.
Minneapolis
–
Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
32.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
