1.
Thoth
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Thoth or Djehuti was one of the deities of the Egyptian pantheon. In art, he was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Maat, Thoths chief temple was located in the city of Khmun, later called Hermopolis Magna during the Greco-Roman era and Shmounein in the Coptic rendering, and was partially destroyed in 1826 CE. In that city, he led the Ogdoad pantheon of eight principal deities and he also had numerous shrines within the cities of Abydos, Hesert, Urit, Per-Ab, Rekhui, Ta-ur, Sep, Hat, Pselket, Talmsis, Antcha-Mutet, Bah, Amen-heri-ab, and Ta-kens. Thoth played many vital and prominent roles in Egyptian mythology, such as maintaining the universe, the final -y may even have been pronounced as a consonant, not a vowel. According to Theodor Hopfner, Thoths Egyptian name written as ḏḥwty originated from ḏḥw, the addition of -ty denotes that he possessed the attributes of the ibis. Hence his name means He who is like the ibis, Djehuty is sometimes alternatively rendered as Jehuti, Jehuty, Tahuti, Tehuti, Zehuti, Techu, or Tetu. Greek versions Thot, Thout and Thoth are derived from the letters ḏḥwty, not counting differences in spelling, Thoth had many names and titles, like other goddesses and gods. Among the names used are A, Sheps, Lord of Khemennu, Asten, Khenti, Mehi, Hab, in addition, Thoth was also known by specific aspects of himself, for instance the moon god Iah-Djehuty, representing the Moon for the entire month. The Greeks related Thoth to their god Hermes due to his similar attributes, One of Thoths titles, Thrice great was translated to the Greek τρισμέγιστος, making Hermes Trismegistus. Thoth has been depicted in many ways depending on the era, usually, he is depicted in his human form with the head of an ibis. In this form, he can be represented as the reckoner of times, when depicted as a form of Shu or Ankher, he was depicted to be wearing the respective gods headdress. Sometimes he was seen in art to be wearing the Atef crown or the United Crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. When not depicted in this form, he sometimes takes the form of the ibis directly. He also appears as a baboon or a man with the head of a baboon when he is Aan. In the form of Aah-Djehuty he took a more human-looking form and these forms are all symbolic and are metaphors for Thoths attributes. The Egyptians did not believe these gods actually looked like humans with animal heads, for example, Maat is often depicted with an ostrich feather, the feather of truth, on her head, or with a feather for a head. Thoths roles in Egyptian mythology were many and he served as a mediating power, especially between good and evil, making sure neither had a decisive victory over the other
2.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
3.
Giza
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Giza, is the third-largest city in Egypt. It is located on the west bank of the Nile,5 km southwest of central Cairo, along with Cairo Governorate, Shubra El-Kheima, Helwan, 6th October City and Obour, the five form Greater Cairo metropolis. The city of Giza is the capital of the Giza Governorate and it is located right on the banks of the River Nile. The citys population was 2,681,863 in the 2006 national census and its large population made it the worlds second largest suburb in 2006, tied with Incheon, South Korea and Quezon City, Philippines, second only to Yokohama, Japan. Giza has always been a point in Egypts history due to its location close to Memphis. Its St. George cathedral is the see of the Coptic Catholic Eparchy of Giza. The Great Pyramid of Giza at one time was advocated as the location for the Prime Meridian, a reference point used for determining a base longitude. Mn Nefer, which means the wall in the ancient Egyptian language. Gizas most famous site, the Giza Plateau, holds some major monuments of Egyptian history. Once thriving with the Nile that flowed right into the Giza Plateau, the Giza Plateau is also home to Egyptian monuments such as the tomb of Pharaoh Djet of the First Dynasty, as well as that of Pharaoh Ninetjer of the Second Dynasty. The area in what is now Giza served as the necropolis of several pharaohs who ruled ancient Egypt, Three of these tombs, in the form of giant pyramids, are what is now the famed Three Pyramids of Giza. As ancient Egypt passed under several conquests under the Persians, Greeks, Romans and Byzantines, a Byzantine village named Teresa, located south of Giza, existed before the Muslim conquest of the region. A year later in 642 AD, they founded the city of Giza and its name, al-Jizzah in Arabic, means the valley or the plateau, pertaining to the areas topography. Giza has seen changes over time. Giza is a centre of Egyptian culture and is quite heavily populated, with many facilities. Giza saw much attention in particular to its vast amount of ancient Egyptian monuments found on the Giza Plateau, gizas infrastructure saw much attention from both the British government prior to the 1952 coup détat, as well as the current Egyptian government due to the citys importance in tourism. The city hosts the first zoo on the entire African continent and one of the oldest in the Mediterranean region, in addition, there are several parks, the most famous among them is Orman Park, which means Forest Park in the Turkish language. Giza has advanced level of medical care just like its elder twin Cairo, a list of famous hospitals in Giza, Agooza in Agouza district
4.
Giza Governorate
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Giza Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. It is in the center of the country, situated on the west bank of the Nile River opposite Cairo and its capital is the city of Giza. The Giza Governorate is also home to the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, according to population estimates from 2015 the majority of residents in the governorate live in urban areas, with an urbanization rate of 58. 6%. Out of an estimated 7,585,115 people residing in the governorate,4,446,805 people lived in areas as opposed to only 3,138,310 in rural areas. It is located in the Giza pyramid complex, in a program that began on August 28,2012, the European Union invested 40 million Euros on upgrading the infrastructure of informal areas in Giza Governorate. Media related to Giza Governorate at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Nile
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The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It is generally regarded as the longest river in the world, in particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan. The Nile has two tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is considered to be the headwaters and primary stream of the Nile itself, the Blue Nile, however, is the source of most of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa and it flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast, the two rivers meet just north of the Sudanese capital of Khartoum. The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Sudanese desert to Egypt, then ends in a large delta, Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, in the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥpī or Iteru, meaning river. In Coptic, the words piaro or phiaro meaning the river come from the ancient name. The English name Nile and the Arabic names en-Nîl and an-Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος, beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. One possible etymology derives it from a Semitic Nahal, meaning river, the standard English names White Nile and Blue Nile, to refer to the rivers source, derive from Arabic names formerly applied only to the Sudanese stretches which meet at Khartoum. Above Khartoum, the Nile is also known as the White Nile, at Khartoum the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia, both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift. The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers, the source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake has feeder rivers of considerable size. It is either the Ruvyironza, which emerges in Bururi Province, Burundi, or the Nyabarongo, the two feeder rivers meet near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda-Tanzania border. Gish Abay is reportedly the place where the water of the first drops of the Blue Nile develop. The Nile leaves Lake Nyanza at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda and it flows north for some 130 kilometers, to Lake Kyoga. For the remaining part it flows westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the very northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta
8.
Cairo
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Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Cairo has long been a center of the political and cultural life. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the worlds second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city, with a population of 6.76 million spread over 453 square kilometers, Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other mega-cities, suffers from high levels of pollution, Cairos metro, one of only two in Africa, ranks among the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr, the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the citys importance for the country. In Coptic the city is known as Kahire, meaning Place of the Sun, possibly referring to the ancient city of Heliopolis, the location of the ancient city is the suburb of Ain Shams. The ancient Egyptian name for the area is thought to be Khere-Ohe, The Place of Combat, sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro. The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis, had long been a point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance and this fortress, known as Babylon, remained the nucleus of the Roman, and, later, the Byzantine, city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, many of Cairos oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo. Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt, in 750, following the overthrow of the Ummayad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar as it was laid out like a military camp, a rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qattai, to the north of Fustat and closer to the river, Al Qattai was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun. In 905 the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their returned to Fustat
9.
Al-Azhar University
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Al-Azhar University is a university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Mosque in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypts oldest degree-granting university and is renowned as Sunni Islam’s most prestigious university, in addition to higher education, Al-Azhar oversees a national network of schools with approximately two million students. As of 1996, over 4000 teaching institutes in Egypt were affiliated with the University and it was one of the first universities in the world, and the only one in the Arabic world to survive as a modern university including secular subjects in the curriculum. Today it is the centre of Arabic literature and Islamic learning in the world. In 1961 additional non-religious subjects were added to its curriculum and its mission is to propagate Islam and Islamic culture. To this end, its Islamic scholars render edicts on disputes submitted to them all over the Sunni Islamic world regarding proper conduct for Muslim individuals. Al-Azhar also trains Egyptian government-appointed preachers in proselytization and its library is considered second in importance in Egypt only to the Egyptian National Library and Archives. Fatimah, was called Al-Zahra, and it was named in her honor and it was founded as mosque by the Fatimid commander Jawhar at the orders of the Caliph and Ismaili Imam Al-Muizz as he founded the city for Cairo. It was in Jamadi al-Awwal in the year 359 A. H and its building was completed on the 9th of Ramadan in the year 361 A. H. Both Al-Aziz Billah and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah added to its premises and it was further repaired, renovated and extended by Al-Mustansir Billah and Al-Hafiz Li-Din-illah. Studies began at Al-Azhar in the month of Ramadan,975, according to Syed Farid Alatas, the Jamiah had faculties in Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, Islamic philosophy, and logic. The Fatimids gave attention to the studies at the time when rulers in other countries declared those who were engaged in philosophical pursuits as apostates. The Greek thought found a reception with the Fatimids who expanded the boundaries of such studies. They paid much attention to philosophy and gave support to everyone who was known for being engaged in the study of any branch of philosophy and these books were destroyed by Salah-ud-Din Ayyubi. An Islamic womens faculty was added in the same year. Al-Azhar has a membership that represents the schools of Al-Ashari and Al-Maturidi, the four schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. Al-Azhar has had a relationship with Wahhabism and Salafism. Although al-Azhar is not monolithic, its identity has been associated with Sufism
10.
Fuad I of Egypt
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Fuad I was the Sultan and later King of Egypt and Sudan, Sovereign of Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur. The ninth ruler of Egypt and Sudan from the Muhammad Ali dynasty, he became Sultan of Egypt and Sudan in 1917 and he substituted the title of King for Sultan when the United Kingdom recognised Egyptian independence in 1922. His name is sometimes spelled Fouad, Fuad was born in Giza Palace in Cairo, the seventh son of Ismail the Magnificent. He spent his childhood with his father in Naples. He got his education from the academy in Turin, Italy. Prior to becoming sultan, Fuad had played a role in the establishment of Cairo University. He became the universitys first rector in 1908, and remained in the post until his resignation in 1913 and he was succeeded as rector by then-minister of Justice Hussein Rushdi Pasha. In 1913, Fuad made unsuccessful attempts to secure the throne of Albania for himself, at the time, Egypt and Sudan was ruled by his nephew, Abbas II, and the likelihood of Fuad becoming the monarch in his own country seemed remote. This, and the fact that the Muhammad Ali dynasty was of Albanian descent, Fuad also served as President of the Egyptian Geographic Society from 1915 until 1918. Fuad came under consideration as a candidate for the Albanian throne and he ascended the throne of the Sultanate of Egypt upon the death of his brother Hussein Kamel in 1917. In the aftermath of the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, the United Kingdom ended its protectorate over Egypt, on 15 March 1922, Fuad issued a decree changing his title from Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt. In 1930, he attempted to strengthen the power of the Crown by abrogating the 1923 Constitution, large scale public dissatisfaction compelled him to restore the earlier constitution in 1935. The 1923 Constitution granted Fuad vast powers and he made frequent use of his right to dissolve Parliament. During his reign, cabinets were dismissed at royal will, Fuad was an instrumental force in modern Egyptian historiography. Fuad married his first wife in Cairo,30 May 1895 at the Abbasiya Palace in Cairo,14 February 1896 and she was his cousin and the only daughter of Field Marshal Prince Ibrahim Fahmi Ahmad Pasha. They had two children, a son, Ismail Fuad, who died in infancy, and a daughter, unhappily married, the couple divorced in 1898. During a dispute with the brother of his first wife, Fuad was shot in the throat and he survived, but carried that scar the rest of his life. Fuad married his wife at the Bustan Palace in Cairo on 24 May 1919
11.
Egyptian revolution of 1952
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The Egyptian revolution of 1952, also known as the July 23 revolution, began on July 23,1952, by the Free Officers Movement, a group of army officers led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. The revolution was aimed at overthrowing King Faruq. The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly nationalist, anti-imperialist agenda, which came to be expressed chiefly through Arab nationalism, the ongoing state of war with Israel also posed a serious challenge, as the Free Officers increased Egypts already strong support of the Palestinians. These two issues conflated four years after the revolution when Egypt was invaded by Britain, France and this strengthened the appeal of the revolution in other Arab and African countries. By the 1960s, Arab socialism had become a dominant theme and these restrictions on political activity would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar Sadat from 1970 onwards, during which many of the policies of the revolution were scaled back or reversed. It also inspired the toppling of existing pro-Western monarchies and governments in the region, the revolution is commemorated each year on July 23. The revolution in 1952 found its genesis within the voice of the people and it was first time for Egyptians to rule since time of Pharaohs. The new regime was common to all Egyptians in terms of religion, culture, the end of monarchy signaled an end for British intervention. A government that is 100 percent consisting of Egyptians was expected to act in favor of society, a mixture of agrarian capitalism and feudalism initiated the anti-feudal coup. The Egyptian economy was capitalist since last quarter of the 19th century, the loss of the 1948 war with Israel led to the Free Officers accusations of corruption towards the King and his court and the promotion of that feeling among the Egyptian people. The Free Officers Movement was formed by a group of reform minded officers which, backed by the Soviet Union and they used an army general, Muhammad Naguib, as its head to show their seriousness and attract more army followers. You manifested this during and after the Palestine War in the corrupt arms scandals and your open interference in the courts to try to falsify the facts of the case, thus shaking faith in justice. The army places upon Your Majesty the burden of everything that may result from failure to abdicate according to the wishes of the people. Causes • The Egyptian monarchy was seen as corrupt and pro-British, with its lavish lifestyle that seemed provocative to the free officers movement who lived in poverty. Its policies completed the image of the Egyptian government being a puppet-figure in the hands of the British government, • Promoting the feeling of corruptness of several Egyptian institutions such as the police, the palace and even the political parties by the free officers. • The loss of 1948 war with Israel led to the free officers blame of the King, as a result, a group of army officers who named themselves the free officers movement was formed by a young officer named Gamal Abdel Nasser. They used a general, Mohamed Naguib, as its head to show seriousness. You manifested this during and after the Palestine War in the corrupt arms scandals and your open interference in the courts to try to falsify the facts of the case, thus shaking faith in justice
12.
Khedive
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The term Khedive is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha, the governor of Egypt and Sudan. The initially self-declared title was recognized by the Ottoman government in 1867, and used subsequently by Ismail Pasha. From the compound khvat-data-, literally created from oneself, from khvat-, however, upon the French defeat and departure, Muhammad Ali seized control of the country, and declared himself ruler of Egypt, quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, however, demonstrating his grander ambitions, he claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive, as did his successors, Ibrahim Pasha, Abbas I, and Said I. The Muhammad Ali dynasty’s use of the title Khedive was not sanctioned by the Ottoman Empire until 1867 when Sultan Abdülaziz officially recognized it as the title of Ismail Pasha. In May 1879, the British Empire and France began pressuring the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II to depose Ismail Pasha, the more pliable Tewfik Pasha, Ismails son, was made his successor as the new Khedive. Ismail Pasha left Egypt and initially went into exile to Naples, there he remained, more or less a state prisoner, until his death. He was later buried in Cairo, after the nationalist Urabi Revolt of 1882, Britain invaded Egypt in support of Tewfik Pasha, and would continue to occupy and dominate the country for decades. Hussein Kamel and later Fuad I issued a series of orders to strip Abbas Hilmi Pasha, their nephew, of property in Egypt and Sudan. These also barred Abbas Hilmi Pasha from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts, Abbas Hilmi Pasha finally accepted the new order of things and formally abdicated on May 12,1931. He retired to Switzerland, where he died in Geneva on December 19,1944, with Article 17 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Turkey formally ceded all remaining claims and rights in Egypt and Sudan. Khedivate of Egypt Khedive Palace Muhammad Ali Dynasty List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors Etymonline RoyalArk- Egypt
13.
Sudan
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Sudan, also known as North Sudan since South Sudans independence and officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northern Africa. It is the third largest country in Africa, the River Nile divides the country into eastern and western halves. Before the Sudanese Civil War, South Sudan was part of Sudan, Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished along the Nile. During the pre-dynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, by virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 15th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa and also the third largest country in the Arab world and its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a representative democratic federal republic. The politics of Sudan are regulated by an organization called the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law, the countrys place name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, or the lands of the Blacks, during the fifth millennium BC migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the centuries become the Kingdom of Kush at 1700 BC. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and it was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all the way to the Sinai, pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sennacheribs successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa, Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an Assyrian colony, however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his successor Ashurbanipal sent an army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani. During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroë, in ancient Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia
14.
Sa'id of Egypt
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Muhammad Said Pasha was the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan from 1854 until 1863, officially owing fealty to the Ottoman Sultan but in practice exercising virtual independence. He was the son of Muhammad Ali Pasha. Said was a Francophone, educated in Paris, under Saids rule there were several law, land and tax reforms. Some modernization of Egyptian and Sudanese infrastructure also occurred using western loans, in 1854 the first act of concession of land for the Suez Canal was granted, to a French businessman Ferdinand de Lesseps. The British opposed a Frenchman building the canal and persuaded the Ottoman Empire to deny its permission for two years, Sudan had been conquered by his father in 1821 and incorporated into his Egyptian realm, mainly in order to seize slaves for his army. Slave raids also ventured beyond Sudan into Kordofan and Ethiopia, facing European pressure to abolish official Egyptian slave raids in the Sudan, Said issued a decree banning raids. Freelance slave traders ignored his decree, when the American Civil War brought a cotton famine, the export of Egyptian cotton surged during Saids rule to become the main source for European mills. At the behest of Napoleon III in 1863, Said dispatched part of a Sudanese battalion to put down a rebellion against the Second Mexican Empire. Under Saids rule the influence of sheikhs was curbed and many Bedouin reverted to nomadic raiding, in 1854 he established the Bank of Egypt. In the same year Egypts first standard gauge railway was opened, in addition, he founded the Medjidieh, a precursor to the Khedivial Mail Line. Saids heir presumptive, Ahmad Rifaat, drowned in 1858 at Kafr el-Zayyat when a train on which he was travelling fell off a car float into the Nile. Therefore, when Said died in January 1863 he was succeeded by his nephew Ismail, the Mediterranean port of Port Said is named after him. He married twice, to a first wife Inji Hanimefendi without issue, and to a second wife Melekber Hanimefendi with two sons, Muhammad Toussoun Pasha and Mahmoud Pasha
15.
Dar al-Ulum
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Dar al-Ulum, is an educational institution designed to produce students with both an Islamic and modern secondary education. It was founded in 1871 and is now a faculty of Cairo University and it began as a means to introduce those in mosque colleges to new knowledge emanating from the West. Its graduates include activists like Hasan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brothers group and Sayyid Qutb, kinsey, “Efforts for Educational Synthesis under Colonial Rule, Egypt and Tunisia, ” Comparative Education Review, Vol.15, No. Muhammad Abd al-Jawwad, Taqwim Dar al-ʿUlum, p.6, Ibrahim Salama, Lenseignement islamique en Egypte, p.254, Robert L. Tignor, Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 1882-1914, David C. I, p.94, Douglas Dunlop, Note on the Progress and Condition of Public Instruction in Egypt in 1913, pp. 17–18, Sir Eldon Gorst, Annual Report for 1907, House of Commons Sessional Papers, Egypt
16.
John Scott (English judge)
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Sir John Scott was an English judge who became, amongst other titles, Deputy Judge Advocate-General and later Judicial Advisor to H. H. the Khedive in his adopted home Egypt. He was also known as a cricketer in his youth, active from 1861 to 1863 when he played for Oxford University, Scott was born in Standishgate Wigan to Edward Scott, a solicitor, and his first wife Annie Glover. After the death of his wife Edward Scott married Laura Hill and they had a further two sons and two daughters. From 1852 to 1860 Scott was educated at his stepmothers family concern and his sons, who all taught there at some point, went on to reform some aspect of Victorian life, from prisons, the postal service to envelopes. Her father Arthur was headmaster during Scott’s time at Bruce Castle, matriculating at Pembroke College, Oxford, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1864 and became a Master of Arts in 1869. It was during this time his talent as a left-handed fast bowler brought him recognition and he appeared in four first-class matches as a left-handed fast bowler. He scored four runs with a highest score of 2 and took 11 wickets with a best performance of five in one innings, called to the bar by the Inner Temple on 17 November 1865, he joined the northern circuit. He wrote on questions for The Times, the Law Quarterly and other periodicals. A heart condition hampered him through life so for a few months in 1871-72 he went to the French Riviera, while there he mastered French, Italian and the French legal system. At the end of 1872 he moved to Alexandria on medical advice to resume his profession, as Egypt’s legal system ran on similar lines to the French and Italian ones the knowledge he had acquired in France became invaluable. He established a practice at the British Consular Court. In the following October the Khedive, Ismail Pasha, conferred on him the Order of the Osmanie which was awarded to civil servants. He also took an interest in the conditions of the farmers and labourers known as the fellaheen, using his influence to suppress slavery. The end of 1882 Scott was appointed judge of the high court of Bombay. Again he quickly mastered the customs and usages of Indian law whilst continuing writing for the local and London press, frequently noticing Egyptian affairs. The diary of his wife published as An Indian Journal edited by their grandson, John Radford, covers the aspects of their life in India, one trial she mentioned was about a pair of brothers, in her entry for 30 March 1884. In this week’s Spectator there is a paragraph on a judgement John gave a few days ago. It was a case in which some brothers, who had been outcast, agreed to pay a large sum of money in order to be readmitted into their caste
17.
Louis Massignon
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Louis Massignon was a Catholic scholar of Islam and a pioneer of Catholic- Muslim mutual understanding. He was a figure in the twentieth century with regard to the Catholic churchs relationship with Islam. He focused increasingly on the work of Mahatma Gandhi, whom he considered a saint and he was also influential, among Catholics, for Islam being accepted as an Abrahamic Faith. Louis Massignon was born in Nogent-sur-Marne near Paris, France and his father, Fernand Massignon, a painter and a sculptor under the pseudonym Pierre Roche, was an intimate friend of novelist Joris-Karl Huysmans. Huysmans own conversion to Roman Catholicism was one of the first major inspirations of the young Louis in a friendly relationship that lasted from 1901 till Huysmans death in 1907. Louis Massignon started his studies at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris where he befriended his classmate Henri Maspero, later a renowned sinologist. In 1902, he continued his studies, graduating licencié ès-lettres on an essay on Honoré dUrfé and embarking on the first of his many Arab subjects, the corporations of Fez in the 15th century. Exploring the sources of his study in Morocco in 1904 he vowed to himself to the study of Arabic after a dangerous confrontation in the desert. In 1906, he received his diplome détudes supèrieures on the strength of his study Tableau géographique du Maroc dans les 15 prémieres années du 16ième siecle, in 1907, he was sent on an archeological mission to Mesopotamia. In Baghdad he was the guest of the great Muslim family of the Alusi and it was the Alusi who saved him from a very dangerous situation in the desert when in 1908—during the ferment of the Turkish revolution—he was captured as a spy and almost killed. Yet he also experienced this visitation as a liberation from his captivity, and he himself interpreted the state of delirium as a reaction of brain to the forced conversion of soul. He recovered rapidly from his illness, had a spiritual experience and travelled to Beirut accompanied by an Iraqi Carmelite priest. In Beirut, he made a confession to Père Anastase, thus confirming his conversion to Catholicism, thus, his conversion provided a firm basis for his lifelong association with the latter. However, Massignon did not follow Foucaulds invitation to him in his life as a hermit among the Tuareg in Tamanrasset. Instead, in January 1914, he married a cousin, Marcelle Dansaert-Testelin and they both shared the same sense of honour and betrayal after the collapse of the Arab-Anglo-French relationship on the disclosure of the Balfour Declaration. On June 15,1919, Massignon was provisionally appointed to the Chair of Muslim Sociology and Sociography at the Collège de France in Paris, as a successor to its creator and he was finally given the chair in January 1926, when Le Chatelier retired. His four-volume doctoral thesis on Hallaj appeared in 1922 and it was criticized by many as giving prominence to a relatively marginal figure in Islam, especially sharp criticism appears in Edward Saids Orientalism. Likewise, his openness for Islam was seen with skeptical eyes by many Catholics
18.
College and university rankings
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College and university rankings are rankings of institutions in higher education ordered by various combinations of various factors. Rankings have most often conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research. Some rankings evaluate institutions within a country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings usefulness and accuracy, the expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field. The variety of academic rankings provide an overview and insightful overlook of different academic institutions on composite capabilities in academia. For rankings of United States universities in particular, see Rankings of universities in the United States, several organizations produce worldwide university rankings, including the following. The ranking is funded by the Chinese government and its purpose was to measure the gap between Chinese and world class universities. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities there are no Chinese universities in the first 100 of 500 places, ARWU rankings have been cited by The Economist magazine. It has been lauded for being consistent and transparent based on an article, the education ministers of France, Norway and Denmark traveled to China to discuss and find ways to improve their rankings. ARWU does not rely on surveys and school submissions, among other criteria, ARWU includes the number of articles published by Nature or Science and the number of Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists. Harvard has topped the ranking for years, one of the primary criticisms of ARWUs methodology is that it is biased towards the natural sciences and English language science journals over other subjects. This Saudi Arabia-based consulting organization has published rankings of world universities since 2012. This university ranking is owned by the French consulting company and rating agency SMBG and it ranks masters and MBA in its 9 geographical regions. G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of only from other university websites. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each universitys website from the perspectives of other institutions. The annual U. S. News Best Global Universities rankings were produced to provide insight into how universities compare globally. The Best Global Universities rankings also provide insight into how U. S. universities – which U. S. News has been ranking separately for more than 30 years – stand globally
19.
Academic Ranking of World Universities
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Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as Shanghai Ranking, is an annual publication of university rankings by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy. The publication currently includes worlds overall and subject league tables, alongside independent regional Greater China Ranking, ARWU is regarded as one of the three most influential and widely observed university measures, alongside QS World University Rankings and Times Higher Education World University Rankings. It is praised for its objective methodology but draws some condemnation for narrowly focusing on raw power, undermining humanities. ARWU is praised by media and institutions for its methodology. A survey on higher education published by The Economist in 2005 commented ARWU as the most widely used annual ranking of the research universities. In 2010, The Chronicle of Higher Education called ARWU the best-known, EU Research Headlines reported the ARWUs work on 31 December 2003, The universities were carefully evaluated using several indicators of research performance. Chancellor of University of Oxford, Chris Patten and former Vice-Chancellor of Australian National University, Ian Chubb, said and it looks like a pretty good stab at a fair comparison. And The SJTU rankings were reported quickly and widely around the offer an important comparative view of research performance. Philip G. Altbach named ARWUs consistency, clarity of purpose, whilst ARWU has originated in China, the ranking have been praised for being unbiased towards Asian institutions. Like all other rankings, ARWU has criticism and it is condemned for relying too much on award factors thus undermining the importance of quality of instruction and humanities. A2007 paper published in the journal Scientometrics found that the results from the Shanghai rankings could not be reproduced from raw data using the described by Liu. A2013 paper in the journal finally showed how the Shanghai ranking results could be reproduced. In a report from April 2009, J-C, billaut, D. Bouyssou and Ph. Vincke analyse how the ARWU works, using their insights as specialists of Multiple Criteria Decision Making. The ARWU researchers themselves, N. C Liu and Y Cheng, think that the quality of universities cannot be measured by mere numbers. They suggest that university and college rankings should be used with caution, ARWU has been criticised by the European Commission as well as some EU member states for favour Anglo-Saxon higher education institutions. It is also criticised in France for its use as a motivation for fusing universities into larger ones, indeed, number of publications or award winners will mechanically add as universities are grouped, independently of research quality. The weighting of all the other remains unchanged, thus the grand total of 70%. There are two categories in ARWUs disciplinary rankings, broad subject fields and specific subjects, the methodology is similar to that adopted in the overall table, including award factors, paper citation, and the number of highly cited scholars
20.
School of Law
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
21.
School of Medicine
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A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Doctor of Medicine, many medical schools offer additional degrees, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, Masters degree, a physician assistant program, or other post-secondary education. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers and operate hospitals, around the world, criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably. Medical schools are highly competitive, using standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point average and leadership roles. In most countries, the study of medicine is completed as a degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework. However, a number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses. In the United States and Canada, almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees, many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum. More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks, in preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequent clinical rotations usually include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, although medical schools confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a background check, checking references, paying a fee. Basic Medical education lasts 6 years in all the medical schools, Entry into these medical schools are highly competitive and it is usually based on successful completion of the Senior High School Examinations. The University of Ghana Medical School has however introduced a graduate medical program to admit students with mainly science-related degrees into a 4-year medical school program. Students graduating from any of these schools get the MBChB degree. For the First 3 years Students are awarded BSc in the field of Medical science for University of Ghana medical school, Medical graduates are then registered provisionally with the Medical and Dental Council of Ghana as House Officers. Upon completion of the mandatory 2-year housemanship, these doctors are permanently registered with the MDC. Medical officers are sometimes hired by the Ghana Health Service to work in the Districts/Rural areas as Primary Care Physicians. In Kenya, medical school is a faculty of a university, Medical education lasts for 5 years after which the student graduates with an undergraduate degree. The first two years of medical school cover the medical sciences while the last four years are focused on the clinical sciences
22.
Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed
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Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed or Aḥmad Luṭfī Sayyid Pasha was an Egyptian intellectual, anti-colonial activist and the first director of Cairo University. He was a person in the Egyptian nationalist movement and used his position in the media to strive. He was also one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism as well as the architect of Egyptian secularism and liberalism and he was fondly known as the Professor of the Generation. Lutfi was one of the fiercest opponents of pan-Arabism, insisting that Egyptians are Egyptians and he is considered one of the most influential scholars and intellectuals in the history of Egypt. Lutfi was born in the village of Berqin, near Al Senbellawein in the Dakahlia Governorate on 15 January 1872. He was educated in a traditional kuttāb, a government school in Manṣūra, the Khedivial Secondary School in Cairo, while at law school, Al-Sayyid made contact with influential people such as Muhammad Abduh and Hassuna al-Nawawi. Abduh played a role in Lutfis experience with his reformist movement as well as his ideology concerning politics. After graduating from law school, Lutfi entered the department of government services and worked there until 1905. Lutfi became editor-in-chief of a newspaper called al-Jarida in 1907, the paper was prominent for writing enlightened and liberal materials and attracted the attention of many liberal activists. The writings Lutfi composed for al-Jarida during his time as editor-in-chief are considered his most important, the Denshawai incident was a violent clash that occurred in June 1906 between Egyptian peasants in the village of Denshaway and British soldiers who were pigeon hunting in the area. The British had occupied Egypt in 1882 and used British soldiers to put down the Urabi Rebellion. On June 13,1906, five British officers were hunting for pigeons in Denshaway, the hunt was approved, but the headsman was not with the officers. They shot pigeons belonging to villagers, angering the owners, the major catalyst was the accidental shooting of the wife of the prayer leader at the local mosque. Enraged, the Egyptians mobbed the British officers and camp, the British officers opened fire on the villagers, wounded five, and set fire to the grain of Abd-el-Nebi. Abd-el-Nebi, whose wife had been injured, struck one of the officers with a stick. He was joined by the elderly Hassan Mahfouz, whose pigeons had been killed, other villagers threw stones at them. The officers surrendered their weapons, along with their watches and money, two officers escaped, one of whom managed to contact the British Army, the other died of heatstroke some distance from the village. An Egyptian peasant who tried to help the man was killed by soldiers who came across them
23.
Husayn Fawzi Alnajjar
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Husayn Fawzi Al-Najjar was born on November 16,1918 in Egypt. He was graduated in 1940 from Fuad Al Awwal University, where he studied History and that same year, he graduated from the Royal Military College - Reserve Forces. His class of graduates were the first from the Reserve Forces to become army officers and he also attended the Institute of Journalism and the Institute of Education at Fuad Al Awal University. From 1941–1942, he embarked on a career as an army officer, from 1950 to 1954, he taught national history at the Royal Military College. In 1952, he played a role in the Egyptian coup d’état. From 1954 to 1961, he undertook a role and. He also became the Head of Media for the League of Arab States and he later became an adviser to the Ministry of Education. In 1957, he completed his doctorate in journalism at Cairo University with first-class honors, at the same time he gained practical experience on the newspaper that had been founded by Ahmad Lutfi Al Sayyid, Al Jarida. He was regarded as an authority on matters on this pioneering newspaper. He later wrote a book, Lutfi al-Sayyid, the Teacher of a Generation. He was a disciple of Ahmad Lutfi Al Sayyid and Muhammad Husayn Haykal, indeed, Haykal wrote the introduction to Husayn Fawzi Al Najjars book Policy And Strategy In The Middle East, regarding it as a pioneering work in that field. Al-Najjar was becoming a figure in the field of policy. In 1958, he was awarded a Post-doctorate Fellowship degree from Harvard University in Political Science, although he officially retired in 1973, Dr. Al Najjar carried on his teaching work at various institutions, including Cairo University and Al Azhar University. He was also a human rights advocate and a member of the first registered body for human rights in Egypt. With a small number of like-minded intellectuals such as Tewfik Al Hakim and Yusif Al Sebaie, from 1994 until his death in 2003, Dr. Al Najjar suffered from a long illness that prevented him from continuing his scholarly work and activities. Variation in spelling of Dr El Naggars name Hussein, Husayn, Husain Fawzi, Fawzy El-Naggar, for his theory on history and biographies, he wrote Al Tarikh Wal Siyar published by Al Maktaba Al Thakafiya. تأليف حسين فوزي النجار. alimati by Helen Keller published by Dar al Maaref cairo 195. هيلين كيلر- - ترجمة الدكتور, بيانات النشر القاهرة, دار النهضة العربية،published by dar al nahda al arabiaya Cairo 195
24.
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
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Boutros Boutros-Ghali was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996. An academic and former Vice Foreign Minister of Egypt, Boutros-Ghali oversaw the UN at a time when it dealt with several crises, including the breakup of Yugoslavia. He was then the first Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie from 16 November 1997 to 31 December 2002, Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Christian family. His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali and his mother Safela Mikhail Sharubim was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim, a prominent public servant and historian. Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946 and he received a PhD in international law from the University of Paris and diploma in international relations from the Sciences Po in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University and he became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. In 1986 he received a doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University. He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, Boutros Boutros-Ghalis political career developed during the presidency of Anwar El Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union from 1974 to 1977 and he served as Egypts Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months moving to the UN. As Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, he played a part in the agreements between President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. He was serving as UN Secretary-General when the killings occurred four years later, elected in 1991 as Secretary-General, the top post of the UN, Boutros-Ghalis term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted An Agenda for Peace, a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict, one of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. His reputation became entangled in the controversies over the effectiveness of the UN. In 1996, ten Security Council members, led by African members Egypt, Guinea-Bissau and Botswana, sponsored a resolution backing Boutros-Ghali for a second five-year term, however, the United States vetoed a second term for him. Although not the first vetoed candidate, Boutros-Ghali was the only UN Secretary-General not to be elected to a term in office. He was succeeded at the UN by Kofi Annan, richard Clarke, Michael Sheehan and James Rubin participated in what they called Operation Orient Express. In the end Clinton was impressed that we had managed not only to oust Boutros-Ghali, richard Holbrooke wrote that the United States was opposed to Boutros-Ghali because of the latters reluctance on approving NATO bombing in Bosnia
25.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
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The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
26.
Taher Elgamal
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Taher Elgamal is an Egyptian cryptographer. The latter scheme became the basis for Digital Signature Algorithm adopted by National Institute of Standards and he also participated in the SET credit card payment protocol, plus a number of Internet payment schemes. Elgamal currently serves as the CTO, Security at Salesforce. com and he is a co-founder of NokNok Labs and InfoSec Global. He serves as a director of Vindicia, Inc. which provides online payment services, Zix Corporation and he has served as an advisor to Cyphort, BitGlass, Onset Ventures, Glenbrook Partners, PGP corporation, Arcot Systems, Finjan, Actiance, Symplified, and Zetta. He served as Chief Security Officer of Axway, Inc and he is vice chairman of SecureMisr. Elgamal is a recipient of the RSA Conference 2009 Lifetime Achievement Award, and he is recognized as the father of SSL, Elgamal has been issued several patents in online security, payments and data compression. Elgamal earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Cairo University in 1977, martin Hellman was his dissertation advisor. He joined the staff at HP Labs in 1984. He served as chief scientist at Netscape Communications from 1995 to 1998 where he was a force behind SSL. He also was the director of engineering at RSA Security Inc. before founding Securify in 1998, when Securify was acquired by Kroll-OGara, he became the president of its information security group. In 2008, Securify was acquired by Secure Computing and is now part of McAfee, in October 2006, he joined Tumbleweed Communications in a capacity of a Chief Technology Officer. Tumbleweed was acquired in 2008 by Axway Inc, serial Entrepreneur Interview with Sramana Mitra
27.
Wael Ghonim
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Wael Ghonim is an Internet activist and computer engineer with an interest in social entrepreneurship. In 2011, he became a figure and energized pro-democracy demonstrations in Egypt after his emotional interview. In 2011, He was nominated for Nobel Peace Prize, Time magazine included him in its Time 100 list of 100 most influential people of 2011, and the World Economic Forum have selected him as one of the Young Global Leaders in 2012. Wael is the author of Revolution 2.0, The power of people is greater than the people in power, in 2012, he founded Tahrir Academy, a technology focused NGO that aims at fostering education in Egypt. In 2015, Ghonim co-founded Parlio, a media platform that was acquired by Quora in March 2016. He is currently a non-resident senior fellow at Harvards Ash Center for Democratic Governance, Wael Ghonim was born to a middle-class family on 23 December 1980 in Cairo, Egypt, and grew up in Abha, Saudi Arabia, until he was 13 years old. He then moved back to live in Cairo and he earned a BS in computer engineering from Cairo University in 2004 and an MBA, with honors, in marketing and finance from the American University in Cairo in 2007. Between 2002 and 2005, Ghonim was Marketing and Sales Manager of Gawab, in 2005, Wael left Gawab to establish Mubasher. info a financial portal serving the Middle East region. Wael joined Google Middle East and North Africa as their Regional Marketing Manager in 2008 based at Google Egypt, in January 2010, Wael became Head of Marketing of Google Middle East and North Africa based at Googles UAE office in Dubai Internet City in Dubai. During the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, Wael took leave from Google to focus on his work in Egypt, in 2014, Wael joined Google Ventures as an Entrepreneur in Residence. In December 2014, he announced his resignation from Google Ventures, ghonims memoir Revolution 2.0, was published in January 2012 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in the U. S. and by HarperCollins in the UK. In 2010, Wael Ghonim founded a Facebook page titled We Are All Khaled Said, supporting Khaled Said, Wael Ghonim used this page in moving and integrating the anti-government protests of the 25th of Jan revolution. He first made an announcement on the page on 14 January, asking if they were going to plan on taking to the streets on 25 January. In less than 2 hours he published an event titled 25 يناير على التعذيب والفساد والظلم والبطالة and this was the first invitation and many others followed. He anonymously collaborated with activists on the ground to announce the locations for the protest, the page also organized interesting activities such as the Silent Stands and the Police Communication Campaign. In January 2011, Ghonim persuaded Google to allow him to return to Egypt and he came to Egypt to partake in the Egyptian revolution, but he disappeared on 27 January during the nationwide unrest in Egypt. His family told Al-Arabiya and other media that he was missing. Google also issued a statement confirming the disappearance, many bloggers like Chris DiBona and Habib Haddad campaigned in an attempt to identify his whereabouts
28.
Egyptian revolution of 2011
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The Egyptian revolution of 2011, locally known as the January 25 Revolution, began on 25 January 2011 and took place across all of Egypt. The date was set by various groups to coincide with the annual Egyptian police day as a statement against increasing police brutality during the last few years of Mubaraks presidency. It consisted of demonstrations, marches, occupations of plazas, non-violent civil resistance, acts of civil disobedience, millions of protesters from a range of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The revolution started by calls for protests from online youth groups, initially these included liberal, anti-capitalist, nationalist, and feminist elements, but they finally included Islamist elements as well. Violent clashes between security forces and protesters resulted in at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured, protesters retaliated by burning over 90 police stations across the country. The protests took place in Cairo, Alexandria and all cities across the nation. The protesters primary demands were the end of the Mubarak regime and emergency law, freedom, justice, a responsive non-military government, strikes by labour unions added to the pressure on government officials. During the uprising, the capital Cairo was described as a war zone, protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, which was impossible to enforce by the police and military. Egypts Central Security Forces, loyal to Mubarak, were replaced by military troops. In the chaos, there was some looting by gangs which was instigated by plainclothes police officers, in response, watch groups were organized by civilians to protect neighbourhoods. International reaction has varied, with most Western nations condoning peaceful protests but concerned about the stability of Egypt, the Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions have influenced demonstrations in other Arab countries, including Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan, Syria and Libya. Mubarak dissolved his government, appointing former head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate Omar Suleiman vice-president in an attempt to quell dissent, Mubarak asked aviation minister and former chief of Egypts air force Ahmed Shafik to form a new government. Mohamed ElBaradei became an opposition figure, with all major opposition groups supporting his role as negotiator for a transitional unity government. In response to mounting pressure, Mubarak in another attempt to contain the crisis announced he did not intend to seek re-election in September. On 11 February 2011 Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak would resign as president, the previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve as a caretaker government until a new one was formed. On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters and, if convicted. On 2 June 2012 Mubarak was found guilty of complicity in the murder of protesters and sentenced to imprisonment, but the sentence was overturned on appeal. A number of protesters, upset that others tried with Mubarak were acquitted, Mubarak was eventually cleared of all charges on 29 November 2014, although Egypts prosecutor general announced he would appeal the verdict
29.
Saddam Hussein
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Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries, the state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraqs economy to grow at a rapid pace, positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population. Saddam formally rose to power in 1979, although he had been the de facto head of Iraq for several years prior. He suppressed several movements, particularly Shia and Kurdish movements, seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence, and maintained power during the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Whereas some in the Arab world lauded Saddam for his opposition to the United States, the total number of Iraqis killed by the security services of Saddams government in various purges and genocides is unknown, but the lowest estimate is 250,000. Saddams Baath party was disbanded and elections were held, following his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted of charges of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shiites and his execution was carried out on 30 December 2006. His mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, named her newborn son Saddam and he is always referred to by this personal name, which may be followed by the patronymic and other elements. He never knew his father, Hussein Abd al-Majid, who disappeared six months before Saddam was born, shortly afterward, Saddams 13-year-old brother died of cancer. The infant Saddam was sent to the family of his maternal uncle Khairallah Talfah until he was three and his mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, at about age 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Kharaillah Talfah. Later in his relatives from his native Tikrit became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle he attended a high school in Baghdad. After secondary school Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Baath Party, during this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East, in Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites. Moreover, the nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Baathists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya
30.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
31.
Yuriko Koike
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Yuriko Koike is a Japanese politician who currently serves as the governor of Tokyo. On 31 July 2016, Koike was elected Governor of Tokyo, born and raised in Ashiya, Hyōgo, a wealthy Kobe suburb, Koike went to Kōnan Girls Junior and Senior High School for her secondary education. Her father, Yūjirō Koike, was a trade merchant who handled oil products. He was also involved in politics, supporting Shintarō Ishihara and the Tatenokai in the 1960s and his words convinced her to study in Egypt to master Arabic. She dropped out of Kwansei Gakuin Universitys School of Sociology in September 1971, the next year, she studied Arabic at the American University in Cairo and received a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology from Cairo University in October 1976. When she was 21, she married a fellow Japanese student and she began to work as an interpreter and translator of Arabic and later served as Secretary General of the Japan-Arab Association. Koike was elected to the House of Councillors in 1992 as a member of the Japan New Party and she was then elected to the House of Representatives in 1993, representing the Hyogo 2nd district. In 1996, she was re-elected to the House of Representatives and she held this seat in the 2000 election as a candidate of the New Conservative Party. She joined the Liberal Democratic Party in 2002 and she served as the Minister of the Environment and Minister of State for Okinawa and Northern Territories Affairs in the Cabinet of Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi. In order to break through the deadlock facing Japanese society, I believe the country might as well have a female candidate, hillary used the word glass ceiling. But in Japan, it isnt glass, its an iron plate, im not Mrs. Thatcher, but what is needed is a strategy that advances a cause with conviction, clear policies and sympathy with the people. In the leadership election, held on 22 September, Tarō Asō won with 351 of the 527 votes and she ultimately did not run, and Masuzoe won. After Masuzoe announced his resignation in June 2016, and Koike announced her intention to run in the election for his successor, Koike stated that she would run as an LDP lawmaker but did not obtain the approval of the Tokyo LDP chapter before announcing her candidacy. The LDP officially endorsed Hiroya Masuda, and its Tokyo chapter issued a notice that any members supporting Koike would be punished, nonetheless, several prominent LDP politicians continued to back Koike, while senior leaders such as Shinzo Abe refrained from making speeches in support of either candidate. On 31 July 2016, Koike was elected Governor of Tokyo, Koike supports economic liberalism, promotes administrative and budgetary reform, and insists on further advancement of the status of women in the working world. Her stated basic principles and stance regarding political reform is encompassed by The 5 Cs, Check, Challenge, Change, Creative, having learned a more environmental way of life from her own experience of wartime austerities in Egypt, Koike addresses environmental issues. She received the Japan Jewelry Best Dresser Award for her success in the Cool Biz and she expressed the idea of introducing a carbon tax in 2005 so that Japan might achieve the goals of the Kyoto Protocol. The next year, she inaugurated the Mottainai Furoshiki campaign, which urges shoppers to use furoshiki in place of shopping bags
32.
Japanese people
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Japanese people are an ethnic group native to Japan. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of the population of their country. Worldwide, approximately 129 million people are of Japanese descent, of these, people of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries are referred to as the Japanese diaspora. The term ethnic Japanese may also be used in some contexts to refer to ethnic groups, including the Yamato, Ainu. The Japanese language is a Japonic language that in the past was treated as a language isolate, the Japanese language has a tripartite writing system using Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji. Domestic Japanese people use primarily Japanese for daily interaction, the adult literacy rate in Japan exceeds 99%. Japanese religion has traditionally been syncretic in nature, combining elements of Buddhism, Shinto, a polytheistic religion with no book of religious canon, is Japans native religion. Mahayana Buddhism came to Japan in the century and evolved into many different sects. Today, the largest form of Buddhism among Japanese people is the Jōdo Shinshū sect founded by Shinran, most Japanese people profess to believe in both Shinto and Buddhism. Japanese peoples religion functions mostly as a foundation for mythology, traditions, Christianity in Japan is among the nations minority religions. Just under 2%, or about 2.5 million, of Japans population are Christians, many Japanese practice Christianity in the diaspora in Brazil, which is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan. About 60% of Japanese Brazilians are Roman Catholics, while 90% of Japanese Mexicans are Roman Catholic, certain genres of writing originated in and are often associated with Japanese society. These include the haiku, tanka, and I Novel, although modern writers generally avoid these writing styles, historically, many works have sought to capture or codify traditional Japanese cultural values and aesthetics. Twentieth-century Japanese writers recorded changes in Japanese society through their works, some of the most notable authors included Natsume Sōseki, Junichirō Tanizaki, Osamu Dazai, Yasunari Kawabata, Fumiko Enchi, Yukio Mishima, and Ryōtarō Shiba. In contemporary Japan, popular authors such as Ryū Murakami, Haruki Murakami, decorative arts in Japan date back to prehistoric times. Jōmon pottery includes examples with elaborate ornamentation, in the Yayoi period, artisans produced mirrors, spears, and ceremonial bells known as dōtaku. Later burial mounds, or kofun, preserve characteristic clay haniwa, beginning in the Nara period, painting, calligraphy, and sculpture flourished under strong Confucian and Buddhist influences from China. Among the architectural achievements of this period are the Hōryū-ji and the Yakushi-ji, after the cessation of official relations with the Tang dynasty in the ninth century, Japanese art and architecture gradually became less influenced by China
33.
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
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The Tokyo Metropolitan Government is the government of the Tokyo Metropolis, one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. The government consists of an elected governor and assembly. The headquarters building is located in the ward of Shinjuku, the metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, as well as the other cities and towns that constitute the prefecture. Under Japanese law, Tokyo is designated as a to, translated as metropolis, in addition to these 23 local governments, Tokyo also encompasses 26 cities, five towns, and eight villages, each of which has a local government. These other municipalities are located in the part of the prefecture, as well as the outlying island chains of Izu. The Metropolitan Assembly is the organ of the whole prefecture of Tokyo. It consists of 127 members elected each four years, regular sessions are held four times each year, in February, June, September and December. These sessions typically lasts for 30 days, between these are plenary sessions where discussions on bills are held. As in other prefectures of Japan, the people of Tokyo directly elect the governor to four-year terms of office, there is no limit to the number of terms a person may serve. Unlike collegiate cabinet systems, where the decisions are made unanimously, in contrast to other prefectures, the governor of Tokyo has a relatively important role given the size of Tokyos budget. The Tokyo metropolitan government also has relative freedom in how it allocates the budget, Tokyos gubernatorial elections had always been held as part of the unified local elections from 1947 to 2011. But following Shintarō Ishiharas resignation in October 2012, Tokyo held a gubernatorial election in December 2012 and has left the unified election cycle. The four largest established national parties of the past decade are represented in the Tokyo Assembly. The Social Democratic Party, formerly the Japanese Socialist Party, which had been the major party for much of the postwar era. The previous governor Naoki Inose, endorsed by LDP, Kōmeitō and JRP, Inose resigned in December 2013 and his successor Yoichi Masuzoe was elected in the Tokyo gubernatorial election,2014. The last assembly election was held in June 2013, the LDP won 36% of the vote and 59 of 127 seats in the Tokyo prefectural election,2013. In the previous election of 2009, the Democratic Party had managed to become strongest party after forty years of LDP dominance, in 2012, the DPJ was reduced to fourth party with 15 seats as the Kōmeitō won 23 seats and Communists 17 seats
34.
Adly Mansour
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Adly Mahmoud Mansour is an Egyptian judge and statesman who is the President of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt. He also served as the acting President of Egypt from 4 July 2013 to 8 June 2014 following the 2013 Egyptian coup détat by the military which deposed President Mohamed Morsi. Morsi refused to acknowledge his removal as valid and continued to maintain that only he could be considered the legitimate President of Egypt, Mansour was sworn into office in front of the Supreme Constitutional Court on 4 July 2013. He later attended Frances École nationale dadministration and graduated in 1977, Mansour spent six years in Saudi Arabia in the 1980s, working as an adviser to the Saudi Ministry of Commerce. He is married and has a son and two daughters, Mansour was appointed to the Supreme Constitutional Court in 1992. Mansour did not have the opportunity to swear the oath as president of the SCC until 4 July 2013, on 30 June 2016, Abdel Wahab Abdel Razek replaced him in the post. On 3 July 2013, Mansour was named interim President of Egypt following the ousting of Mohamed Morsi in the 2013 Egyptian coup détat subsequent to the 2012–13 Egyptian protests and his appointment was announced on television by the minister of defense Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. Earlier, there was confusion as to who exactly was appointed interim president, with some sources suggesting it was the former President of the Supreme Constitutional Court. Mansour was sworn in on 4 July 2013, on 8 July, Mansour issued a decree that proposed the introduction of amendments to the suspended constitution and a referendum to endorse them, followed by national elections. On 9 July, Mansour appointed the economist Hazem el-Biblawi as acting prime minister, Mansour made his first trip abroad as Interim President on 8 October 2013, to Saudi Arabia, a key backer of the ousting of Morsi. On 19 September 2013, Mansour announced that he would not run for the saying that he would return to his position as the head of the constitutional court. Egypt State Information Service CV Egypt State Information Service The Supreme Constitutional Court The Supreme Constitutional Court Official website
35.
Supreme Constitutional Court (Egypt)
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The Supreme Constitutional Court is an independent judicial body in Egypt, located in the Cairo suburb of Maadi. The Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest judicial power, in addition, the court is empowered to settle competence disputes between the judicial and the administrative courts. Such a judicial argument has been advocated in arguing that considering the issue of the constitutionality of laws is included in the competence of the courts, therefore, it does not prejudice in any way the principle of separation of powers. Indeed, the Egyptian legislator adopted this approach when the court was established in 1969 and was called the Supreme Court entrusted to censoring the laws constitutionality. The aforementioned court was existent till its replacement with the SCC in 1979, the establishment of the Court has been stipulated in the body of the Egyptian Constitution in 1971. Judges are appointed for life by the president, with mandatory retirement at the age of 70, articles from 174 to 178 talked about this court, its competences and its staff. And, according to Article 174, the Court is an independent judicial authority whose headquarters is in Cairo, the SCC is alone responsible for censoring the constitutionality of the laws and regulations and it assumes interpreting legislative texts. By virtue of constitutional provisions, the law No, 48/1979, known as that of the Supreme Court, has been issued. Article No.25 of this law has specified the competences of this court as follows, To censor the constitutionality of the laws, to decide on the disputes over the competent authority among the judicial bodies or authorities of judicial competence. And by virtue of the provision of Article No, the president of the Supreme Court was the head of the Presidential Election Commission that supervised and ran the countrys first multi-candidate presidential elections in 2005. The new building was designed by Ahmed Mito, a young Egyptian architect and it is an unusual contemporary instance of Egyptian Revival architecture, a style more popular in the nineteenth century. It includes counseling halls, a multi purpose hall for 450 people, offices, a library, a museum, and a large atrium that rises up to 18 meters and is covered by a dome
36.
Amr Moussa
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Amr Moussa is an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the Secretary-General of the Arab League, a 22-member forum representing Arab states, from 1 June 2001 to 1 June 2011. Previously he served in the government of Egypt as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1991 to 2001, on 8 September 2013, he was elected president of the committee of 50 that will amend the Egyptian constitution. He was born on 3 October 1936 in Cairo, Egypt and his father also had a son named Pierre during his studies in France in the 1920s. However, Moussas half-brother Pierre is a French citizen and has no ties to Egypt, Moussa finished his education after earning a degree in law from Cairo University in 1957. Moussa then began his diplomatic career, between 1958 and 1972 he worked in several missions, including Egypt’s Embassy in Switzerland and the Egyptian mission to the United Nations. From 1974 to 1977 he was an advisor to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, from 1977 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1990, he was the Director of the Department of International Organizations at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1981 to 1983, Moussa was the Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations in New York, in 1990, he was promoted Permanent Representative of Egypt to the United Nations. He was named Minister of Foreign Affairs by Prime Minister Atef Sedki on 20 May 1991 and he was minister until 15 May 2001 when he was elected as Secretary-General of the Arab League. Moussa has been involved with Egypts foreign policy since 1958. He was Egypts ambassador to the United Nations, India, Moussa was among the many Arab and international diplomats who tried to resolve the Lebanese Civil War. After serving as Egypts Foreign Minister from 1991 to 2001, he served as the Secretary General of the Arab League, Moussa has been an extremely popular political figure in Egypt due to his criticism of Israeli policies towards Gaza and the West Bank. He also criticized Western countries, including the U. S. for not recognizing the results of the 2006 Palestinian election that brought Hamas into power, like Mohamed El-Baradei and the Muslim Brotherhood, he supports opening the Gaza Strip/Egypt border. His criticisms have made Moussa extremely popular, on 15 May 2001, Moussa was selected as Secretary-General of the League of Arab States and took office on 1 June 2001. On 2003, he became a member of the United Nations High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change for International Peace, on 13 June 2010, Moussa visited Gaza in a move to pressure Israel to lift its economic blockade over Hamas-ruled Gaza. The visit by Moussa was the first by an official of the Arab League since the election of Hamas in 2007, immediately after the Gaza flotilla raid, Moussa said the Arab League would go to the UN Security Council to demand the blockade be lifted. On 15 May 2011, Nabil Elaraby was elected as Secretary-General of the Arab League, in 2004 an online community gathered tens of thousands of signatures petitioning for Moussa to run in the 2005 elections, but there was no response. In a Doha Debate Forum televised by the BBC in 2006, Moussa merely replied that he hoped to continue the recent run of successes that have occurred under his leadership at the Arab League until the end of his term. When asked in October 2009 about rumours that he run for the presidency in 2012, Moussa did not deny his intention to run for office or rule it out
37.
Arab League
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The Arab League, formally the League of Arab States, is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia. It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members, Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. Currently, the League has 22 members, but Syrias participation has been suspended since November 2011, the League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region, each member state has one vote in the League Council, and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism, the decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. The growing militarization of the region and the increase in violent civil wars as well as terrorist movements are the reason behind the creation of the JAF, financed by the rich Gulf countries. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states and that led, under the decree of the League of Arab States no. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945 and it aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league, each country was given one vote in the council. It was followed by the creation of a defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965, the Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km2 and straddles two continents, Africa and Asia. The area largely consists of deserts, such as the Sahara. The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the worlds longest river, the Charter of the Arab League, also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that the League of Arab States shall be composed of the, starting with only six members in 1945, the Arab League now occupies an area spanning around 14 million km² and counts 22 members, and 4 observer states. The 22 members today include three of the largest African countries and the largest country in the Middle East, there was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century, with an additional 15 Arab states being admitted. Syria was suspended following the 2011 uprising, as of 2016, there are a total of 22 member states
38.
Omar Sharif
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Omar Sharif was an Egyptian actor. He began his career in his country in the 1950s. His films included Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago, and Funny Girl and he was nominated for an Academy Award. He won three Golden Globe Awards and a César Award, Sharif, who spoke Arabic, English, Greek, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian fluently, was often cast as a foreigner of some sort. He bridled at travel restrictions imposed by the government of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, the estrangement led to an amicable divorce from his wife, the iconic Egyptian actress Faten Hamama. He had converted to Islam in order to marry her and he was a lifelong horse racing enthusiast, and at one time ranked among the worlds top contract bridge players. Omar Sharif, whose adopted surname means noble or nobleman in Arabic, was born on 10 April 1932 as Michel Dimitri Chalhoub in Alexandria, Egypt, to a Melkite Catholic family. His father, Joseph Chalhoub, a precious woods merchant originally from Zahlé, Lebanon, moved to the city of Alexandria in the early 20th century. His family moved to Cairo when he was four and his mother, Claire Saada, was a noted society hostess, and Egypts King Farouk was a regular visitor prior to his deposition in 1952. In his youth, Sharif studied at Victoria College, Cairo and he later graduated from Cairo University with a degree in mathematics and physics. He worked for a while in his fathers precious wood business before studying acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, in 1955, Sharif changed his name and converted to Islam in order to marry fellow Egyptian actress Faten Hamama. In 1954, Sharif began his career in Egypt with a role in Shaytan Al-Sahra. In the same year he appeared in Sira Fi al-Wadi and he quickly rose to stardom, appearing in Egyptian productions, including La Anam in 1958, Sayyidat al-Qasr in 1959 and the Anna Karenina adaptation Nahr el hub in 1961. He and his wife co-starred in several movies as romantic leads, Sharifs first English-language role was that of Sherif Ali in David Leans historical epic Lawrence of Arabia in 1962. Casting Sharif in what is now considered one of the most demanding supporting roles in Hollywood history was complex and risky as he was virtually unknown at the time outside of Egypt. However, as historian Steven Charles Caton notes, Lean insisted on using ethnic actors when possible to make the film authentic, Sharif would later use his ambiguous ethnicity in other films, I spoke French, Greek, Italian, Spanish and even Arabic, he said. As Sharif noted, his accent enabled him to play the role of a foreigner without anyone knowing exactly where I came from, over the next few years, Sharif co-starred in other films, including Behold a Pale Horse. Director Fred Zinnemann said he chose Sharif partly on the suggestion of David Lean and he said he was an absolutely marvelous actor, If you possibly can take a look at him
39.
Academy Awards
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The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS, the awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards. The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26,2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, the ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 88th, the first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16,1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel, the cost of guest tickets for that nights ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the industry of the time. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes, winners were announced to media three months earlier, however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11,00 pm on the night of the awards. The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and he had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier, this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, for the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27,1957, until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, see also § Awards of Merit categories The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. The five spokes represent the branches of the Academy, Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers. The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio El Indio Fernández, sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons design. The statuettes presented at the ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze
40.
Golden Globe Award
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Golden Globe Awards are accolades bestowed by the 93 members of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, recognizing excellence in film and television, both domestic and foreign. The annual ceremony at which the awards are presented is a part of the film industrys awards season. The 74th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film, the 1st Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best achievements in 1943 filmmaking, was held in January 1944, at the 20th Century-Fox studios. Subsequent ceremonies were held at venues throughout the next decade, including the Beverly Hills Hotel. In 1950, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association made the decision to establish an honorary award to recognize outstanding contributions to the entertainment industry. Recognizing its subject as a figure within the entertainment industry. The official name of the award became the Cecil B. In 1963, the Miss Golden Globe concept was introduced, in its inaugural year, two Miss Golden Globes were named, one for film and one for television. The two Miss Golden Globes named that year were Eva Six and Donna Douglas, respectively, in 2009, the Golden Globe statuette was redesigned. It was unveiled at a conference at the Beverly Hilton prior to the show. The broadcast of the Golden Globe Awards, telecast to 167 countries worldwide, generally ranks as the third most-watched awards show each year, behind only the Oscars, gervais returned to host the 68th and 69th Golden Globe Awards the next two years. Tina Fey and Amy Poehler hosted the 70th, 71st and 72nd Golden Globe Awards in 2015, the Golden Globe Awards theme song, which debuted in 2012, was written by Japanese musician and songwriter Yoshiki Hayashi. On January 7,2008, it was announced due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The ceremony was faced with a threat by striking writers to picket the event, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association was forced to adopt another approach for the broadcast. In acting categories, Meryl Streep holds the record for the most competitive Golden Globe wins with eight, however, including honorary awards, such as the Henrietta Award, World Film Favorite Actor/Actress Award, or Cecil B. DeMille Award, Barbra Streisand leads with nine, additionally, Streisand won for composing the song Evergreen, producing the Best Picture, and directing Yentl in 1984. Jack Nicholson, Angela Lansbury, Alan Alda and Shirley MacLaine have six awards each, behind them are Rosalind Russell and Jessica Lange with five wins. Meryl Streep also holds the record for most nominations with thirty, at the 46th Golden Globe Awards an anomaly occurred, a three way-tie for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama
