1.
The Calligrapher
–
The Calligrapher is the debut novel of Edward Docx, published in 2003. Highly praised, it has been translated into eight languages and it was selected by Matt Thorn as his Summer fiction choice in The Independent and by both San Francisco Chronicle and San Jose Mercury as a Best Book of the Year. It was also a finalist for the William Saroyan International Prize for Writing, as of 2012 it had been translated into eight languages. Jasper though is soon captivated by a new neighbour Madeleine Belmont, the book describes his growing love and commitment to Madeleine, illuminated by observations from the sonnets he is transcribing. But will his relationship with Madeleine last, stephen Metcalf in the New York Times writes Docx, a columnist by trade, frequently writes like a columnist by habit, in terse editorial sound bites. Nonetheless, the pace is mostly brisk, the tone most often light, diane White of The Boston Globe describes it as a delight, a witty, deftly written, honest comedy of manners, a novel that is as intelligent and sophisticated as it is light and funny. Mark Rozzo of the Los Angeles Times warns At times, you wonder whether Docx isnt almost too fluent, like his sure-handed hero, he has a flair for flourishes and curlicues. The Economist concludes with The beauty of Donnes words provides a satisfyingly crisp contrast to the books laddish, laugh-aloud dialogue, charmer and philanderer he may be, but Jaspers optimism and zest for life give him the appeal of a man ruled by both his head and his heart. If readers can suspend disbelief at the painfully shocking double-whammy served up at the end of the story, then this stylishly written, pacy novel is a sexy, satisfying read. com
The Calligrapher
–
First edition (UK)
2.
Handwriting
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Handwriting is a writing created by a person with a writing material such as a pen or pencil. Handwriting includes both printing and cursive styles and is separate from formal calligraphy or typeface, because each persons handwriting is unique and different, it can be used to verify a documents writer. The deterioration of a persons handwriting is also a symptom or result of certain diseases, each person has their own unique style of handwriting, whether it is everyday handwriting or their personal signature. Even identical twins who share appearance and genetics dont have the same handwriting, a persons handwriting is like that persons fingerprints, people might be able to copy it, but never write it in an identical way. Characteristics of handwriting include, specific shape of letters, e. g, in children with these difficulties, the letters tend to be larger with wide variability of letters, letter spacing, word spacing, and the alignment of letters on the baseline. Variability of handwriting increases with longer texts, children who have ADHD were more likely to have difficulty parameterising movements in a consistent way. This has been explained with motor skill impairment either due to lack of attention or lack of inhibition, to anticipate a change of direction between strokes constant visual attention is essential. With inattention, changes occur too late, resulting in higher letters. The influence of medication on the quality of handwriting is not clear, because handwriting is relatively stable, a change in the handwriting can be indicative of the nervousness or intoxication of the writer. Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting in relation to human psychology. Asemic writing Block letters Book hand Calligraphy Cursive Penmanship Signature History of writing Giesbrecht, how The Ballpoint Pen Killed Cursive. What is the evidence of impaired motor skills and motor control among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Handwriting
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Gandhi 's handwriting (Letter to
Jawaharlal Nehru, 30 September 1925)
Handwriting
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Charles Elliot 's handwriting to Clara Elliot
3.
Script typeface
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Script typefaces are based upon the varied and often fluid stroke created by handwriting. They are generally used for display or trade printing, rather than for extended text in the Latin alphabet. Some Greek alphabet typefaces, especially historically, have been a closer simulation of handwriting, Script typefaces are organized into highly regular formal types similar to cursive writing and looser, more casual scripts. A majority of scripts are based upon the letterforms of seventeenth and eighteenth century writing-masters like George Bickham, George Shelley. The letters in their form are generated by a quill or metal nib of a pen. Both are able to fine and thick strokes. Typefaces based upon their style of writing appear late in the eighteenth century, contemporary revivals of formal script faces can be seen in Kuenstler Script and Matthew Carters typeface Snell Roundhand. These typefaces are used for invitations and diplomas to effect an elevated. They may use typographic ligatures to have letters connect, casual scripts show a less formal, more active hand. The strokes may vary in width but often appear to have created by wet brush rather than a pen nib. They appear in the twentieth century and with the advent of photocomposition in the early-1950s their number rapidly increased. They were popularly used in advertising in Europe and North America into the 1970s, examples of casual script types include Brush Script, Kaufmann and Mistral. Script typefaces place particular demands on printing technology if the letters are intended to join up like handwriting, a typeface intended to mimic handwriting, such as Claude Garamonds grecs du roi typeface, will require many alternate characters. In digital type these can be substituted seamlessly through contextual ligature insertion in applications like InDesign, another complexity in metal type was that sorts had to have delicate overhanging parts to interlock. This required careful design and casting for the sorts to fit together without gaps or the sorts breaking, Script typefaces have evolved rapidly in the second half of the 20th century due to developments in technology and the end of widespread use of metal type. Historically, most signwriting on logos, displays and shop frontages did not use fonts but was rather custom-designed lettering created by signpainters and engravers, in addition, phototypesetting made overlap of characters relatively simple, something very complicated to achieve in metal type. Matthew Carter has cited his 1966 Snell Roundhand typeface as deliberately designed to replicate a style of hard to simulate in metal. An additional development enabling more sophisticated script fonts has been the release of the OpenType format, many modern script typefaces emulate the styles of hand-drawn lettering from different historical periods
Script typeface
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Cursive is an example of a casual script
4.
Chinese calligraphy
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Chinese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy widely practiced in China and revered in the Chinese cultural sphere, which often includes Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. There is a standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related, since they are accomplished using similar tools, Chinese painting and calligraphy distinguish themselves from other cultural arts because they emphasize motion and are charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time, Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones. In China, calligraphy is referred to as Shūfǎ, literally, the way/method/law of writing, Shodō in Japan, Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the arts in the countries where it is practised. Chinese calligraphy focuses not only on methods of writing but also on cultivating ones character, Calligraphy is also considered an art where works are appreciated more or only for their aesthetic qualities. Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs, in 2003, at the site of Xiaoshuangqiao, about 20 km southeast of the ancient Zhengzhou Shang City, ceramic inscriptions dating to 1435–1412 BC have been found by archaeologists. These writings are made in cinnabar paint, thus, the dates of writing in China have been confirmed for the Middle Shang period. The ceramic ritual vessel vats that bear these cinnabar inscriptions were all unearthed within the area of this site. They were unearthed mostly in the sacrificial pits holding cow skulls and cow horns, the inscriptions are written on the exterior and interior of the rim, and the exterior of the belly of the large type of vats. The characters are mostly written singly, character compounds or sentences are rarely seen, the contemporary Chinese characters set principles were clearly visible in ancient Chinas Jiǎgǔwén characters carved on ox scapulas and tortoise plastrons around 14th - 11th century BCE. Brush-written examples decay over time and have not survived, during the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved. With the development of Jīnwén and Dàzhuàn cursive signs continued, moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters. In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BC, despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles. The Lìshū style which is more regularized, and in ways similar to modern text, were also authorised under Qin Shi Huang. Kǎishū style — still in use today — and attributed to Wang Xizhi and its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in Kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed shapes to stabilize, the Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China. But small changes have made, for example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books
Chinese calligraphy
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Chinese calligraphy
Chinese calligraphy
Chinese calligraphy
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On Calligraphy by
Mi Fu,
Song Dynasty
Chinese calligraphy
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A Chinese calligraphy set, Gurgaon, near Delhi, India
5.
Georgian calligraphy
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Georgian calligraphy is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing of the Georgian language using its three Georgian scripts. Georgia has a tradition of a calligraphic school. Hand-written books from the early centuries became a cultural and a phenomenon in Georgia. Every year on April 14, Georgia celebrates the Day of Georgian language, on this day the calligraphy contests are held, the winners are named and awards are given to the best calligraphers at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts. Georgian calligraphy was created outside of Georgia as well. ვის აქვს ყველაზე ლამაზი ხელწერა საქართველოში და როგორ გადახატეს „ვეფხისტყაოსნის” აფორიზმები კონკურსანტებმა
Georgian calligraphy
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Calligraphy
Georgian calligraphy
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"წყალობითა მღუთისათა ჩვენ იესიან დავითიან სოლომანიან ბაგრატოვანმან ძემან ცხებულის მეფის თეიმურაზისამან მეორე ირაკლი მეფემან საქართველოისამან ქართლისა კახეთისა.." "With mercy of God we of
Jesse,
David,
Solomon,
Bagrationi son of
Teimuraz II and
Erekle II King of Georgia, Kartli, Kakheti.."
Georgian calligraphy
Georgian calligraphy
6.
Indian calligraphy
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Beginning in the 2nd century AD, Indic language was transferred using birch bark as a writing surface. Locally, the bark was called Bhojpatra in India - patra meaning leaf/bark/sheet in Sanskrit. Palm leaves were used as a substitute to paper, even after paper was available for Indic manuscripts, the leaves were commonly used because they were a good surface for pen writing, which created the delicate and decorative handwriting that is known as calligraphy today. Both sides of leaves were used and they were stacked on top of each other. People then created holes on the leaves and held together by string, thus creating the early Indian manuscripts. Indian traders, colonists, military adventurers, Buddhist monks and missionaries brought the Indic script to the countries of South East Asia, sikhs have traditionally handwritten their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, and furnished it with illumination. Sikh calligrapher Pratap Singh Giani is known for one of the first definitive translations of Sikh scriptures into English, religious texts are the most frequent vehicle for calligraphy in India. Monastic Buddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and having shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures, Jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material with fine calligraphy, Indian Epigraphy, A guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and other Indo-aryan languages. New York, Oxford University Press,1999, Anderson, D. M. Indic calligraphy, Encyclopædia Britannica 2008. This site also has information on a range of Indian scripts, scripts and Languages of India ^ Anderson, D. M
Indian calligraphy
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Calligraphy
Indian calligraphy
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A fragment of
Ashoka's 6th pillar edict.
Indian calligraphy
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An illustrated manuscript of the
Mahabharata with calligraphy
Indian calligraphy
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Ghalib poem in
Nastaliq
7.
Islamic calligraphy
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Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, based upon the alphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includes Arabic, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy and it is known in Arabic as khatt Islami, meaning Islamic line, design, or construction. The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Quran, chapters, deep religious association with the Quran, as well as suspicion of figurative art as idolatrous has led calligraphy to become one of the major forms of artistic expression in Islamic cultures. As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well established calligraphers, in antiquity, a pupil would copy a masters work repeatedly until their handwriting was similar. The most common style is divided into angular and cursive, each divided into several sub-styles. Some styles are often written using a metallic-tip pen, Islamic calligraphy is applied on a wide range of decorative mediums other than paper, such as tiles, vessels, carpets, and inscriptions. Before the advent of paper, papyrus and parchment were used for writing, the advent of paper revolutionized calligraphy. While monasteries in Europe treasured a few volumes, libraries in the Muslim world regularly contained hundreds. Coins were another support for calligraphy, beginning in 692, the Islamic caliphate reformed the coinage of the Near East by replacing visual depiction with words. This was especially true for dinars, or gold coins of high value, generally the coins were inscribed with quotes from the Quran. By the tenth century, the Persians, who had converted to Islam, so precious were calligraphic inscribed textiles that Crusaders brought them to Europe as prized possessions. A notable example is the Suaire de Saint-Josse, used to wrap the bones of St. Josse in the Abbey of St. Josse-sur-Mer near Caen in northwestern France, Kufic is the oldest form of the Arabic script. The style emphasizes rigid and angular strokes, which appears as a form of the old Nabataean script. The Archaic Kufi consisted of about 17 letters without diacritic dots or accents, afterwards, dots and accents were added to help readers with pronunciation, and the set of Arabic letters rose to 29. It is developed around the end of the 7th century in the areas of Kufa, Iraq, the style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and squared kufi. There were no set rules of using the Kufic script, the common feature is the angular, linear shapes of the characters. Common varieties include square Kufic, a known as bannai. Contemporary calligraphy using this style is popular in modern decorations
Islamic calligraphy
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Calligraphy
Islamic calligraphy
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The phrase
Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the
Ottoman region.
Islamic calligraphy
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9th century
Qur'an, an early kufic example from the
Abbasid period.
Islamic calligraphy
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Bowl with
Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
8.
Japanese calligraphy
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Japanese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing, of the Japanese language. The term shodō is likely derived from Chinese origin as it is used to describe the art of Chinese calligraphy during the Chinese Tang dynasty period. In modern calligraphy, a number of tools are used to make a composition, most basic four tools were collectively called Four Treasures of the Study. The best inksticks are between 50 and 100 years old, mulberry paper An inkstone to grind the inkstick against, mixed with water. Other tools include, A paper weight to hold the paper in place A cloth to place under the paper to prevent ink from bleeding through, the art of engraving a seal is called tenkoku 篆刻. The student is encouraged to engrave his own seal, the position of the seal or the seals is based on aesthetic views. One is not allowed to put a seal on a sutras calligraphy, during preparation, water is poured into the inkstone and the inkstick is ground against it, mixing the water with the dried ink to liquefy it. As this is a process, modern-day calligraphy provides liquid ink in a bottle called Bokuju and is frequently used by beginners. More advanced students are encouraged to grind their own ink. Paper is usually placed on a desk, the brushes come in various shapes and sizes, and are usually made using animal hair for the bristles. Typical animal hair may come from goats, sheep, horse-hair, the handle may be made from wood, bamboo, plastic or other materials. The Chinese roots of Japanese calligraphy go back to the twenty-eighth century B. C. to a time when pictographs were inscribed on bone for religious purposes and he sanctioned a form of script based on squares of uniform size into which all characters could be written from eight strokes. He also devised rules of composition where horizontal strokes are written first and characters are composed starting from top to bottom, left to right. Because the symbols were inscribed with sharp instruments, the lines were originally angular and in many ways Li Sis achievements were made obsolete by the appearance of brush, the ink-wet brush creates a line quite different from a sharp stylus. It affords variation in thickness and curve of line, Calligraphy retained the block form of Li Si and his eight strokes but the writer was free to create characters that emphasized aesthetically pleasing balance and form. The way a character was written gave a message of style, Calligraphy in the Chinese tradition was thus introduced to Japan about 600 A. D. Known as the tradition, it has been practiced up to today. The oldest existing text in Japan is the inscription on the halo of the Medicine Buddha statue in the Hōryū-ji Temple. This Chinese text was written in Shakyōtai style, prominent in the Chinese Six Dynasties period, the Hōryū-ji Temple also holds bibliographic notes on the Lotus Sutra, the Hokke Gisho was written early in the 7th century and is considered the oldest Japanese text
Japanese calligraphy
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Calligraphy
Japanese calligraphy
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A traditional inkstone to grind ink and water against.
Japanese calligraphy
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A typical brush used for calligraphy.
Japanese calligraphy
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Inscription on the halo of the statue of the
Medicine Buddha,
Hōryū-ji Temple Written in the 7th century
9.
Korean calligraphy
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Korean calligraphy is the Korean tradition of artistic writing in Hangul or Hanja, respectively the Korean alphabet and Chinese characters. Chinese characters were introduced to Korea as early as the 2nd or 3rd century AD, the poet Choe Chiwon was also known for his calligraphy, a sample of which is engraved in a rock in Haeundae, Busan. The angular styles of the early Tang masters, Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun, and Yan Zhenqing, persisted until the 14th century, Korean calligraphy became increasingly formalistic in the years that followed. Kim Jung-hee revolutionized Korean calligraphy in the early 19th century, introducing what is known as the style after his pen name 秋史. As the scholarly classes used Chinese characters, Korean calligraphy used hanja until the 1910–1945 Japanese occupation of Korea, nationalist sentiment led to the popularization of the native hangul alphabet, and calligraphic works using hangul have since seen a revival. The Korean calligraphy is developing its own style, steadfastly, fonts that are not square are being developed, considering jong-sung, or sound coming after the vowel. Newspaper article with visuals on Korean calligraphy
Korean calligraphy
Korean calligraphy
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Calligraphy by Kim Jung-hee; Written in his own style named 'Chu-Sa-Chae(추사체)'
Korean calligraphy
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Hanja Calligraphy by Han Ho; titled as "Jeungryu yeojang seochep"
10.
Mongolian calligraphy
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Mongolian calligraphy is a kind of calligraphy of the Mongolian people of Central Asia. Like most other calligraphies in East Asia it is mostly done with a brush, although the Mongolian language in Mongolia uses a Cyrillic orthography adopted during the Communist era, Mongolian calligraphy is written in the traditional Mongolian bichig script. In 2013, Mongolian Calligraphy was inscribed on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, at present, only three middle-aged scholars voluntarily train the small community of just over twenty young calligraphers. Traditionally, mentors select the best students and train them to be calligraphers over a period of five to eight years, students and teachers bond for life and continue to stimulate each other’s artistic endeavours. The rate of transformation, urbanization and globalization have led to a significant drop in the number of young calligraphers
Mongolian calligraphy
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The
Imperial Seal of Mongolia using the classical Mongolian script, as found in a letter
Güyük Khan sent to the Roman Pope Innocent IV.
Mongolian calligraphy
Mongolian calligraphy
–
Calligraphy
11.
Persian calligraphy
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Persian calligraphy or Iranian calligraphy is the calligraphy of the Persian language. It is one of the most revered arts throughout history of Iran, after the introduction of Islam in the 7th century, Persians adapted the Arabic alphabet to Persian and developed the contemporary Persian alphabet. The Arabic alphabet has 28 characters, an additional four letters were added by Iranians, which resulted in the 32 letters currently present in the Persian alphabet. Around one thousand years ago, Ibn Muqlah and his brother created six genres of Iranian calligraphy, namely Mohaqiq, Reyhan, Sols, Naskh, Toqi and these genres were common for four centuries in Persia. In the 7th century, Hassan Farsi Kateb combined the Naskh and Reqah styles, in the 14th century, Mir Ali Tabrizi combined two major scripts of his time, i. e. Naskh and Taliq, and created a new Persian calligraphic style called Nas’taliq. In the past 500 years Nastaʿlīq has been the predominant style for writing the Perso-Arabic script, history of cursive Nastaliq In the 17th century Morteza Gholi Khan Shamlou and Mohammad Shafi Heravi created a new genre called cursive Nastaʿlīq Shekasteh Nastaʿlīq. Almost a century later, Abdol-Majid Taleqani, who was a prominent artist at the time and this calligraphic style is based on the same rules as Nas’taliq. However, cursive Nas’taliq has a few significant differences, it more flexible movements. Yadollah Kaboli is one of the most prominent contemporary calligraphers within this style, in 1950, the Irans Association of Calligraphers was founded by Hossein Mirkhani, Ali Akbar Kaveh, Ebrahim Bouzari, Hassan Mirkhani and Mehdi Baiani. For an overview of Persian calligraphys development within Afghanistan, see Calligraphy during last two centuries in Afghanistan, by Azizuddin Vakili. Zendeh Roudi, Jalil Rasouli, Parviz Tanavoli, and Nima Behnoud use Persian calligraphy and Rumi poetry in dress designing. this style of work can be classified as post modern
Persian calligraphy
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Calligraphy
Persian calligraphy
–
Example showing Nastaʿlīq's proportion rules.
Persian calligraphy
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Persian calligraphy.
Persian calligraphy
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Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza, ca. 1490.
Brooklyn Museum.
12.
Tibetan calligraphy
–
Tibetan calligraphy refers to the calligraphic traditions used to write the Tibetan language. As in other parts of East Asia, nobles, high lamas, however, unlike calligraphy in China, Japan, and Korea, calligraphy was done using a reed pen as opposed to a brush. Nevertheless, East Asian influence is apparent visually, as Tibetan calligraphy is at times more free-flowing than calligraphy involving the descendants of other Brahmi scripts. Given the overriding religious nature of Tibetan culture, many of the traditions in calligraphy come from religious texts, when handwritten, it is the most basic form of calligraphy, and must be mastered before moving onto other styles. The feature which distinguishes it the most from u-chan is the lack of the lines on the top of letters. The bêcug style is a narrow, cursive variant of umê in squarish shape, the zhuza style is a variant of umê but with ujain vowel symbol. Curve-leg zhuza straight-leg zhuza short-leg zhuza The cugtung style is shortened, abbreviated variant of u-me, the cugrin style The kyugyig is a highly abbreviated, fluid, cursive version of u-me. It is a form of handwriting for notes and personal letters. General cursive extremely cursive The cug-ma-kyugyig style - a style halfway between cugyig and kyugyig The gyugyig style The vertical Phags-pa script is known as horyig, a more ornamental version of the horyig style was used in the past to make personal seals. It is often written vertically as opposed to horizontally. These styles are not fixed, and are not limited to those listed above, by mixing features of various styles, and adding various ornaments to the text, the number of styles becomes quite large. While ujain may be used to write entire Sutras or Buddhist texts, the world record for the longest calligraphy scroll is held by Jamyang Dorjee Chakrishar, who penned a 163.2 meter scroll containing 65,000 Tibetan characters. The scroll contains prayers for the 14th Dalai Lama composed by 32 different monks
Tibetan calligraphy
–
Calligraphy
13.
Western calligraphy
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Western calligraphy is the art of writing and penmanship as practiced in the Western world, especially using the Latin alphabet. A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, the story of writing is one of aesthetic development framed within the technical skills, transmission speed and material limitations of a person, time and place. A style of writing is described as a script, hand or alphabet, the rolls of papyrus used in classical antiquity in Late Antiquity were gradually replaced by the codex. Reed pens were replaced by quill pens, isidore of Seville explained the then-current relation between codex, liber and volumen in his Etymologiae, Codex multorum librorum est, liber unius voluminis. Et dictus codex per translationem a codicibus arborum seu vitium, quasi caudex, a codex is composed of many books, a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches. With the onset of the Middle Ages from about the 7th century, charlemagnes devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of a crowd of scribes, according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York. Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule, the first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian remains the one hand from which modern booktype descends. Blackletter and its variation Rotunda, gradually developed from the Carolingian hand during the 12th century, over the next three centuries, the scribes in northern Europe used an ever more compressed and spiky form of Gothic. Those in Italy and Spain preferred the rounder but still heavy-looking Rotunda, during the 15th century, Italian scribes returned to the Roman and Carolingian models of writing and designed the Italic hand, also called Chancery cursive, and Roman bookhand. These three hands — Gothic, Italic, and Roman bookhand — became the models for printed letters, johannes Gutenberg used Gothic to print his famous Bible, but the lighter-weight Italic and Roman bookhand have since become the standard. During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were produced, some illuminated with gold and fine painting, some illustrated with line drawings, towards the end of the Middle Ages, administration in the states of Western Europe became more centralised. Paper was again available in Europe, which allowed a bureaucracy with standardized bookkeeping. It was disseminated around England by bureaucrats on official business and slowly gained prestige, the production of finalized, calligraphic copies of documents in Chancery hand came to be known as engrossing, from Anglo-French engrosser. In the late 1490s and early 1500s, the early printer Richard Pynson favored Chancery Standard in his published works, in the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, and a Speed Hand sometimes simply called the Bastarda. With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome, by 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English Roundhand
Western calligraphy
–
First page of
Paul's epistle to Philemon in the Rochester Bible (12th century).
Western calligraphy
–
A modern calligraphic rendition of the word calligraphy (Denis Brown, 2006)
Western calligraphy
–
Page of the
Virgilius Romanus (5th century)
Western calligraphy
–
Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels (c.700) contains the incipit from the
Gospel of Matthew.
14.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
15.
Visual arts
–
The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages
Visual arts
–
Vincent van Gogh:
The Church at Auvers (1890)
Visual arts
–
Mosaic of Battle of Issus
Visual arts
–
Nefertari with Isis
Visual arts
–
Raphael:
Spasimo (1514-1516)
16.
Writing
–
Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion through the inscription or recording of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language, Writing is not a language but a form of technology that developed as tools developed with human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary, Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws, in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. H. G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to put agreements, laws and it made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible, the command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death. The major writing systems—methods of inscription—broadly fall into four categories, logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, another category, ideographic, has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, a logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, many logograms have an ideographic component. For example, in Mayan, the glyph for fin, pronounced ka, was used to represent the syllable ka whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of an element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation. However, such phonetic elements complement the elements, rather than vice versa. A syllabary is a set of symbols that represent syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable ka may look nothing like the syllable ki, syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek, Cherokee, Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam, most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component
Writing
–
Writing with a pen
Writing
–
Olin Levi Warner,
tympanum representing Writing, above exterior of main entrance doors,
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington DC, 1896.
Writing
–
Globular envelope with a cluster of accountancy tokens, Uruk period, from
Susa.
Louvre Museum
Writing
–
Narmer Palette, with the two serpopards representing unification of
Upper and
Lower Egypt,
3000 B. C.
17.
Brush
–
A brush is a tool with bristles, wire or other filaments, used for cleaning, grooming hair, make up, painting, surface finishing and for many other purposes. It is one of the most basic and versatile tools known to mankind, and it generally consists of a handle or block to which filaments are affixed either parallel- or perpendicular-wise, depending on the way the brush is to be gripped during use. The material of both the block and bristles or filaments is chosen to withstand hazards of its application, such as corrosive chemicals, heat or abrasion. The staple can be replaced with a kind of anchor, which is a piece of rectangular profile wire that is anchored to the wall of the hole, configurations include twisted-in wire, cylinders and disks. The action of these brushes is mainly in the tip of each flexible bristle which dislodges particles of matter, broom The action of such brushes is mostly from the sides, not the tip, contact with which releases material held by capillary action. Certain varieties of hairbrush are however designed to brush the scalp itself free of such as dead skin. Hair brush Dog-grooming brush Cat fur brush Brush, used on electrical motors Drum stick#Brushes Magnetic brush Stippling brush Medical sampling brush Brushes used for cleaning come in various sizes. They vary in size ranging from that of a toothbrush, to the standard household version accompanied by a dustpan, there are brushes for cleaning tiny cracks and crevices and brushes for cleaning enormous warehouse floors. Brushes perform a multitude of cleaning tasks, specific brushes are used for diverse activities from cleaning vegetables, as a toilet brush, washing glass, cleaning tiles, and as a mild abrasive for sanding. Wire brush Hairbrush Ink brush Pastry brush Test tube brush The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art, ISBN 978-0-19-531391-8 Glossary of Brush Terms
Brush
–
Cleaning brushes
Brush
–
Assortment of cleaning brushes, including bottle brushes
Brush
–
A clothes brush
Brush
–
Assorted cosmetics and Make-up brushes
18.
Typography
–
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
Typography
–
Movable type being assembled on a
composing stick using pieces that are stored in the
type case shown below it
Typography
–
A specimen sheet of the
Trajan typeface, which is based on the letter forms of capitalis monumentalis or
Roman square capitals used for the inscription at the base of
Trajan's Column, from which the typeface takes its name
Typography
–
A sixteenth century workshop in Germany showing a printing press and many of the activities involved in the process of printing
Typography
–
A specimen sheet by
William Caslon shows printed examples of Roman typefaces
19.
Wedding invitations
–
A wedding invitation is a letter asking the recipient to attend a wedding. It is typically written in formal, third-person language and mailed five to eight weeks before the wedding date, with computer technology, some are able to print directly on envelopes from a guest list using a mail merge with word processing and spreadsheet software. Traditionally, anyone within earshot became part of the celebration, in the Middle Ages, illiteracy was widespread, so the practice of sending written wedding invitations emerged among the nobility. Families of means would commission monks, skilled in the art of Calligraphy, such documents often carried the Coat of arms, or personal crest, of the individual and were sealed with wax. However, the tradition of announcing weddings in the newspaper did become established at this time, in 1642, the invention of metal-plate engraving by Ludwig von Siegen brought higher-quality wedding invitations within the reach of the emerging middle class. Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to hand write the text in reverse onto a plate using a carving tool. The resulting engraved invitations were protected from smudging by a sheet of paper placed on top. At the time, the wording of wedding invitations was more elaborate than today, typically, following the invention of Lithography by Alois Senefelder in 1798, it became possible to produce very sharp and distinctive inking without the need for engraving. This paved the way for the emergence of a genuine mass-market in wedding invitations, Wedding invitations were still delivered by hand and on horseback, however, due to the unreliability of the nascent postal system. A ‘double envelope’ was used to protect the invitation from damage en route to its recipient and this tradition remains today, despite advances in postal reliability. About this time, prominent society figures, such as Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post, growth in the use of wedding stationery was also underpinned by the development of thermography. Although it lacks the fineness and distinctiveness of engraving, thermography is an expensive method of achieving raised type. This technique, often called poor mans engraving, produces shiny, as such, wedding invitations - either printed or engraved - finally became affordable for all. More recently Letterpress printing has made a resurgence in popularity for wedding invitations. It has a boutique and craft appeal due to the deep impression or bite that can be achieved. It was not the intent of letterpress to bite into the paper in this way. The bite or deep impression is a recent aesthetic that adds the sensory experience of touch to letterpress printed wedding invitations, many letterpress printers that specialize in wedding invitations are small start ups or artisan printers, rather than large printing companies. Laser engraving has also making headway in the wedding invitation market over the last few years
Wedding invitations
–
Mix of wedding invitations of Chinese and western styles
Wedding invitations
–
Laser engraved wood walnut and maple wedding invitations.
Wedding invitations
–
A modern wedding invitation
20.
Font
–
In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
Font
–
Serifs within the
Thesis typeface family
Font
Font
–
A set of optical sizes developed at
URW++. The fonts become thicker and more widely spaced as text size increases.
21.
Logo
–
A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization
Logo
–
A coin from early 6th century BC
Lydia bearing the head of a roaring lion with sun rays
Logo
–
Three logos:
LibreOffice,
IBM by
Paul Rand and the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Logo
–
Red Cross and
Red Crescent emblems
Logo
–
The Coca-Cola logo is identifiable in other writing-systems, here written in
Cyrillic.
22.
Religious art
–
Religious art or sacred art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs and is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual. Sacred art involves the ritual and cultic practices and practical and operative aspects of the path of the spiritual realization within the religious tradition. Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer, one of the most common Christian themes is that of the Virgin Mary holding the infant Jesus. Another is that of Christ on the Cross, for the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate iconographic system developed to conclusively identify scenes. For example, Saint Agnes depicted with a lamb, Saint Peter with keys, each saint holds or is associated with attributes and symbols in sacred art. Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity, during the development of Christian art in the Byzantine empire, a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects, realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon. However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elizabeth Frink and Graham Sutherland have produced well-known works of art for churches. Through a social interpretation of Christianity, Fritz von Uhde also Since the advent of printing, in the 19th century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy. The invention of color led to broad circulation of holy cards. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts, other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander, Gary P. Bergel, Carlos Cazares, Bruce Herman, Deborah Sokolove, and John August Swanson. Buddhist art followed believers as the spread, adapted. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, most Tibetan Buddhist artforms are related to the practice of Vajrayana or Buddhist tantra. Tibetan art includes thangkas and mandalas, often including depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, creation of Buddhist art is usually done as a meditation as well as creating an object as aid to meditation. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist, other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the vajra and the phurba. Two places suggest more vividly than any others the vitality of Buddhist cave painting from about the 5th century AD, one is Ajanta, a site in India long forgotten until discovered in 1817. The other is Dunhuang, one of the great oasis staging posts on the Silk Road and it was used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents
Religious art
–
A specimen of Islamic sacred art: in the
Great Mosque of Kairouan also called the Mosque of Uqba (in
Tunisia), the upper part of the mihrab (prayer niche) is decorated with 9th century lusterware tiles and painted intertwined vegetal motifs.
Religious art
–
Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early
catacombs, Rome, 4th century.
Religious art
–
An example of a
Madonna, commissioned by the
Catholic Church during the
Renaissance.
23.
Graphic design
–
Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
Graphic design
–
A Boeing 747 aircraft with
livery designating it as
Air Force One. The cyan forms, the
US flag,
presidential seal and the
Caslon lettering were all designed at different times, by different designers, for different purposes, and combined by designer
Raymond Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.
Graphic design
–
Graphic symbols are often
functionalist and anonymous, as these
pictographs from the US
National Park Service illustrate.
Graphic design
–
Color
Graphic design
–
The
pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
24.
Inscription
–
Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist, for example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and it is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme to a lengthy document. Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography, when compared to books, most inscriptions are short. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery, epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary, the study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a quite separate from the nature of the text. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however, in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of Linear B were revealed to be used for economic. Informal inscribed texts are graffiti in its original sense, the science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first, individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius, August Wilhelm Zumpt, Theodor Mommsen, Emil Hübner, Franz Cumont, Louis Robert. The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has published in Berlin since 1863. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions, New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically, all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6 and this volume has the greatest number of inscriptions, volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin and this marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world
Inscription
–
The
Rosetta Stone in the
British Museum.
Inscription
–
Petroglyphs in
Wadi Rum (
Jordan)
Inscription
–
Trilingual inscription of
Xerxes at
Van Fortress in Turkey
Inscription
–
The high medieval
Prüfening dedicatory inscription, composed in
Latin and stamped in
Roman square capitals
25.
Document
–
A document is a written, drawn, presented, or memorialized representation of thought. The word originates from the Latin documentum, which denotes a teaching or lesson, in the past the word was usually used to denote a written proof useful as evidence of a truth or fact. In the computer age, document usually denotes a primarily textual computer file, including its structure and format, e. g. fonts, colors, contemporarily, document is not defined by its transmission medium, e. g. paper, given the existence of electronic documents. Documentation is distinct because it has more denotations than document, the concept of document has been defined as any concrete or symbolic indication, preserved or recorded, for reconstructing or for proving a phenomenon, whether physical or mental. The shift to digital technology would seem to make this even more important. Levys thoughtful analyses have shown that an emphasis on the technology of digital documents has impeded our understanding of digital documents as documents. A conventional document, such as a message or a technical report, exists physically in digital technology as a string of bits. As an object of study, it has made into a document. It has become physical evidence by those who study it, template, Citation is problematic and should be verified. The classic example provided by Suzanne Briet is an antelope, An antelope running wild on the plains of Africa should not be considered a document she rules. But if it were to be captured, taken to a zoo and made an object of study and it has become physical evidence being used by those who study it. Indeed, scholarly articles written about the antelope are secondary documents and this opinion has been interpreted as an early expression of actor–network theory. Documents are sometimes classified as secret, private, or public and they may also be described as drafts or proofs. When a document is copied, the source is denominated the original, standards are accepted for specific applications in various fields, e. g. Academia, manuscript, thesis, paper, and journal, government, law, and politics, application, brief, certificate, commission, constitutional document, form, gazette, identity document, license, summons, and white paper. Such standard documents can be drafted based on a template, the page layout of a document is the manner in which information is graphically arranged in the space of the document, e. g. on a page. If the appearance of the document is of concern, page layout is generally the responsibility of a graphic designer, typography concerns the design of letter and symbol forms and their physical arrangement in the document. Information design concerns the communication of information, especially in industrial documents
Document
–
Several common types of documents: a birth certificate, a legal document (a restraining order), and a bank statement.
Document
Document
Document
–
A birth certificate from 1859.
26.
Theatrical property
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A prop, formally known as property, is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes, consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered props. The earliest known use of the properties in English to refer to stage accessories is in the 1425 CE Morality play. The Oxford English Dictionary finds the first usage of props in 1841, during the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered company property, some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects belong to whoever uses them on stage. There is no difference between props in different media, such as theatre, film, or television, bland Wade, a properties director, says, A coffee cup onstage is a coffee cup on television, is a coffee cup on the big screen. He adds, There are definitely different responsibilities and different vocabulary, the term theatrical property originated to describe an object used in a stage play and similar entertainments to further the action. Technically, a prop is any object that gives the scenery, actors, or performance space specific period, place, props in a production originate from off stage unless they have been preset on the stage before the production begins. Props are stored on a prop table backstage near the entrance during production then generally locked in a storage area between performances. The term has readily transferred to television, motion picture and video game production, in recent years, the increasing popularity of movie memorabilia has added new meaning to the term prop, broadening its existence to include a valuable after-life as a prized collectors item. Typically not available until after a premiere, movie props appearing on-screen are called screen-used. However, a prop must read well from the house or on-screen, in some cases, a prop is designed to behave differently from how the real object would, often for the sake of safety. A mop, representing a string mop, but built out of a shape covered with fabric. A prop weapon that reads well but lacks the intentional harmfulness of the real weapon. In the theater, prop weapons are almost always either non-operable replicas, guns fire caps or noisy blanks, swords are dulled, and knives are often made of plastic or rubber. In film production, fully functional weapons are used. Real cartridges with bullets removed are still dangerously charged which has caused several instances when used on stage or film. The safety and proper handling of weapons used as movie props is the premiere responsibility of the prop master
Theatrical property
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A prop table backstage for the musical number "
Food, Glorious Food " in the musical production,
Oliver!
Theatrical property
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Props storage room of the National Theatre, Mannheim, Germany
27.
Testimonial
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In promotion and of advertising, a testimonial or show consists of a persons written or spoken statement extolling the virtue of a product. The term testimonial most commonly applies to the attributed to ordinary citizens. Testimonials can be part of communal marketing, social media such as Twitter have become increasingly popular mediums for celebrities to endorse brands and to attempt to influence purchasing behavior. According to Bloomberg News, social-media-ad spending was expected to reach a total of $4.8 billion at the end of 2012, advertising and marketing companies sponsor celebrities to tweet and influence thousands of their followers to buy brand products. For example, Ryan Seacrest gets paid to promote Ford products, companies that pay celebs to tweet for them subscribe to the Malcolm Gladwell theory of influence. Celebrity endorsements have proven successful in China, where increasing consumerism makes the purchase of an endorsed product into a status symbol. On August 1,2007, laws were passed banning healthcare professionals, testimonials from customers who are not famous have been effectively used in marketing for as long as marketing has existed. A past or current customer will present a word of mouth testimonial that a business can use in marketing. Testimonials have reached a high in importance as the internet is now a plethora of reviews. Google+, TripAdvisor, and many more have become go to places for individuals who are seeking other customers reviews/testimonials about a particular business. To put the growth of industry into perspective, for example, Yelp. coms growth alone can be noted. Instagram especially has increasingly been useful in distributing testimonials on products and it is done by making use of the tagging feature that directly links to the original brand or the particular location that the picture was taken. Moreover, the description of the pictures are used to write either the review or sentences that compliments the product or place. However, it can only be called an endorsement deal when the company or label contacts the user directly to create such testimonial post, and the user receives commission. This is becoming a trend in Indonesia, especially amongst users with at least one thousand followers, the downside to such explosive importance in this arena is the massive amount of fraud in the form of fake reviews or opinion spam, testimonials that are not authentic. Often, an owner will open multiple email addresses and then corresponding Yelp. Accounts and write a multitude of testimonials seemingly by many customers of said business, similarly, the same owner may also write negative reviews of competitors. From a NY Times article about the topic, On another forum, Digital Point
Testimonial
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Pope Leo XIII endorses "
Vin Mariani ", a
patent medicine containing
cocaine.
Testimonial
Testimonial
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Actress and model
Lin Chi-ling at the LG New Chocolate Phone launching event for the BL40, 2009,
Hong Kong
28.
Birth certificate
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A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The term birth certificate can refer to either the document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor, the documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization, especially in China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Persia. The original purpose of statistics was for tax purposes and for the determination of available military manpower. Births were initially registered with churches, who maintained registers of births and this practice continued into the 19th century. The compulsory registration of births with governmental agencies is a practice originated in the United Kingdom in 1853. The United States did not get a system until 1902. Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births, the actual record of birth is stored with a government agency. That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the birth record upon request. The certification is signed and/or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, despite 191 countries ratifying the Convention, the births of millions of children worldwide go unregistered. This phenomenon disproportionately impacts indigenous populations and even in developed countries, contributes to difficulties in fully accessing civic rights. Retrospective registration may be necessary where there is a backlog of children whose births have gone unregistered, in Senegal, the government is facilitating retrospective registration through free local court hearings and the number of unregistered children has fallen considerably as a result. In Sierra Leone, the government gave the National Office of Births and Deaths special permission to issue birth certificates to children over seven, in Bolivia, there was a successful three-year amnesty for the free registration of young people aged between 12 and 18. Statelessness, or the lack of nationality, impacts the daily lives of some 11-12 million people around the world. Perhaps those who suffer most are stateless infants, children, though born and raised in their parents’ country of habitual residence, they lack formal recognition of their existence. States and territories of Australia are responsible for the issuance of certificates, through agencies generally titled Registry of Births Deaths. Initially registering a birth is done by a hospital through a Birth Registration Statement or similar, home births are permitted, but a statement is required from a registered midwife, doctor or 2 other witnesses other than the parents. Unplanned births require in some states that the baby be taken to a hospital within 24 hours, once registered, a separate application can be made for a birth certificate, generally at a cost
Birth certificate
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Mary Elizabeth Winblad (1895-1987) birth certificate
Birth certificate
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A Soviet birth certificate from 1972.
Birth certificate
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Specimen England and Wales Long Birth Certificate
29.
Death certificate
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Each governmental jurisdiction prescribes the form of the document for use in its preview and the procedures necessary to legally produce it. In cases where it is not completely clear that a person is dead, the failure of a physician to immediately submit the required form to the government is often both a crime and cause for loss of ones license to practice. This is because of past scandals in which dead people continued to receive benefits or voted in elections. Death certificates may also be issued pursuant to an order or an executive order in the case of individuals who have been declared dead in absentia. Missing persons and victims of mass disasters may be issued death certificates in one of these manners, in some jurisdictions, a police officer or a paramedic may be allowed to sign a death certificate under specific circumstances. This is usually when the cause of death seems obvious and no foul play is suspected, in such cases, an autopsy is rarely performed. In most of the United States, death certificates are considered public domain documents, other jurisdictions take a different view, and restrict the issue of certificates. In Europe and North America, death records were kept by the churches, along with baptism. In what would become the United States, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first to have the secular courts keep these records, by the end of the 19th century, European countries were pursuing centralized systems for recording deaths. In the United States, a standard model death certificate was developed around 1910 and this promoted uniformity and consistency in record keeping. In the United States, certificates issued to the public for deaths after 1990 may in some states be redacted to erase the specific cause of death to comply with HIV confidentiality rules. Registration in the UK is organised separately in the constituent jurisdictions, in England and Wales, compulsory national registration of deaths began in 1837. Further details have since been recorded including the date and place of birth, maiden surnames. Beginning in 1879, a certificate was necessary for the issuance of a death certificate. The form of indexing and the layout of register pages generally follows that of England, National registration began in 1855, registrations are rather more detailed than in England and Wales. The burial place was recorded from 1855 to 1860, standard details have until now included the deceaseds name, age, marital status, spouse, details of both parents, cause of death and the informants description. Current registrations show the date of birth, the prescribed forms are part of secondary legislation and those for recent years can thus be seen online in the Statute Law Database. These jurisdictions do not form part of the United Kingdom and each has its own registration system and their older records tend to follow the layout used in England and Wales
Death certificate
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Illinois certificate of death issued after the execution of
John Wayne Gacy.
Death certificate
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Eddie August Schneider 's (1911-1940) death certificate, issued in
New York.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Data from Wikidata
