1.
The Calligrapher
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The Calligrapher is the debut novel of Edward Docx, published in 2003. Highly praised, it has been translated into eight languages and it was selected by Matt Thorn as his Summer fiction choice in The Independent and by both San Francisco Chronicle and San Jose Mercury as a Best Book of the Year. It was also a finalist for the William Saroyan International Prize for Writing, as of 2012 it had been translated into eight languages. Jasper though is soon captivated by a new neighbour Madeleine Belmont, the book describes his growing love and commitment to Madeleine, illuminated by observations from the sonnets he is transcribing. But will his relationship with Madeleine last, stephen Metcalf in the New York Times writes Docx, a columnist by trade, frequently writes like a columnist by habit, in terse editorial sound bites. Nonetheless, the pace is mostly brisk, the tone most often light, diane White of The Boston Globe describes it as a delight, a witty, deftly written, honest comedy of manners, a novel that is as intelligent and sophisticated as it is light and funny. Mark Rozzo of the Los Angeles Times warns At times, you wonder whether Docx isnt almost too fluent, like his sure-handed hero, he has a flair for flourishes and curlicues. The Economist concludes with The beauty of Donnes words provides a satisfyingly crisp contrast to the books laddish, laugh-aloud dialogue, charmer and philanderer he may be, but Jaspers optimism and zest for life give him the appeal of a man ruled by both his head and his heart. If readers can suspend disbelief at the painfully shocking double-whammy served up at the end of the story, then this stylishly written, pacy novel is a sexy, satisfying read. com
2.
Handwriting
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Handwriting is a writing created by a person with a writing material such as a pen or pencil. Handwriting includes both printing and cursive styles and is separate from formal calligraphy or typeface, because each persons handwriting is unique and different, it can be used to verify a documents writer. The deterioration of a persons handwriting is also a symptom or result of certain diseases, each person has their own unique style of handwriting, whether it is everyday handwriting or their personal signature. Even identical twins who share appearance and genetics dont have the same handwriting, a persons handwriting is like that persons fingerprints, people might be able to copy it, but never write it in an identical way. Characteristics of handwriting include, specific shape of letters, e. g, in children with these difficulties, the letters tend to be larger with wide variability of letters, letter spacing, word spacing, and the alignment of letters on the baseline. Variability of handwriting increases with longer texts, children who have ADHD were more likely to have difficulty parameterising movements in a consistent way. This has been explained with motor skill impairment either due to lack of attention or lack of inhibition, to anticipate a change of direction between strokes constant visual attention is essential. With inattention, changes occur too late, resulting in higher letters. The influence of medication on the quality of handwriting is not clear, because handwriting is relatively stable, a change in the handwriting can be indicative of the nervousness or intoxication of the writer. Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting in relation to human psychology. Asemic writing Block letters Book hand Calligraphy Cursive Penmanship Signature History of writing Giesbrecht, how The Ballpoint Pen Killed Cursive. What is the evidence of impaired motor skills and motor control among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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Script typeface
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Script typefaces are based upon the varied and often fluid stroke created by handwriting. They are generally used for display or trade printing, rather than for extended text in the Latin alphabet. Some Greek alphabet typefaces, especially historically, have been a closer simulation of handwriting, Script typefaces are organized into highly regular formal types similar to cursive writing and looser, more casual scripts. A majority of scripts are based upon the letterforms of seventeenth and eighteenth century writing-masters like George Bickham, George Shelley. The letters in their form are generated by a quill or metal nib of a pen. Both are able to fine and thick strokes. Typefaces based upon their style of writing appear late in the eighteenth century, contemporary revivals of formal script faces can be seen in Kuenstler Script and Matthew Carters typeface Snell Roundhand. These typefaces are used for invitations and diplomas to effect an elevated. They may use typographic ligatures to have letters connect, casual scripts show a less formal, more active hand. The strokes may vary in width but often appear to have created by wet brush rather than a pen nib. They appear in the twentieth century and with the advent of photocomposition in the early-1950s their number rapidly increased. They were popularly used in advertising in Europe and North America into the 1970s, examples of casual script types include Brush Script, Kaufmann and Mistral. Script typefaces place particular demands on printing technology if the letters are intended to join up like handwriting, a typeface intended to mimic handwriting, such as Claude Garamonds grecs du roi typeface, will require many alternate characters. In digital type these can be substituted seamlessly through contextual ligature insertion in applications like InDesign, another complexity in metal type was that sorts had to have delicate overhanging parts to interlock. This required careful design and casting for the sorts to fit together without gaps or the sorts breaking, Script typefaces have evolved rapidly in the second half of the 20th century due to developments in technology and the end of widespread use of metal type. Historically, most signwriting on logos, displays and shop frontages did not use fonts but was rather custom-designed lettering created by signpainters and engravers, in addition, phototypesetting made overlap of characters relatively simple, something very complicated to achieve in metal type. Matthew Carter has cited his 1966 Snell Roundhand typeface as deliberately designed to replicate a style of hard to simulate in metal. An additional development enabling more sophisticated script fonts has been the release of the OpenType format, many modern script typefaces emulate the styles of hand-drawn lettering from different historical periods
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Chinese calligraphy
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Chinese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy widely practiced in China and revered in the Chinese cultural sphere, which often includes Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. There is a standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related, since they are accomplished using similar tools, Chinese painting and calligraphy distinguish themselves from other cultural arts because they emphasize motion and are charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time, Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones. In China, calligraphy is referred to as Shūfǎ, literally, the way/method/law of writing, Shodō in Japan, Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the arts in the countries where it is practised. Chinese calligraphy focuses not only on methods of writing but also on cultivating ones character, Calligraphy is also considered an art where works are appreciated more or only for their aesthetic qualities. Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs, in 2003, at the site of Xiaoshuangqiao, about 20 km southeast of the ancient Zhengzhou Shang City, ceramic inscriptions dating to 1435–1412 BC have been found by archaeologists. These writings are made in cinnabar paint, thus, the dates of writing in China have been confirmed for the Middle Shang period. The ceramic ritual vessel vats that bear these cinnabar inscriptions were all unearthed within the area of this site. They were unearthed mostly in the sacrificial pits holding cow skulls and cow horns, the inscriptions are written on the exterior and interior of the rim, and the exterior of the belly of the large type of vats. The characters are mostly written singly, character compounds or sentences are rarely seen, the contemporary Chinese characters set principles were clearly visible in ancient Chinas Jiǎgǔwén characters carved on ox scapulas and tortoise plastrons around 14th - 11th century BCE. Brush-written examples decay over time and have not survived, during the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved. With the development of Jīnwén and Dàzhuàn cursive signs continued, moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters. In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BC, despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles. The Lìshū style which is more regularized, and in ways similar to modern text, were also authorised under Qin Shi Huang. Kǎishū style — still in use today — and attributed to Wang Xizhi and its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in Kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed shapes to stabilize, the Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China. But small changes have made, for example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books
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Georgian calligraphy
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Georgian calligraphy is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing of the Georgian language using its three Georgian scripts. Georgia has a tradition of a calligraphic school. Hand-written books from the early centuries became a cultural and a phenomenon in Georgia. Every year on April 14, Georgia celebrates the Day of Georgian language, on this day the calligraphy contests are held, the winners are named and awards are given to the best calligraphers at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts. Georgian calligraphy was created outside of Georgia as well. ვის აქვს ყველაზე ლამაზი ხელწერა საქართველოში და როგორ გადახატეს „ვეფხისტყაოსნის” აფორიზმები კონკურსანტებმა
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Indian calligraphy
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Beginning in the 2nd century AD, Indic language was transferred using birch bark as a writing surface. Locally, the bark was called Bhojpatra in India - patra meaning leaf/bark/sheet in Sanskrit. Palm leaves were used as a substitute to paper, even after paper was available for Indic manuscripts, the leaves were commonly used because they were a good surface for pen writing, which created the delicate and decorative handwriting that is known as calligraphy today. Both sides of leaves were used and they were stacked on top of each other. People then created holes on the leaves and held together by string, thus creating the early Indian manuscripts. Indian traders, colonists, military adventurers, Buddhist monks and missionaries brought the Indic script to the countries of South East Asia, sikhs have traditionally handwritten their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, and furnished it with illumination. Sikh calligrapher Pratap Singh Giani is known for one of the first definitive translations of Sikh scriptures into English, religious texts are the most frequent vehicle for calligraphy in India. Monastic Buddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and having shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures, Jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material with fine calligraphy, Indian Epigraphy, A guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and other Indo-aryan languages. New York, Oxford University Press,1999, Anderson, D. M. Indic calligraphy, Encyclopædia Britannica 2008. This site also has information on a range of Indian scripts, scripts and Languages of India ^ Anderson, D. M
7.
Islamic calligraphy
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Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, based upon the alphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includes Arabic, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy and it is known in Arabic as khatt Islami, meaning Islamic line, design, or construction. The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Quran, chapters, deep religious association with the Quran, as well as suspicion of figurative art as idolatrous has led calligraphy to become one of the major forms of artistic expression in Islamic cultures. As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well established calligraphers, in antiquity, a pupil would copy a masters work repeatedly until their handwriting was similar. The most common style is divided into angular and cursive, each divided into several sub-styles. Some styles are often written using a metallic-tip pen, Islamic calligraphy is applied on a wide range of decorative mediums other than paper, such as tiles, vessels, carpets, and inscriptions. Before the advent of paper, papyrus and parchment were used for writing, the advent of paper revolutionized calligraphy. While monasteries in Europe treasured a few volumes, libraries in the Muslim world regularly contained hundreds. Coins were another support for calligraphy, beginning in 692, the Islamic caliphate reformed the coinage of the Near East by replacing visual depiction with words. This was especially true for dinars, or gold coins of high value, generally the coins were inscribed with quotes from the Quran. By the tenth century, the Persians, who had converted to Islam, so precious were calligraphic inscribed textiles that Crusaders brought them to Europe as prized possessions. A notable example is the Suaire de Saint-Josse, used to wrap the bones of St. Josse in the Abbey of St. Josse-sur-Mer near Caen in northwestern France, Kufic is the oldest form of the Arabic script. The style emphasizes rigid and angular strokes, which appears as a form of the old Nabataean script. The Archaic Kufi consisted of about 17 letters without diacritic dots or accents, afterwards, dots and accents were added to help readers with pronunciation, and the set of Arabic letters rose to 29. It is developed around the end of the 7th century in the areas of Kufa, Iraq, the style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and squared kufi. There were no set rules of using the Kufic script, the common feature is the angular, linear shapes of the characters. Common varieties include square Kufic, a known as bannai. Contemporary calligraphy using this style is popular in modern decorations
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Japanese calligraphy
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Japanese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing, of the Japanese language. The term shodō is likely derived from Chinese origin as it is used to describe the art of Chinese calligraphy during the Chinese Tang dynasty period. In modern calligraphy, a number of tools are used to make a composition, most basic four tools were collectively called Four Treasures of the Study. The best inksticks are between 50 and 100 years old, mulberry paper An inkstone to grind the inkstick against, mixed with water. Other tools include, A paper weight to hold the paper in place A cloth to place under the paper to prevent ink from bleeding through, the art of engraving a seal is called tenkoku 篆刻. The student is encouraged to engrave his own seal, the position of the seal or the seals is based on aesthetic views. One is not allowed to put a seal on a sutras calligraphy, during preparation, water is poured into the inkstone and the inkstick is ground against it, mixing the water with the dried ink to liquefy it. As this is a process, modern-day calligraphy provides liquid ink in a bottle called Bokuju and is frequently used by beginners. More advanced students are encouraged to grind their own ink. Paper is usually placed on a desk, the brushes come in various shapes and sizes, and are usually made using animal hair for the bristles. Typical animal hair may come from goats, sheep, horse-hair, the handle may be made from wood, bamboo, plastic or other materials. The Chinese roots of Japanese calligraphy go back to the twenty-eighth century B. C. to a time when pictographs were inscribed on bone for religious purposes and he sanctioned a form of script based on squares of uniform size into which all characters could be written from eight strokes. He also devised rules of composition where horizontal strokes are written first and characters are composed starting from top to bottom, left to right. Because the symbols were inscribed with sharp instruments, the lines were originally angular and in many ways Li Sis achievements were made obsolete by the appearance of brush, the ink-wet brush creates a line quite different from a sharp stylus. It affords variation in thickness and curve of line, Calligraphy retained the block form of Li Si and his eight strokes but the writer was free to create characters that emphasized aesthetically pleasing balance and form. The way a character was written gave a message of style, Calligraphy in the Chinese tradition was thus introduced to Japan about 600 A. D. Known as the tradition, it has been practiced up to today. The oldest existing text in Japan is the inscription on the halo of the Medicine Buddha statue in the Hōryū-ji Temple. This Chinese text was written in Shakyōtai style, prominent in the Chinese Six Dynasties period, the Hōryū-ji Temple also holds bibliographic notes on the Lotus Sutra, the Hokke Gisho was written early in the 7th century and is considered the oldest Japanese text
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Korean calligraphy
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Korean calligraphy is the Korean tradition of artistic writing in Hangul or Hanja, respectively the Korean alphabet and Chinese characters. Chinese characters were introduced to Korea as early as the 2nd or 3rd century AD, the poet Choe Chiwon was also known for his calligraphy, a sample of which is engraved in a rock in Haeundae, Busan. The angular styles of the early Tang masters, Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun, and Yan Zhenqing, persisted until the 14th century, Korean calligraphy became increasingly formalistic in the years that followed. Kim Jung-hee revolutionized Korean calligraphy in the early 19th century, introducing what is known as the style after his pen name 秋史. As the scholarly classes used Chinese characters, Korean calligraphy used hanja until the 1910–1945 Japanese occupation of Korea, nationalist sentiment led to the popularization of the native hangul alphabet, and calligraphic works using hangul have since seen a revival. The Korean calligraphy is developing its own style, steadfastly, fonts that are not square are being developed, considering jong-sung, or sound coming after the vowel. Newspaper article with visuals on Korean calligraphy
10.
Mongolian calligraphy
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Mongolian calligraphy is a kind of calligraphy of the Mongolian people of Central Asia. Like most other calligraphies in East Asia it is mostly done with a brush, although the Mongolian language in Mongolia uses a Cyrillic orthography adopted during the Communist era, Mongolian calligraphy is written in the traditional Mongolian bichig script. In 2013, Mongolian Calligraphy was inscribed on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, at present, only three middle-aged scholars voluntarily train the small community of just over twenty young calligraphers. Traditionally, mentors select the best students and train them to be calligraphers over a period of five to eight years, students and teachers bond for life and continue to stimulate each other’s artistic endeavours. The rate of transformation, urbanization and globalization have led to a significant drop in the number of young calligraphers
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Tibetan calligraphy
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Tibetan calligraphy refers to the calligraphic traditions used to write the Tibetan language. As in other parts of East Asia, nobles, high lamas, however, unlike calligraphy in China, Japan, and Korea, calligraphy was done using a reed pen as opposed to a brush. Nevertheless, East Asian influence is apparent visually, as Tibetan calligraphy is at times more free-flowing than calligraphy involving the descendants of other Brahmi scripts. Given the overriding religious nature of Tibetan culture, many of the traditions in calligraphy come from religious texts, when handwritten, it is the most basic form of calligraphy, and must be mastered before moving onto other styles. The feature which distinguishes it the most from u-chan is the lack of the lines on the top of letters. The bêcug style is a narrow, cursive variant of umê in squarish shape, the zhuza style is a variant of umê but with ujain vowel symbol. Curve-leg zhuza straight-leg zhuza short-leg zhuza The cugtung style is shortened, abbreviated variant of u-me, the cugrin style The kyugyig is a highly abbreviated, fluid, cursive version of u-me. It is a form of handwriting for notes and personal letters. General cursive extremely cursive The cug-ma-kyugyig style - a style halfway between cugyig and kyugyig The gyugyig style The vertical Phags-pa script is known as horyig, a more ornamental version of the horyig style was used in the past to make personal seals. It is often written vertically as opposed to horizontally. These styles are not fixed, and are not limited to those listed above, by mixing features of various styles, and adding various ornaments to the text, the number of styles becomes quite large. While ujain may be used to write entire Sutras or Buddhist texts, the world record for the longest calligraphy scroll is held by Jamyang Dorjee Chakrishar, who penned a 163.2 meter scroll containing 65,000 Tibetan characters. The scroll contains prayers for the 14th Dalai Lama composed by 32 different monks
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Western calligraphy
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Western calligraphy is the art of writing and penmanship as practiced in the Western world, especially using the Latin alphabet. A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, the story of writing is one of aesthetic development framed within the technical skills, transmission speed and material limitations of a person, time and place. A style of writing is described as a script, hand or alphabet, the rolls of papyrus used in classical antiquity in Late Antiquity were gradually replaced by the codex. Reed pens were replaced by quill pens, isidore of Seville explained the then-current relation between codex, liber and volumen in his Etymologiae, Codex multorum librorum est, liber unius voluminis. Et dictus codex per translationem a codicibus arborum seu vitium, quasi caudex, a codex is composed of many books, a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches. With the onset of the Middle Ages from about the 7th century, charlemagnes devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of a crowd of scribes, according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York. Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule, the first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian remains the one hand from which modern booktype descends. Blackletter and its variation Rotunda, gradually developed from the Carolingian hand during the 12th century, over the next three centuries, the scribes in northern Europe used an ever more compressed and spiky form of Gothic. Those in Italy and Spain preferred the rounder but still heavy-looking Rotunda, during the 15th century, Italian scribes returned to the Roman and Carolingian models of writing and designed the Italic hand, also called Chancery cursive, and Roman bookhand. These three hands — Gothic, Italic, and Roman bookhand — became the models for printed letters, johannes Gutenberg used Gothic to print his famous Bible, but the lighter-weight Italic and Roman bookhand have since become the standard. During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were produced, some illuminated with gold and fine painting, some illustrated with line drawings, towards the end of the Middle Ages, administration in the states of Western Europe became more centralised. Paper was again available in Europe, which allowed a bureaucracy with standardized bookkeeping. It was disseminated around England by bureaucrats on official business and slowly gained prestige, the production of finalized, calligraphic copies of documents in Chancery hand came to be known as engrossing, from Anglo-French engrosser. In the late 1490s and early 1500s, the early printer Richard Pynson favored Chancery Standard in his published works, in the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, and a Speed Hand sometimes simply called the Bastarda. With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome, by 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English Roundhand
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Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
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Visual arts
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The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages
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Writing
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Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion through the inscription or recording of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language, Writing is not a language but a form of technology that developed as tools developed with human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary, Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws, in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. H. G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to put agreements, laws and it made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible, the command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death. The major writing systems—methods of inscription—broadly fall into four categories, logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, another category, ideographic, has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, a logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, many logograms have an ideographic component. For example, in Mayan, the glyph for fin, pronounced ka, was used to represent the syllable ka whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of an element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation. However, such phonetic elements complement the elements, rather than vice versa. A syllabary is a set of symbols that represent syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable ka may look nothing like the syllable ki, syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek, Cherokee, Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam, most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component
16.
Brush
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A brush is a tool with bristles, wire or other filaments, used for cleaning, grooming hair, make up, painting, surface finishing and for many other purposes. It is one of the most basic and versatile tools known to mankind, and it generally consists of a handle or block to which filaments are affixed either parallel- or perpendicular-wise, depending on the way the brush is to be gripped during use. The material of both the block and bristles or filaments is chosen to withstand hazards of its application, such as corrosive chemicals, heat or abrasion. The staple can be replaced with a kind of anchor, which is a piece of rectangular profile wire that is anchored to the wall of the hole, configurations include twisted-in wire, cylinders and disks. The action of these brushes is mainly in the tip of each flexible bristle which dislodges particles of matter, broom The action of such brushes is mostly from the sides, not the tip, contact with which releases material held by capillary action. Certain varieties of hairbrush are however designed to brush the scalp itself free of such as dead skin. Hair brush Dog-grooming brush Cat fur brush Brush, used on electrical motors Drum stick#Brushes Magnetic brush Stippling brush Medical sampling brush Brushes used for cleaning come in various sizes. They vary in size ranging from that of a toothbrush, to the standard household version accompanied by a dustpan, there are brushes for cleaning tiny cracks and crevices and brushes for cleaning enormous warehouse floors. Brushes perform a multitude of cleaning tasks, specific brushes are used for diverse activities from cleaning vegetables, as a toilet brush, washing glass, cleaning tiles, and as a mild abrasive for sanding. Wire brush Hairbrush Ink brush Pastry brush Test tube brush The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art, ISBN 978-0-19-531391-8 Glossary of Brush Terms
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Typography
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Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing, and letter-spacing, the term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography, most typographers do not design typefaces, Typography also may be used as a decorative device, unrelated to communication of information. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation, as the capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay, Typography also was implemented in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete, which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B. C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, the essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches, apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries. Other early examples include individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng. His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty, wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from an alloy, suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts and this technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible. Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as introduced by IBM. During the mid-1980s personal computers such as the Macintosh allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software, Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, the cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses
18.
Wedding invitations
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A wedding invitation is a letter asking the recipient to attend a wedding. It is typically written in formal, third-person language and mailed five to eight weeks before the wedding date, with computer technology, some are able to print directly on envelopes from a guest list using a mail merge with word processing and spreadsheet software. Traditionally, anyone within earshot became part of the celebration, in the Middle Ages, illiteracy was widespread, so the practice of sending written wedding invitations emerged among the nobility. Families of means would commission monks, skilled in the art of Calligraphy, such documents often carried the Coat of arms, or personal crest, of the individual and were sealed with wax. However, the tradition of announcing weddings in the newspaper did become established at this time, in 1642, the invention of metal-plate engraving by Ludwig von Siegen brought higher-quality wedding invitations within the reach of the emerging middle class. Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to hand write the text in reverse onto a plate using a carving tool. The resulting engraved invitations were protected from smudging by a sheet of paper placed on top. At the time, the wording of wedding invitations was more elaborate than today, typically, following the invention of Lithography by Alois Senefelder in 1798, it became possible to produce very sharp and distinctive inking without the need for engraving. This paved the way for the emergence of a genuine mass-market in wedding invitations, Wedding invitations were still delivered by hand and on horseback, however, due to the unreliability of the nascent postal system. A ‘double envelope’ was used to protect the invitation from damage en route to its recipient and this tradition remains today, despite advances in postal reliability. About this time, prominent society figures, such as Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post, growth in the use of wedding stationery was also underpinned by the development of thermography. Although it lacks the fineness and distinctiveness of engraving, thermography is an expensive method of achieving raised type. This technique, often called poor mans engraving, produces shiny, as such, wedding invitations - either printed or engraved - finally became affordable for all. More recently Letterpress printing has made a resurgence in popularity for wedding invitations. It has a boutique and craft appeal due to the deep impression or bite that can be achieved. It was not the intent of letterpress to bite into the paper in this way. The bite or deep impression is a recent aesthetic that adds the sensory experience of touch to letterpress printed wedding invitations, many letterpress printers that specialize in wedding invitations are small start ups or artisan printers, rather than large printing companies. Laser engraving has also making headway in the wedding invitation market over the last few years
19.
Font
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
20.
Logo
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A logo is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, in the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type. By extension, the term was used for a uniquely set. At the level of communication and in common usage, a companys logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand. The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands, consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing, by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important jobs. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, as printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks. By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States. Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, the current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, as a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. Ideograms and symbols may be effective than written names, especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets. For instance, a written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general nature of a product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross exemplifies a well-known emblem that does not need an accompanying name, the red cross and red crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos, branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of the standard color, the text was written in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was being designed. Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design, a logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization
21.
Religious art
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Religious art or sacred art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs and is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual. Sacred art involves the ritual and cultic practices and practical and operative aspects of the path of the spiritual realization within the religious tradition. Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer, one of the most common Christian themes is that of the Virgin Mary holding the infant Jesus. Another is that of Christ on the Cross, for the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate iconographic system developed to conclusively identify scenes. For example, Saint Agnes depicted with a lamb, Saint Peter with keys, each saint holds or is associated with attributes and symbols in sacred art. Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity, during the development of Christian art in the Byzantine empire, a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects, realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon. However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elizabeth Frink and Graham Sutherland have produced well-known works of art for churches. Through a social interpretation of Christianity, Fritz von Uhde also Since the advent of printing, in the 19th century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy. The invention of color led to broad circulation of holy cards. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts, other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander, Gary P. Bergel, Carlos Cazares, Bruce Herman, Deborah Sokolove, and John August Swanson. Buddhist art followed believers as the spread, adapted. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, most Tibetan Buddhist artforms are related to the practice of Vajrayana or Buddhist tantra. Tibetan art includes thangkas and mandalas, often including depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, creation of Buddhist art is usually done as a meditation as well as creating an object as aid to meditation. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist, other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the vajra and the phurba. Two places suggest more vividly than any others the vitality of Buddhist cave painting from about the 5th century AD, one is Ajanta, a site in India long forgotten until discovered in 1817. The other is Dunhuang, one of the great oasis staging posts on the Silk Road and it was used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents
22.
Graphic design
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Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
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Epigraphy
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Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist, for example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and it is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme to a lengthy document. Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography, when compared to books, most inscriptions are short. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery, epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary, the study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a quite separate from the nature of the text. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however, in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of Linear B were revealed to be used for economic. Informal inscribed texts are graffiti in its original sense, the science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first, individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius, August Wilhelm Zumpt, Theodor Mommsen, Emil Hübner, Franz Cumont, Louis Robert. The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has published in Berlin since 1863. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions, New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically, all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6 and this volume has the greatest number of inscriptions, volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin and this marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world
24.
Document
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A document is a written, drawn, presented, or memorialized representation of thought. The word originates from the Latin documentum, which denotes a teaching or lesson, in the past the word was usually used to denote a written proof useful as evidence of a truth or fact. In the computer age, document usually denotes a primarily textual computer file, including its structure and format, e. g. fonts, colors, contemporarily, document is not defined by its transmission medium, e. g. paper, given the existence of electronic documents. Documentation is distinct because it has more denotations than document, the concept of document has been defined as any concrete or symbolic indication, preserved or recorded, for reconstructing or for proving a phenomenon, whether physical or mental. The shift to digital technology would seem to make this even more important. Levys thoughtful analyses have shown that an emphasis on the technology of digital documents has impeded our understanding of digital documents as documents. A conventional document, such as a message or a technical report, exists physically in digital technology as a string of bits. As an object of study, it has made into a document. It has become physical evidence by those who study it, template, Citation is problematic and should be verified. The classic example provided by Suzanne Briet is an antelope, An antelope running wild on the plains of Africa should not be considered a document she rules. But if it were to be captured, taken to a zoo and made an object of study and it has become physical evidence being used by those who study it. Indeed, scholarly articles written about the antelope are secondary documents and this opinion has been interpreted as an early expression of actor–network theory. Documents are sometimes classified as secret, private, or public and they may also be described as drafts or proofs. When a document is copied, the source is denominated the original, standards are accepted for specific applications in various fields, e. g. Academia, manuscript, thesis, paper, and journal, government, law, and politics, application, brief, certificate, commission, constitutional document, form, gazette, identity document, license, summons, and white paper. Such standard documents can be drafted based on a template, the page layout of a document is the manner in which information is graphically arranged in the space of the document, e. g. on a page. If the appearance of the document is of concern, page layout is generally the responsibility of a graphic designer, typography concerns the design of letter and symbol forms and their physical arrangement in the document. Information design concerns the communication of information, especially in industrial documents
25.
Theatrical property
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A prop, formally known as property, is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes, consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered props. The earliest known use of the properties in English to refer to stage accessories is in the 1425 CE Morality play. The Oxford English Dictionary finds the first usage of props in 1841, during the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered company property, some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects belong to whoever uses them on stage. There is no difference between props in different media, such as theatre, film, or television, bland Wade, a properties director, says, A coffee cup onstage is a coffee cup on television, is a coffee cup on the big screen. He adds, There are definitely different responsibilities and different vocabulary, the term theatrical property originated to describe an object used in a stage play and similar entertainments to further the action. Technically, a prop is any object that gives the scenery, actors, or performance space specific period, place, props in a production originate from off stage unless they have been preset on the stage before the production begins. Props are stored on a prop table backstage near the entrance during production then generally locked in a storage area between performances. The term has readily transferred to television, motion picture and video game production, in recent years, the increasing popularity of movie memorabilia has added new meaning to the term prop, broadening its existence to include a valuable after-life as a prized collectors item. Typically not available until after a premiere, movie props appearing on-screen are called screen-used. However, a prop must read well from the house or on-screen, in some cases, a prop is designed to behave differently from how the real object would, often for the sake of safety. A mop, representing a string mop, but built out of a shape covered with fabric. A prop weapon that reads well but lacks the intentional harmfulness of the real weapon. In the theater, prop weapons are almost always either non-operable replicas, guns fire caps or noisy blanks, swords are dulled, and knives are often made of plastic or rubber. In film production, fully functional weapons are used. Real cartridges with bullets removed are still dangerously charged which has caused several instances when used on stage or film. The safety and proper handling of weapons used as movie props is the premiere responsibility of the prop master
26.
Testimonial
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In promotion and of advertising, a testimonial or show consists of a persons written or spoken statement extolling the virtue of a product. The term testimonial most commonly applies to the attributed to ordinary citizens. Testimonials can be part of communal marketing, social media such as Twitter have become increasingly popular mediums for celebrities to endorse brands and to attempt to influence purchasing behavior. According to Bloomberg News, social-media-ad spending was expected to reach a total of $4.8 billion at the end of 2012, advertising and marketing companies sponsor celebrities to tweet and influence thousands of their followers to buy brand products. For example, Ryan Seacrest gets paid to promote Ford products, companies that pay celebs to tweet for them subscribe to the Malcolm Gladwell theory of influence. Celebrity endorsements have proven successful in China, where increasing consumerism makes the purchase of an endorsed product into a status symbol. On August 1,2007, laws were passed banning healthcare professionals, testimonials from customers who are not famous have been effectively used in marketing for as long as marketing has existed. A past or current customer will present a word of mouth testimonial that a business can use in marketing. Testimonials have reached a high in importance as the internet is now a plethora of reviews. Google+, TripAdvisor, and many more have become go to places for individuals who are seeking other customers reviews/testimonials about a particular business. To put the growth of industry into perspective, for example, Yelp. coms growth alone can be noted. Instagram especially has increasingly been useful in distributing testimonials on products and it is done by making use of the tagging feature that directly links to the original brand or the particular location that the picture was taken. Moreover, the description of the pictures are used to write either the review or sentences that compliments the product or place. However, it can only be called an endorsement deal when the company or label contacts the user directly to create such testimonial post, and the user receives commission. This is becoming a trend in Indonesia, especially amongst users with at least one thousand followers, the downside to such explosive importance in this arena is the massive amount of fraud in the form of fake reviews or opinion spam, testimonials that are not authentic. Often, an owner will open multiple email addresses and then corresponding Yelp. Accounts and write a multitude of testimonials seemingly by many customers of said business, similarly, the same owner may also write negative reviews of competitors. From a NY Times article about the topic, On another forum, Digital Point
27.
Birth certificate
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A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The term birth certificate can refer to either the document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor, the documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization, especially in China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Persia. The original purpose of statistics was for tax purposes and for the determination of available military manpower. Births were initially registered with churches, who maintained registers of births and this practice continued into the 19th century. The compulsory registration of births with governmental agencies is a practice originated in the United Kingdom in 1853. The United States did not get a system until 1902. Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births, the actual record of birth is stored with a government agency. That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the birth record upon request. The certification is signed and/or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, despite 191 countries ratifying the Convention, the births of millions of children worldwide go unregistered. This phenomenon disproportionately impacts indigenous populations and even in developed countries, contributes to difficulties in fully accessing civic rights. Retrospective registration may be necessary where there is a backlog of children whose births have gone unregistered, in Senegal, the government is facilitating retrospective registration through free local court hearings and the number of unregistered children has fallen considerably as a result. In Sierra Leone, the government gave the National Office of Births and Deaths special permission to issue birth certificates to children over seven, in Bolivia, there was a successful three-year amnesty for the free registration of young people aged between 12 and 18. Statelessness, or the lack of nationality, impacts the daily lives of some 11-12 million people around the world. Perhaps those who suffer most are stateless infants, children, though born and raised in their parents’ country of habitual residence, they lack formal recognition of their existence. States and territories of Australia are responsible for the issuance of certificates, through agencies generally titled Registry of Births Deaths. Initially registering a birth is done by a hospital through a Birth Registration Statement or similar, home births are permitted, but a statement is required from a registered midwife, doctor or 2 other witnesses other than the parents. Unplanned births require in some states that the baby be taken to a hospital within 24 hours, once registered, a separate application can be made for a birth certificate, generally at a cost
28.
Death certificate
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Each governmental jurisdiction prescribes the form of the document for use in its preview and the procedures necessary to legally produce it. In cases where it is not completely clear that a person is dead, the failure of a physician to immediately submit the required form to the government is often both a crime and cause for loss of ones license to practice. This is because of past scandals in which dead people continued to receive benefits or voted in elections. Death certificates may also be issued pursuant to an order or an executive order in the case of individuals who have been declared dead in absentia. Missing persons and victims of mass disasters may be issued death certificates in one of these manners, in some jurisdictions, a police officer or a paramedic may be allowed to sign a death certificate under specific circumstances. This is usually when the cause of death seems obvious and no foul play is suspected, in such cases, an autopsy is rarely performed. In most of the United States, death certificates are considered public domain documents, other jurisdictions take a different view, and restrict the issue of certificates. In Europe and North America, death records were kept by the churches, along with baptism. In what would become the United States, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first to have the secular courts keep these records, by the end of the 19th century, European countries were pursuing centralized systems for recording deaths. In the United States, a standard model death certificate was developed around 1910 and this promoted uniformity and consistency in record keeping. In the United States, certificates issued to the public for deaths after 1990 may in some states be redacted to erase the specific cause of death to comply with HIV confidentiality rules. Registration in the UK is organised separately in the constituent jurisdictions, in England and Wales, compulsory national registration of deaths began in 1837. Further details have since been recorded including the date and place of birth, maiden surnames. Beginning in 1879, a certificate was necessary for the issuance of a death certificate. The form of indexing and the layout of register pages generally follows that of England, National registration began in 1855, registrations are rather more detailed than in England and Wales. The burial place was recorded from 1855 to 1860, standard details have until now included the deceaseds name, age, marital status, spouse, details of both parents, cause of death and the informants description. Current registrations show the date of birth, the prescribed forms are part of secondary legislation and those for recent years can thus be seen online in the Statute Law Database. These jurisdictions do not form part of the United Kingdom and each has its own registration system and their older records tend to follow the layout used in England and Wales
29.
Map
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A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes. Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word map comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth, thus, map became the shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world. Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface, in addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc. The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the compass directions in reality. The word orient is derived from Latin oriens, meaning East, in the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with East at the top. Today, the most common – but far from universal – cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map, several kinds of maps are often traditionally not oriented with North at the top, Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the top, labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head. Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centred on Jerusalem with East at the top, indeed, prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemys Geography to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West. Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe, Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe, polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole, the direction North would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian towards the bottom of the page, reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the North is up convention and have south at the top. Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earths sphere onto an icosahedron, the resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation. Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, compass decimal degrees can be converted to math degrees by subtracting them from 450, if the answer is greater than 360, subtract 360. The scale statement may be taken as exact when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, over larger regions where the curvature cannot be ignored we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. Thus for map projections we must introduce the concept of point scale, which is a function of position, although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for all but the most precise of measurements. Large scale maps, say 1,10,000, cover relatively small regions in detail and small scale maps, say 1,10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions, there is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100,000 might well be considered as a medium scale
30.
Pen
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A pen is a writing implement used to apply ink to a surface, such as paper, for writing or drawing. Historically, reed pens, quill pens, and dip pens were used, ruling pens allow precise adjustment of line width, and still find a few specialized uses, but technical pens such as the Rapidograph are more commonly used. Modern types also include ballpoint, rollerball, fountain, and felt or ceramic tip pens, the ink dries almost immediately on contact with paper. The ballpoint pen is usually reliable and comes in both inexpensive and expensive types and it has replaced the fountain pen as the most common tool for everyday writing. A rollerball pen dispenses a water-based liquid or gel ink through a ball tip similar to that of a ballpoint pen, the less-viscous ink is more easily absorbed by paper than oil-based ink, and the pen moves more easily across a writing surface. The rollerball pen was designed to combine the convenience of a ballpoint pen with the smooth wet ink effect of a fountain pen. A fountain pen uses water-based liquid ink delivered through a nib, the ink flows from a reservoir through a feed to the nib, then through the nib, due to capillary action and gravity. The nib has no moving parts and delivers ink through a slit to the writing surface. A fountain pen reservoir can be refillable or disposable, this type being an ink cartridge. A pen with a refillable reservoir may have a mechanism, such as a piston, to ink from a bottle through the nib. Refill reservoirs, also known as cartridge converters, are available for some pens which use disposable cartridges, a marker, or felt-tip pen, has a porous tip of fibrous material. The smallest, finest-tipped markers are used for writing on paper, medium-tip markers are often used by children for coloring and drawing. Larger markers are used for writing on other such as corrugated boxes, whiteboards and for chalkboards. Markers with wide tips and bright but transparent ink, called highlighters, are used to mark existing text, markers designed for children or for temporary writing typically use non-permanent inks. Large markers used to label shipping cases or other packages are usually permanent markers, a dip pen usually has no ink reservoir and must be repeatedly recharged with ink while drawing or writing. The dip pen has certain advantages over a fountain pen, dip pens are now mainly used in illustration, calligraphy, and comics. The ink brush is the writing implement in East Asian calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from bamboo, or rarer materials such as red sandalwood, glass, ivory, silver
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Paintbrush
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A paintbrush is a brush used to apply paint or sometimes ink. A paintbrush is usually made by clamping the bristles to a handle with a ferrule and they are available in various sizes, shapes, and materials. They may be subdivided into decorators brushes used for painting and decorating, decorators brush sizes are given in millimeters or inches, which refers to the width of the head. If the filaments are synthetic, they may be made of polyester, nylon or a blend of nylon, filaments can be hollow or solid and can be tapered or untapered. Brushes with tapered filaments give a smoother finish, synthetic filaments last longer than natural bristles. Natural bristles are preferred for oil-based paints and varnishes, while synthetic brushes are better for water-based paints as the bristles do not expand when wetted. A decorator judges the quality of a brush based on several factors, filament retention, paint pickup, steadiness of paint release, brush marks, drag, a chiseled brush permits the painter to cut into tighter corners and paint more precisely. Brush handles may be made of wood or plastic while ferrules are metal, short handled brushes are for watercolor or ink painting while the long handled brushes are for oil or acrylic paint. The styles of brush tip seen most commonly are, Round, pointed tip, long closely arranged bristles for detail Flat and they will have longer hairs than their Bright counterpart. Flat brushes with short stiff bristles, good for driving paint into the weave of a canvas in thinner paint applications, filbert, flat brushes with domed ends. They allow good coverage and the ability to perform some detail work, fan, for blending broad areas of paint. Angle, like the filbert, these are versatile and can be applied in both general painting application as well as some detail work. Mop, a larger format brush with an edge for broad soft paint application as well as for getting thinner glazes over existing drying layers of paint without damaging lower layers. Rigger, round brushes with longish hairs, traditionally used for painting the rigging in pictures of ships and they are useful for fine lines and are versatile for both oils and watercolors. Stippler and deer-foot stippler, short, stubby rounds Liner, elongated rounds Dagger looks like angle with longish hairs, hake, An Asian style of brush with a large broad wooden handle and an extremely fine soft hair used in counterpoint to traditional Sumi brushes for covering large areas. Spotter, Round brushes with just a few short bristles and these brushes are commonly used in spotting photographic prints. Stencil, A round brush with a flat top used on stencils to ensure the bristles dont get underneath, artists brushes are usually given numbered sizes, although there is no exact standard for their physical dimensions. From smallest to largest, the sizes are, 20/0, 12/0, 10/0, 7/0, 6/0, 5/0, 4/0,000,00,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,16,18,20,22,24,25,26,28,30
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Nib (pen)
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A nib is the part of a quill, dip pen or fountain pen which comes into contact with the writing surface in order to deposit ink. Different types of nibs vary in their purpose, shape and size, the quill replaced the reed pen across Europe by the Early Middle Ages and remained the main writing tool of the West for nearly a thousand years until the 17th century. Quills are fashioned by cutting a nib into the end of a feather obtained from a large bird, such as a goose. The quill was in use until the early 19th century. For business purposes, the quill was fairly quickly overtaken, however, it remains popular for personal use, metal nibs have their origins as far back as ancient Egypt and were made of metals like copper and bronze. However, the quality of writing that could be achieved with these pens was inferior to that of reed pens and it was not until 1822, when John Mitchell set up a factory in Birmingham, England to manufacture steel nibs, that their popularity took off. The metal nib retains a sharp point or edge much longer than the quill, metal nibs are also easily manufactured to have different properties for different purposes. Also, they can now be attached to and removed from holders, Pen nibs come in a variety of different shapes and sizes for different purposes but can be split into two main types, broad nibs and pointed nibs. The broad nib, also called broad-edge or chisel-edge, is the older of the two nib types and it is rigid and has a flat edge. The pen is held at a constant angle to the horizontal. Thick and thin strokes are created by varying the direction of the stroke, the pointed nib is flexible and comes to a sharp point rather than a broad edge. Thick and thin strokes are achieved by varying the amount of pressure on the nib, thick lines are created on downstrokes by pushing down on the nib, causing the nib tines to splay and allowing more ink to flow through the widened slit onto the writing surface. Lighter pressure produces less flexing of the tines, creating thinner strokes, the finest hairline strokes are created on the upstrokes and sideways strokes. Due to the shape of the nib, thick lines can only be produced on downstrokes. If too much pressure is applied to the pen on an upstroke, pointed nibs originated in the 17th century and were initially created by hand from quills in a similar fashion to broad-edge nibs. Towards the end of the Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century, pointed pens are also used by artists and drafters for sketching, mapping and technical drawing. Although any pointed nib can be used for drawing, there are available that resemble writing nibs but are specially designed for pen drawing. According to Mathur et al. the modern fountain pen nib may be traced back to the original gold nib which had a fragment of ruby attached to form the wear-point
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Marker pen
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A marker pen, fineliner, marking pen, felt-tip marker, felt-tip pen, flow, marker or texta or sketch pen, is a pen which has its own ink-source, and a tip made of porous, pressed fibers such as felt. A permanent marker consists of a container and a core of an absorbent material and this filling serves as a carrier for the ink. The upper part of the marker contains the nib that was made in time of a hard felt material. Until the early 1990s the most common solvents that were used for the ink were toluene and xylene and these two substances are both harmful and characterized by a very strong smell. Today, the ink is made on the basis of alcohols. Markers may be waterproof, dry-erase, or permanent which will be expanded on in this article. Lee Newman patented a felt-tipped marking pen in 1910, in 1926 Benjamin Paskach patented a fountain paintbrush as he called it which consisted of a sponge-tipped handle containing various paint colors. Markers of this began to be popularized with the sale of Sidney Rosenthals Magic Marker which consisted of a glass tube of ink with a felt wick. By 1958 use of felt-tipped markers was commonplace for a variety of such as lettering, labeling. The year 1962 brought the development of the modern fiber-tipped pen by Yukio Horie of the Tokyo Stationery Company, the marker reservoir, which holds the ink, is formed from polyester. The felt used for the tip is made of highly compressed synthetic fibers or porous ceramics. Toluol and xylol were used as solvents for the dye and are used for the indelible ink in permanent markers. Due to their toxicity, they have often replaced with less critical substances such as alkyl or cyclic alkylene carbonates in other types of markers. Water content of the ink can be up to 10%, besides solvents, and the dye itself, the ink may contain additives and preservatives. Permanent markers are porous pens that can write on surfaces such as glass, plastic, wood, metal, the ink is generally resistant to rubbing and water, and can last for many years. Depending on the surface and the used, however, the marks can often be removed with either vigorous scrubbing or chemicals such as acetone. Highlighters are a form of used to highlight and cover over existing writing while still leaving the writing readable. They are generally produced in neon colours to allow for colour coding and they are designed so that the user is able to easily erase the marks using either a damp cloth, tissue, handkerchief, baby wipe, or other easily cleaned or disposable items
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Ballpoint pen
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A ballpoint pen, also known as a biro, ball pen, is a pen that dispenses ink over a metal ball at its point, i. e. over a ball point. The metal commonly used is steel, brass, or tungsten carbide, as a result, it has influenced art and graphic design and spawned an artwork genre. Pen manufacturers produce designer ballpoint pens for the high-end and collectors markets, the Bic Cristal is a popular disposable type of ballpoint pen whose design is recognised by its place in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York. The concept of using a point within a writing instrument as a method of applying ink to paper has existed since the late 19th century. In these inventions, the ink was placed in a tube whose end was blocked by a tiny ball. Louds pen had a rotating steel ball, held in place by a socket. Although it could be used to rough surfaces such as leather, as Loud intended. With no commercial viability, its potential went unexploited and the patent eventually lapsed, the manufacture of economical, reliable ballpoint pens as we know them arose from experimentation, modern chemistry, and precision manufacturing capabilities of the early 20th century. Patents filed worldwide during early development are testaments to failed attempts at making the commercially viable. Early ballpoints did not deliver the ink evenly, overflow and clogging were among the obstacles inventors faced toward developing reliable ballpoint pens, if the ball socket were too tight, or the ink too thick, it would not reach the paper. If the socket were too loose, or the ink too thin, ink reservoirs pressurized by piston, spring, capillary action, and gravity would all serve as solutions to ink-delivery and flow problems. He decided to create a pen using the type of ink. Bíró enlisted the help of his brother György, a chemist, bírós innovation successfully coupled ink-viscosity with a ball-socket mechanism which act compatibly to prevent ink from drying inside the reservoir while allowing controlled flow. Bíró filed a British patent on 15 June 1938, in 1941, the Bíró brothers and a friend, Juan Jorge Meyne, fled Germany and moved to Argentina, where they formed Bíró Pens of Argentina and filed a new patent in 1943. Their pen was sold in Argentina as the Birome, which is how ballpoint pens are still known in that country and this new design was licensed by the British, who produced ballpoint pens for RAF aircrew as the Biro. Ballpoint pens were found to be more versatile than fountain pens, especially at high altitudes, bírós patent, and other early patents on ballpoint pens often used the term ball-point fountain pen. Following World War II, many companies vied to produce their own ballpoint pen design. During the same period, American entrepreneur Milton Reynolds came across a Birome ballpoint pen during a trip to Buenos Aires
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Parchment
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Parchment is a writing material made from specially prepared untanned skins of animals—primarily sheep, calves, and goats. It has been used as a medium for over two millennia. Vellum is a finer quality parchment made from the skins of kids, lambs and it may be called animal membrane by libraries and museums that wish to avoid distinguishing between parchment and the more restricted term vellum. Today the term parchment is often used in non-technical contexts to refer to any animal skin, particularly goat, sheep or cow, that has been scraped or dried under tension. Vellum in theory refers exclusively to calfskin, and is used to denote a quality of material. The term parchment originally referred only to the skin of sheep and, occasionally, the word parchment evolved from the name of the city of Pergamon which was a thriving center of parchment production during the Hellenistic period. This account, originated in the writings of Pliny the Elder, is dubious because parchment had been in use in Anatolia, in the 2nd century BC a great library was set up in Pergamon that rivaled the famous Library of Alexandria. Writing on prepared animal skins had a history, however. H. Ibscher, and preserved in the Cairo Museum, a roll of the Twelfth Dynasty now in Berlin, the text now in the British Museum. Though the Assyrians and the Babylonians impressed their cuneiform on clay tablets, early Islamic texts are also found on parchment. In the later Middle Ages, especially the 15th century, parchment was largely replaced by paper for most uses except luxury manuscripts, new techniques in paper milling allowed it to be much cheaper than parchment, it was still made of textile rags and of very high quality. With the advent of printing in the fifteenth century, the demands of printers far exceeded the supply of animal skins for parchment. Although most copies of the Gutenberg Bible are on paper, some were printed on parchment,12 of the 48 surviving copies, in 1490, Johannes Trithemius preferred the older methods, because handwriting placed on parchment will be able to endure a thousand years. But how long will printing last, which is dependent on paper and it lasts for two hundred years that is a long time. In fact high quality paper from this period has survived 500 years or more very well, the heyday of parchment use was during the medieval period, but there has been a growing revival of its use among artists since the late 20th century. Although parchment never stopped being used it had ceased to be a choice for artists supports by the end of 15th century Renaissance. This was partly due to its expense and partly due to its working properties. When the water in paint media touches parchments surface, the collagen melts slightly, forming a bed for the paint
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Vellum
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Vellum is prepared animal skin or membrane used as a material for writing on. Vellum is prepared for writing or printing on, to produce single pages, scrolls, vellum is generally smooth and durable, although there are great variations depending on preparation and the quality of the skin. The manufacture involves the cleaning, bleaching, stretching on a frame, to create tension, scraping is alternated with wetting and drying. A final finish may be achieved by abrading the surface with pumice, modern paper vellum is a quite different synthetic material, used for a variety of purposes, including plans, technical drawings, and blueprints. In Europe, from Roman times, the vellum was used for the best quality of prepared skin, regardless of the animal from which the hide was obtained, calf, sheep. Although the term derives from the French for calf, animal vellum can include hide from virtually any other mammal. The best quality, uterine vellum, was said to be made from the skins of stillborn or unborn animals, there has long been, however, much blurring of the boundaries between these terms. In 1519, William Horman could write in his Vulgaria, That stouffe that we wrytte upon, modern scholars and custodians increasingly use only the safe if confusing term membrane. In the usage of modern practitioners of the crafts of writing, illuminating, lettering. Vellum is a translucent material produced from the skin, often split, the skin is washed with water and lime, but not together. It is then soaked in lime for several days to soften, once clear, the two sides of the skin are distinct, the side facing inside the animal and the hair side. The inside body side of the skin is usually the lighter, the hair follicles may be visible on the outer side, together with any scarring, made while the animal was alive. The membrane can also show the pattern of the animals vein network called the veining of the sheet, any remaining hair is removed and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame. The skin is attached at points around the circumference with cords, to prevent tearing, the maker then uses a crescent shaped knife, to clean off any remaining hairs. Once the skin is dry, it is thoroughly cleaned and processed into sheets. The number of extracted from the piece of skin depends on the size of the skin. For example, the average calfskin can provide three and half sheets of writing material. This can be doubled when it is folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a bifolium, historians have found evidence of manuscripts where the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers
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Lightbox
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A lightbox is a translucent surface illuminated from behind, used for situations where a shape laid upon the surface needs to be seen with high contrast. Several varieties exist, depending on their purpose, Various backlit viewing devices, A container with several lightbulbs and it is used by photography professionals viewing transparent films, such as slides. This device was used to sort photographic plates with ease. When laid flat, it may be called a light table, generally, a lightbox uses light similar to daylight and has uniform light strength on the glass pane. In the form of panels, they can also be found mounted on the walls of hospitals. In the science field, lightboxes are often used for looking at bacterial growth, a lighted display panel used for advertising purposes. The panel can be illuminated by fluorescent light bulbs or LED lighting strips, the efficiency of light boxes improved dramatically after the introduction of LED technology. The user inserts a graphic, which can be changed easily, some light boxes are designed especially for outdoor purposes so they are more weatherproof. The fabric reflectors that attach to studio lighting via a connector to create soft lighting by diffusing the strobe flash are called light boxes and they generally come in various rectangle or octagon shapes. Interior reflectors can be white, silver or gold to alter the temperature of light, a variation of this is a box, with one open end, made of diffusing material, to allow the photographing of a sample object with no shadows. A folder used on stock photography to allow a user to organize digital photos, photos can be assigned to a viewable lightbox folder by subject, for later convenience, or used to compile unrelated photos for a specific project layout. Lightboxes also allow graphic designers to show clients options for a project in one simple uncluttered folder, the card-reader near the door in a hotel room, used as the main electric switch Light table Blueprint Heliographic copier Thermal copier Verifax copier Fabricando una caja luminosa
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Ruled paper
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Ruled paper is writing paper that typically consists of horizontal lines meant to be used as a guide for handwriting. Sometimes additional vertical lines provide margins or act as tab stops, the lines often are printed with fine width and in light color, thus such paper is sometimes called feint-ruled paper. A popular alternative to lined paper is graph paper and it is a grid layout in which horizontal and vertical lines are equally spaced, dividing the page into squares. There are many types of ruled paper, lines are drawn on paper according to the needs of the users. Some types of ruled paper are for calligraphy, making graphs, or writing music, whereas others are for teaching students how to write in a language or script. The type of ruling is not typically tied to any particular paper size, instead, it is usually determined by the purpose, style of handwriting, and/or the language being written. Lines on ruled paper are used as guidelines to help the user keep their writing or drawing consistent with a predetermined set of rules. Some generic categories of lined paper are as follows, Notebook paper is used for handwriting. It is produced in different layouts and sizes, the specific size and layout is determined by the need or region. The layout usually consists of evenly spaced horizontal lines with vertical lines drawn to indicate margins, the number of vertical lines varies by region. Graph paper is used for drafting, drawing, etc, quadrille ruled paper has horizontal and vertical lines which are both evenly spaced over the entire page, creating a grid of squares. These evenly spaced squares help to keep things lined up, in addition to creating graphs and diagrams, students often use graph paper to help keep numbers in columns when doing manual operations such as long division or long multiplication. Semi-log ruled paper is similar to quadrille ruled, except the lines are drawn according to the logarithmic scale. Log-log ruled paper is similar to quadrille ruled, except that both the horizontal and vertical lines are drawn according to the logarithmic scale, music manuscript paper is used when handwriting music. The most basic page is out with a series of five-line staves. Any musical notation may be written in as desired by the artist, as notebook paper is to the written word, music manuscript paper is to the written score. Elementary students use Tianzigezhi ruled paper, in France, in order to foster handwriting discipline, a type of ruling known as Seyès ruling is used on paper in schools. Heavy horizontal lines are printed 8 mm apart, with three lighter lines 2 mm apart between each pair of heavy lines, heavy vertical lines are spaced 8 mm apart, beginning 16 mm from the left-hand edge of the page
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Quill
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A quill pen is a writing implement made from a moulted flight feather of a large bird. Quills were used for writing with ink before the invention of the dip pen, the pen, the fountain pen, and, eventually. The hand-cut goose quill is rarely used as a tool, because many papers are now derived from wood pulp. However, it is still the tool of choice for a few professionals, in a carefully prepared quill the slit does not widen through wetting and drying with ink. It will retain its shape adequately and only requires infrequent sharpening, the hollow shaft of the feather acts as an ink reservoir and ink flows to the tip by capillary action. The strongest quills come from the flight feathers discarded by birds during their annual moult. Generally the left wing is favored by the majority of writers because the feather curves away from the sight line. The quill barrel is cut to six or seven inches in length, additionally, writing with the left-hand in the long era of the quill was discouraged, and quills were never sold as left and right-handed, only by their size and species. Goose feathers are most commonly used, scarcer, more expensive swan feathers are used for larger lettering, on a true quill the barbs are always stripped off completely on the trailing edge. Later a fashion developed for stripping partially and leaving a decorative top of a few barbs, the fancy, fully plumed quill is mostly a Hollywood invention and has little basis in reality. Most, if not all, manuscript illustrations of scribes show a quill devoid of decorative barbs, quill pens were used to write the vast majority of medieval manuscripts, the Magna Carta and the Declaration of Independence. Quill pens are used today mainly by professional scribes and calligraphers. Quills are also used as the material in string instruments. Quills were the writing instrument in the Western World from the 6th to the 19th century. The best quills were usually made from goose, swan, quills went into decline after the invention of the metal pen, mass production beginning in Great Britain as early as 1822 by John Mitchell of Birmingham. Quill pens were the instrument of choice during the medieval era due to their compatibility with parchment, prior to this the reed pen had been used, but a finer letter was achieved on animal skin using a cured quill. Other than written text, they were used to create figures, decorations. The variety of different strokes in formal hands was accomplished by good penmanship as the tip was square cut and rigid and this has been done since the earliest sessions of the Court
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Dip pen
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A dip pen or nib pen usually consists of a metal nib with capillary channels like those of fountain-pen nibs, mounted in a handle or holder, often made of wood. Other materials can be used for the holder, including bone, metal, generally, dip pens have no ink reservoir, so the user must recharge the ink from an ink bowl or bottle to continue drawing or writing. There are simple, tiny tubular reservoirs that illustrators sometimes clip onto dip pens, thus, dip pens are not necessarily dipped, many illustrators call them nib pens. Dip pens emerged in the early 19th century, when they replaced quill pens and, in parts of the world. Dip pens were used before the development of fountain pens in the later 19th century, and are now mainly used in illustration, calligraphy. The dip pen has certain advantages over a fountain pen, Dip pens are also more sensitive to variations of pressure and speed, producing a line that naturally varies in thickness, and they can also produce a finer line than any fountain pen. There is a range of exchangeable nibs for dip pens, so different types of lines. The nibs and handles are far cheaper than most fountain pens, the earliest known split-nib metal dip pen is a surviving copper-alloy pen found in Roman Britain. There have been several other surviving all-metal and removable-nib pens from the Middle Ages and Renaissance that have been found, the steel pen is first attested in Daniel Defoes book A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain – 1724–26. In Newhall Street, John Mitchell pioneered mass production of pens in 1822. His brother William Mitchell later set up his own pen making business in St Pauls square, the Mitchell family is credited as being the first manufacturers to use machines to cut pen nibs, which greatly sped up the process. The Jewellery Quarter and surrounding area of Birmingham, England was home to many of the first dip pen manufacturers, some of those companies were Joseph Gillotts, Sir Josiah Mason, Hink Wells & Co. Brandauer & Co. D. Leonardt & Co, baker and Finnemore operated in James Street, near St Pauls Square. C Brandauer & Co Ltd. founded as Ash & Petit, Joseph Gillott & Sons Ltd. made pen nibs in Bread Street, now Cornwall Street. By 1830 John and William Mitchell, Joseph Gillott, and Josiah Mason were the manufacturers in Birmingham. In Germany the industrial production of dip pens started in 1842 at the factory of Heintze & Blanckertz in Berlin, by the 1850s, Birmingham existed as a world centre for steel pen and steel nib manufacture. More than half the steel nib pens manufactured in the world were Birmingham-made, thousands of skilled craftsmen and women were employed in the industry. Many new manufacturing techniques were perfected in Birmingham, enabling the citys factories to mass-produce their pens cheaply and efficiently and these were sold worldwide to many who previously could not afford to write, which encouraged the development of education and literacy
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Ink brush
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Ink brushes are used in Chinese calligraphy. They are also used in Chinese painting and descendant brush painting styles, the ink brush was invented in China, believed to be around 300 B. C. Together with the inkstone, inkstick and Xuan paper, these four writing implements form the Four Treasures of the Study, brushes differ greatly in terms of size, texture, material and cost. Stalk, Usually normal bamboo, exotic brushes instead may use materials like gold, silver, jade, ivory, red sandalwood or spotted bamboo. Hair source, Normally the brush is made from goat, Siberian weasel, pig, mouse, buffalo, wolf and rabbit hair, while exotic ones can be made from tiger, fowl, deer, hair texture, soft, mixed or hard hair. Certain textures are better for writing certain styles than others are, hair size, Generally classified as either big, medium or small, most calligraphy is written with a medium-sized brush. The smallest brushes are used for small pieces and for fashioning designs for seals. Medium brushes are the most widely used, wielded by a skilled artist, the largest brushes are used only for very large pieces. The hair one chooses to use depends on ones needs at the moment, certain kinds of brushes are more suited to certain script styles and individuals than others are. Prices vary greatly depending on the quality of the brush, cheap brushes cost less than a US dollar while expensive can cost more than a thousand, currently, the finest brushes are made in the town of Shanlian, in the district of Huzhou, Zhejiang province. The earliest intact ink brush was found in 1954, in the tomb of a Chu citizen during the Warring States period and this primitive version of an ink brush had a wooden stalk, and a bamboo tube secures the bundle of hair to the stalk. Legend wrongly credits the invention of the ink brush to the later Qin general Meng Tian, traces of the writing brush, however, were discovered on the Shang jades, and were suggested to be the grounds of the oracle bone inscriptions. The Fudepen, also known as Brush Pen, is a calligraphy oriented marker, today, Japanese companies such as Pentel and Sakura Color Products Corporation manufacture pens with brushes resembling those of a small ink brush as tips. These brush pens work almost identically to small ink brushes, Chinese calligraphy Huzhou ink brush Japanese calligraphy Korean calligraphy Xuan writing brush
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Qalam
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A qalam is a type of pen made from a dried reed, used for Islamic calligraphy. The word derives from the Greek word κάλαμος, meaning reed, in modern Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Kurdish, the word means either pen or pencil, while in Hindi, Bengali and Urdu, the word solely means pen. The ink for the pen, was just a black ink. The concepts of knowledge and writing are important in Islam. Kalam List of pen types, brands and companies
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Fountain pen
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A fountain pen is a nib pen that, unlike its predecessor, the dip pen, contains an internal reservoir of liquid ink. The pen draws ink from the reservoir through a feed to the nib and deposits it on paper via a combination of gravity, some pens employ removable reservoirs in the form of pre-filled ink cartridges. There is compelling evidence that the first working fountain pen was constructed and used during the Renaissance by artist, leonardos journals contain drawings with cross-sections of what appears to be a reservoir pen that works by both gravity and capillary action. While no physical item survives, several working models were reconstructed in 2011 by artist Amerigo Bombara that have since put on display in museums dedicated to Leonardo. The fountain pen was available in Europe in the 17th century, in Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae, German inventor Daniel Schwenter described a pen made from two quills. One quill served as a reservoir for ink inside the other quill, the ink was sealed inside the quill with cork. Ink was squeezed through a hole to the writing point. In 1663 Samuel Pepys referred to a pen to carry ink. Noted Maryland historian Hester Dorsey Richardson documented a reference to three silver fountain pens, worth 15 shillings in England during the reign of Charles II, by the early 18th century such pens were already commonly known as fountain pens. Progress in developing a reliable pen was slow until the mid-19th century because of an understanding of the role that air pressure plays in the operation of pens. Furthermore, most inks were highly corrosive and full of sedimentary inclusions, the Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru received a French patent on May 25,1827, for the invention of the first fountain pen with a barrel made from a large swan quill. This boosted the Birmingham pen trade and by the 1850s, more than half the steel-nib pens manufactured in the world were made in Birmingham, thousands of skilled craftsmen were employed in the industry. Many new manufacturing techniques were perfected, enabling the citys factories to mass-produce their pens cheaply and efficiently and these were sold worldwide to many who previously could not afford to write, thus encouraging the development of education and literacy. In 1848, American inventor Azel Storrs Lyman patented a pen with a combined holder, from the 1850s, there was a steadily accelerating stream of fountain pen patents and pens in production. However, it was only after three key inventions were in place that the pen became a widely popular writing instrument. Those were the iridium-tipped gold nib, hard rubber, and free-flowing ink, the first fountain pens making use of all these key ingredients appeared in the 1850s. In the 1870s Duncan MacKinnon, a Canadian living in New York City, Cross of Providence, Rhode Island, created stylographic pens with a hollow, tubular nib and a wire acting as a valve. Stylographic pens are now used mostly for drafting and technical drawing but were popular in the decade beginning in 1875
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Incipit
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The incipit of a text is the first few words of the text, employed as an identifying label. In a musical composition, an incipit is a sequence of notes. The word incipit comes from Latin and means it begins, before the development of titles, texts were often referred to by their incipits, as with for example Agnus Dei. Though the word incipit is Latin, the practice of the incipit predates classical antiquity by several millennia, although not always called by the name of incipit today, the practice of referring to texts by their initial words remains commonplace. In the clay archives of Sumer, catalogs of documents were kept by making special catalog tablets containing the incipits of a given collection of tablets. The catalog was meant to be used by the limited number of official scribes who had access to the archives. This is a Sumerian example from Lerner, Many books in the Hebrew Bible are named in Hebrew using incipits, for instance, the first book is called Bereshit and Lamentations, which begins How lonely sits the city. A readily recognized one is the Shema or Shema Yisrael in the Torah, – the first words of the prayer encapsulating Judaisms monotheism. All the names of Parashot are incipits, the coming from a word. The first in each book are, of course, called by the name as the book as a whole. Some of the Psalms are known by their incipits, most noticeably Psalm 51, in the Talmud, the chapters of the Gemara are titled in print and known by their first words, e. g. the first chapter of Mesekhet Berachot is called Me-ematai. This word is printed at the head of every subsequent page within that chapter of the tractate, Many religious songs and prayers are known by their opening words. Sometimes an entire monograph is known by its dibur hamathil, the published mystical and exegetical discourses of the Chabad-Lubavitch rebbes, derive their titles almost exclusively from the dibur ha-mathil of the individual works first chapter. e. Traditionally, papal bulls, documents issued under the authority of the Pope, are referenced by their Latin incipit, some of the mantras, suktas from the hymns of the Vedas, conform to this usage. The modern use of standardized titles, combined with the International Standard Bibliographic Description, have made the incipit obsolete as a tool for organizing information in libraries. That such a use is an incipit and not a title is most obvious when the line breaks off in the middle of a grammatical unit, Latin legal concepts are often designated by the first few words, for example, habeas corpus for habeas corpus ad subjiciendum. Many word processors propose the first few words of a document as a file name. The space-filling, or place-holding, text lorem ipsum is known as such from its incipit, musical incipits are printed in standard music notation
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Gospel of Matthew
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The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament. The narrative tells how the Messiah, Jesus, rejected by Israel, most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed between AD80 and 90, with a range of possibility between AD70 to 110. The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel, as Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognise but of which his enemies are unaware. As Son of God he is God revealing himself through his son, the gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelists community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees. The original versions of the Gospel of Matthew and the gospels are lost. The oldest relatively complete extant manuscripts of the Bible are the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, besides these, there exist manuscript fragments ranging from a few verses to whole chapters. P104 and P67 are notable fragments of Matthew, in the process of recopying, variations slipped in, different regional manuscript traditions emerged, and corrections and adjustments were made. The Gospel of Matthew is anonymous, the author is not named within the text, the consensus is that Papias does not describe the Gospel of Matthew as we know it, and it is generally accepted that Matthew was written in Greek, not in Aramaic or Hebrew. The majority view of scholars is that Mark was the first gospel to be composed. The author of Matthew did not, however, simply copy Mark, an additional 220 verses, shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name Quelle, or the Q source. The author also had at his disposal the Greek scriptures, both as book-scrolls and in the form of collections, and, if Papias is correct. The majority view among scholars is that Matthew was a product of the last quarter of the 1st century, the Christian community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, were still part of the larger Jewish community, hence the designation Jewish Christian to describe them. The author of Matthew wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria, Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase When Jesus had finished. The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words The Book of Genealogy of Jesus Christ, John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan and his early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses. The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes and it concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowds amazed response leads into the next narrative block. From the authoritative words of Jesus the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two stories, followed by a discourse on mission and suffering. Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan, Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit
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Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
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Latin alphabet
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The Latin alphabet is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the script of the English language and is often referred to simply as the alphabet in English. It is an alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, the phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters, due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed letters known as roman square capitals, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles that developed to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to being written with a pen. Throughout the ages, many stylistic variations of each letter have evolved that are still identified as being the same letter. From the Cumae alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet was derived, the Latins ultimately adopted 21 of the original 26 Etruscan letters. Gaius Julius Hyginus, who recorded much Roman mythology, mentions in Fab, the Parcae, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos invented seven Greek letters — A B H T I Y. Others say that Mercury invented them from the flight of cranes, which, palamedes, too, son of Nauplius, invented eleven letters, Simonides, too, invented four letters — Ó E Z PH, Epicharmus of Sicily, two — P and PS. The Greek letters Mercury is said to have brought to Egypt, Cadmus in exile from Arcadia, took them to Italy, and his mother Carmenta changed them to Latin to the number of 15. Apollo on the added the rest. The original Latin alphabet was, The oldest Latin inscriptions do not distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, representing both by C, K and Q according to position, K was used before A, Q was used before O or V, C was used elsewhere. This is explained by the fact that the Etruscan language did not make this distinction, C originated as a turned form of Greek Gamma and Q from Greek Koppa. In later Latin, K survived only in a few such as Kalendae, Q survived only before V. G was later invented to distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, it was simply a C with an additional diacritic. C stood for /ɡ/ I stood for both /i/ and /j/, V stood for both /u/ and /w/. K was marginalized in favour of C, which stood for both /ɡ/ and /k/
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Data from Wikidata
