1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
4.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
5.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
6.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
7.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
8.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
9.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
10.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
11.
Cadbury
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Cadbury, formerly Cadburys, is a British multinational confectionery company wholly owned by Mondelez International since 2010. It is the second-largest confectionery brand in the world after Wrigleys, Cadbury is internationally headquartered in Uxbridge, West London, and operates in more than 50 countries worldwide. It is famous for its Dairy Milk chocolate, the Creme Egg and Roses selection box, One of the best-known British brands, in 2013 The Daily Telegraph named Cadbury among Britains most successful exports. Cadbury was established in Birmingham, England in 1824, by John Cadbury who sold tea, coffee, Cadbury developed the business with his brother Benjamin, followed by his sons Richard and George. George developed the Bournville estate, a village designed to give the companys workers improved living conditions. Dairy Milk chocolate, introduced in 1905, used a higher proportion of milk within the recipe compared with rival products, by 1914, the chocolate was the companys best-selling product. Cadbury, alongside Rowntrees and Fry, were the big three British confectionery manufacturers throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Cadbury was granted its first Royal Warrant from Queen Victoria in 1854. It has been a holder of a Royal Warrant from Elizabeth II since 1955, Cadbury merged with J. S. Fry & Sons in 1919, and Schweppes in 1969. Cadbury was a constant constituent of the FTSE100 on the London Stock Exchange from the indexs 1984 inception until the company was bought by Kraft Foods in 2010. In 1824, John Cadbury, a Quaker, began selling tea, coffee and drinking chocolate in Bull Street in Birmingham, England. From 1831 he moved into the production of a variety of cocoa and drinking chocolates, made in a factory in Bridge Street, in 1847, John Cadbury became a partner with his brother Benjamin and the company became known as Cadbury Brothers. The brothers opened an office in London, and in 1854 they received the Royal Warrant as manufacturers of chocolate, the company went into decline in the late 1850s. John Cadburys sons Richard and George took over the business in 1861, at the time of the takeover, the business was in rapid decline, the number of employees had reduced from 20 to 11, and the company was losing money. By 1866, Cadbury was profitable again, the brothers had turned around the business by moving the focus from tea and coffee to chocolate, and by increasing the quality of their products. The firms first major breakthrough occurred in 1866 when Richard and George introduced an improved cocoa into Britain, a new cocoa press developed in the Netherlands removed some of the unpalatable cocoa butter from the cocoa bean. The firm began exporting its products in the 1850s, in the 1880s the firm began to produce chocolate confectioneries. In 1878, the decided to build new premises in countryside four miles from Birmingham. The move to the countryside was unprecedented in business, better transport access for milk that was inward shipped by canal, and cocoa that was brought in by rail from London, Southampton and Liverpool docks was taken into consideration
12.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
13.
Ginger ale
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Ginger ale is a carbonated soft drink flavoured with ginger in one of two ways. The golden style is credited to the American doctor Thomas Cantrell, the dry style is a paler drink with a much milder ginger flavour, and was created by Canadian John McLaughlin. Thomas Cantrell, an American apothecary and surgeon, claimed to have invented ginger ale in Belfast, Northern Ireland, Grattan embossed the slogan The Original Makers of Ginger Ale on its bottles. This was the older style Golden ginger ale, dark coloured, generally sweet to taste, Ginger ale is clear, ginger beer is often cloudy due to the residues of brewing, and has a stronger ginger taste. Dry ginger ale is recognized as a Canadian creation by John McLaughlin, having established a soda water bottling plant in 1890, McLaughlin began developing flavour extracts to add to the water in 1904. That year, he introduced Pale Dry Ginger Ale, the bubbly libation that would be patented in 1907 as Canada Dry Ginger Ale, an instant success, Canada Dry products were accepted by appointment to the Vice-Regal Household of the Governor General of Canada. The dry-style also became popular in the United States during the Prohibition era, Dry ginger ale quickly surpassed golden ginger ale in popularity. Today, golden ginger ale is an uncommon, more regional drink exemplified by Vernors, by contrast, dry ginger ale is produced on a large scale internationally, and is a staple in supermarkets and bars, and on airlines. Ginger ale commonly contains carbonated water, sugar or HFCS, Ginger content is often listed on labels in a general natural aroma or Natural flavoring statement, to preserve secrecy of the complex proprietary mix of spices, fruits and other flavours used. Lemon, lime, and cane sugar are the most common of ingredients, pineapple and honey are also occasional ingredients. Ginger ale can also contain yeast, when carbonated with natural fermentation, most commercial ginger ales made in the United States are made with high fructose corn syrup as a sweetener. Ginger ale, as with other products, is often used as a home remedy to alleviate indigestion or motion sickness, or to relieve and to soothe coughs. Studies on its effectiveness as an antiemetic have produced mixed results and it is popular in mixed drinks, and punch, and it is sometimes used as a non-alcoholic substitute for champagne or beer, since the beverages resemble each other in appearance. Ginger ale can be mixed with many hard liquors, beers, in Jamaica, a common way to consume ginger ale is mixed with Red Stripe beer, this is called a Shandy Gaff. Dry ginger ale is also sold with a mint flavouring added, some mint ginger ale brands have an artificial green colour added, while others are clear. Recently, Canada Dry has introduced a line of ginger ale mixed with green tea, in selected Japanese vending machines, Canada Dry also offers hot ginger ale, which is simply the heated version of the original but still retains carbonation. Vernors, Blenheim, A-Treat, Bulls Head, Chelmsford, Buffalo Rock, Sussex, Canada Dry, Schweppes, and Seagrams are major brands of dry ginger ale. Vernors is a golden ginger ale aged for three years in oak barrels before bottling
14.
Drink mixer
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Drink mixers are the non-alcoholic ingredients in mixed drinks and cocktails. There are many reasons mixers are used and they change or enhance flavors or add new ones to a drink. Mixers dilute the drink, lowering the alcohol by volume in the drink and they may make the drink sweeter, more sour, or more savory. Some mixers change the texture or consistency of the drink, making it thicker or more watery, Drink mixers may also be used strictly for decorative purposes by changing the color or appearance of the drink. Caffeine, a stimulant, masks some of the depressant effects of alcohol, coffee Energy drinks – Red Bull, etc. Iced tea, sweetened – Lipton BRISK, Nestea, etc, carbonation adds a festive flair to drinks. It also increases the absorption of the alcohol into the stream due to increased pressure in the stomach. Bitter lemon – flavored with quinine and lemon Carbonated water Cola – Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Ginger ale Ginger beer Lemon Sour Lemon–lime soda –7 Up, Sprite, etc. Root beer, orange, grape, and cherry soda, and various fruit and herb–flavored soft drinks are used. Tonic water - The essential ingredient is quinine, sugar and other flavorings are also commonly added. Milk products add an effect to the feel of the drink to counteract the burn of the alcohol. They also turn the drinks opaque, usually enhancing and lightening the color of the drink, cream Eggnog Half and half Ice cream Milk Juices are flavorful additions. Some add sweetness, others add a sour tang, and add a sweet-tart sensation, fruit juices are common additions to rum-based cocktails. The only thing that needs to be added is alcohol, bloody Mary mix Cosmopolitan mix Hot Toddy mix Margarita mix Mojito mix Mudslide mix Strawberry Daiquiri mix The addition of a sauce usually imparts a surprising new taste to a familiar drink. Hot sauces are used in drinking games. Honey Hot sauce – Tabasco sauce, etc, worcestershire sauce The key ingredient in a syrup is sugar, which sweetens any drink into which it is mixed. Other flavors are added to a sugar syrup. Demerara syrup – A combination of Demerara sugar, a brown sugar
15.
Sweetness of wine
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The subjective sweetness of a wine is determined by the interaction of several factors, including the amount of sugar in the wine, but also the relative levels of alcohol, acids, and tannins. Sugars and alcohol enhance a wines sweetness, acids and bitter tannins counteract it and these principles are outlined in the 1987 work by Émile Peynaud, The Taste of Wine. Vintage, the Story of Wine, by Hugh Johnson, presents several methods that have been used throughout history to sweeten wine, the most common way was to harvest the grapes as late as possible. This method was advocated by Virgil and Martial in Roman times, in contrast, the ancient Greeks would harvest the grapes early, to preserve some of their acidity, and then leave them in the sun for a few days to allow them to shrivel and concentrate the sugar. Stopping the fermentation also enhanced a wines potential sweetness, in ancient times, this was achieved by submerging the amphoras in cold water till winter. Wine can also be sweetened by the addition of sugar in some form, among the components influencing how sweet a wine will taste is residual sugar. It is usually measured in grams of sugar per litre of wine, residual sugar typically refers to the sugar remaining after fermentation stops, or is stopped, but it can also result from the addition of unfermented must or ordinary table sugar. Even among the driest wines, it is rare to find wines with a level of less than 1 g/L, due to the unfermentability of certain types of sugars, such as pentose. By contrast, any wine with over 45 g/L would be considered sweet, for example, the great vintages of Château dYquem contain between 100 and 150 g/L of residual sugar. The sweetest form of the Tokaji, the Eszencia – contains over 450 g/L, such wines are balanced, keeping them from becoming cloyingly sweet, by carefully developed use of acidity. This means that the finest sweet wines are made with grape varieties that keep their acidity even at very high levels, such as Riesling. How sweet a wine will taste is also controlled by such as the acidity and alcohol levels, the amount of tannin present. A sweet wine such as a Vouvray can actually taste dry due to the level of acidity. A dry wine can taste if the alcohol level is elevated. Medium and sweet wines have a perception among consumers of being of lower quality than dry wines. Süssreserve is a term referring to a portion of selected unfermented grape must, free of microorganisms. This technique was developed in Germany and is used with German-style wines such as semi-sweet Riesling or Müller–Thurgau, the technique not only raises the sugar level of the wine, but also lowers the amount of alcohol. Under German law, no more than fifteen percent of the final volume may be the reserved juice
16.
Pharmacist
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Pharmacists, also known as chemists or druggists, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. A pharmacist is a member of the care team directly involved with patient care. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology, Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers. Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, in most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing and administering certain medications in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military. Historically, the role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe, Pharmacists may practice compounding, however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care, Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries, thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a school or related institution. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional coursework, followed by four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on tests, disease state management, therapeutics. On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology. Specialties include, The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists and it conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists, wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week, Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the wage, the average male pharmacist earns $65,000
17.
Chemist
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A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
18.
Carbonated water
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Carbonated water is water into which carbon dioxide gas under pressure has been dissolved. Some of these have additives, such as chloride, sodium bicarbonate or similar. This process, known as carbonation, is a process that causes the water to become effervescent, most carbonated water is sold in ready to drink bottles as carbonated beverages such as soft drinks. However, it is easy to prepare at home with soda makers. These additives are included to emulate the slightly salty taste soda water developed years ago from first using them as preservatives. By itself, carbonated water appears to have impact on health. While carbonated water is acidic, this acidity is quickly neutralized by saliva. Carbonated water may increase irritable bowel syndrome symptoms of bloating and gas due to the release of carbon dioxide in the digestive tract and it does not appear to have an effect on gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. There is tentative evidence that water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke. Some carbonated waters have added sodium, so they may be an issue for those on low-sodium diets, typical carbonated soft drinks such as colas do have health risks. Carbonated colas have a correlation with slightly decreased bone density in older women, soft drinks are about 100 times more erosive to teeth than plain carbonated water. Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water at a low concentration creates carbonic acid according to the following reaction, the pH level between 3 and 4 is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. The human body robustly maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be affected by consumption of plain carbonated water, if an alkaline salt, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate is added to the water, its acidity is reduced. The amount of a gas like carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in water is described by Henrys Law, Water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, in order to permit the maximum amount of carbon dioxide to dissolve in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid, when the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced, carbon dioxide escapes from the solution, in the form of bubbles. Many alcoholic drinks, such as beer, wine and champagne, were carbonated through the process for centuries. In 1662 Christopher Merret was creating sparkling wine, in 1750 the Frenchman Gabriel François Venel produced artificial carbonated water for the first time. It is thought that William Brownrigg and Henry Cavendish also infused water with carbon dioxide around this time
19.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
20.
Robert McLaughlin (industrialist)
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Robert McLaughlin was a Canadian industrialist and businessman. He founded the McLaughlin Carriage and McLaughlin Motor Car companies, which became part of General Motors Canada. McLaughlin was born in Cavan Township, Upper Canada in 1836 and he moved to Darlington Township with his family in 1837. He married Mary Smith in 1864, and bought a plot of land near the village of Tyrone from his father and he built a house and a workshop, and began building cutters and wagons. By 1869 his workshop was too small, and he set up a works at Enniskillen. McLaughlin also taught Sunday school in the Presbyterian church there, in 1877, he moved his business to Oshawa, to take advantage of available labour and railway access in the larger urban centre to as the business grew. He established the Oshawa Carriage Works, later known as McLaughlin Carriage, in 1878, he married Sarah Jane Parr, his first wife had died of consumption. He was the first president of the local YMCA, after his carriage works was destroyed in a fire in 1899, he relocated to Gananoque but returned to Oshawa the following year, rebuilding the business with a loan from the city. In 1901, he married Eleanor McCulloch after the death of his second wife, in 1907, on the advice of his sons Sam and George, he set up the McLaughlin Motor Car Company Limited to manufacture automobiles. McLaughlin supported tariffs restricting trade with the United States and opposed Sir Wilfrid Lauriers free trade proposals in 1910–11, in 1915, he sold off his carriage manufacturing business. In 1918, his companies were taken over by General Motors, McLaughlin died at Oshawa in 1921 of colon cancer. His brother James was a doctor and member of the Ontario assembly, Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Oshawa Museum
21.
McLaughlin Motor Car Company
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The McLaughlin Motor Car Company was a Canadian manufacturer of automobiles, headquartered in Oshawa, Ontario. In 1869 Robert McLaughlin started up the McLaughlin Carriage Company in a shop in Enniskillen. The company began making carriages, and, in need of more workers, moved to Oshawa. In 1898 the company produced more than 25,000 carriages, in 1899, however, the carriage works was destroyed by fire. The City of Oshawa loaned the company $50,000 to rebuild, the company was incorporated as the McLaughlin Carriage Company of Canada Limited. By 1915, the company was making one carriage every ten minutes, under the leadership of Roberts son, Colonel Sam McLaughlin who was President in 1907, the company began the manufacture of automobiles. A corporation, the McLaughlin Motor Car Company, was set up that year, durant had acquired the Buick Motor Company that later would become part of General Motors Company, a holding company. Buick engines and various mechanical parts were brought in from the Buick plant in Flint, Michigan. During the first few years of operation, the automobiles were known as McLaughlins, the name McLaughlin-Buick also appeared on some vehicles. By 1914 the company had built about 1,100 cars, in 1915 the McLaughlin family formed Chevrolet Motor Company of Canada Limited, and began manufacturing Chevrolet automobiles for General Motors. In 1918 the two companies were merged and the company sold, becoming General Motors of Canada, a subsidiary of General Motors Corporation in the United States. General Motors Corporation gave the McLaughlins GM Stock in exchange for ownership of the Canadian plant, Sam McLaughlin remained president of General Motors of Canada, and was also made Director and Vice-President of General Motors Corporation. Chevrolet was incorporated in the USA, General Motors Canada in 1919 obtained $10,000,000.00 from the new parent company to build a Walkerville plant and establish Canadian Products. In 1923 the name of the Canadian-built model was changed to McLaughlin-Buick. As McLaughlin had no sons to carry on the family business, McLaughlin continued to run the company as chairman of the board of General Motors of Canada, in addition to being vice-president and executive director of the parent company until his death. The first McLaughlin automobile was the 1908 Model F, until 1914, the cars were finished with the same paints and varnishes used on carriages. This meant each vehicle required up to fifteen coats of paint, in 1927 two identical specially designed four-door touring cars were built for the Royal Tour of Canada, one to be shipped ahead to the next city while the other was in use. In 1936 a McLaughlin-Buick was purchased by the Prince of Wales, in 1936 the Dunsmuirs, a coal magnate family in Victoria, British Columbia, ordered 3 special order 1936 Buick-McLaughlin Phaetons for 3 of their daughters
22.
Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime
23.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
24.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
25.
Prohibition in the United States
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Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%
26.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
27.
Norton Simon
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Norton Winfred Simon, was an American millionaire industrialist and philanthropist based in California. His significant art collection is housed in the Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, born into a successful Jewish family in Portland, Oregon, he attended high school in San Francisco, graduating in 1924. At his fathers insistence, in 1925 he enrolled in the University of California, Berkeley and he enjoyed early success and invested $7000 in 1927 in an orange juice bottling plant in Fullerton, California which was insolvent and renamed it Val Vita Food Products Company. He soon added other fruit and vegetables to the product lines, as one of the first of his significant corporate moves, Simon sold Val Vita to Hunts Foods in return for a controlling interest in the combined business. By 1943 he changed the name to Hunts Foods and ran it with strict cost-controls. During and after World War II, Simon focused on product visibility, uncharacteristically for a food company at the time, he acquired full page advertisements in Vogue and Life magazines with full-color photos of Hunts ketchup bottles and tomato sauce cans. His aggressive advertising ensured the companys slogan Hunt for the best was prominent and his marketing strategy worked, and by 1945 Hunt Foods became a household name and one of the largest food processing businesses on the West Coast. Hunts is now part of ConAgra Foods, Inc, many of these businesses had extensive interests outside the United States. Norton Simon Inc. was later acquired by Esmark in 1983, Beatrice was sold to ConAgra in 1990. Simon accumulated a significant private art collection included works of the Impressionists, Old Masters, modern. Scholars including the critic Clement Greenberg and the Metropolitan Museum of Art curator Theodore Rousseau studied the Duveen purchases for Simon and were able to identify numerous misattributions. Simon ended up selling much of the collection and only kept around 130 objects, primarily paintings, a handful of sculpture, a few porcelains, however, his collection holds three autograph Rembrandt paintings, considered highly important works of Rembrandt in Southern California. Simon served as a trustee of the Los Angeles County Museum of History, Science and Art, in 1972, Simon bought a tenth-century South Indian bronze Nataraja, or dancing Shiva, from New York dealer Ben Heller for $900,000. The Indian government declared that the statue had been stolen from a temple in Tamil Nadu, although Simon was quoted as saying that he had knowingly bought smuggled art he vehemently denied the quote, declaring that the work had been legally imported into the United States. In the same Los Angeles Times article, he stated, “As a collector deeply and emotionally involved in art, in exchange, the Indian government agreed that Simon could keep and display the bronze in his museum for nine years before its return. Seeking a permanent home for his collection of over 4,000 objects and he ultimately assumed control and naming rights, and in 1974 it was renamed the Norton Simon Museum. The plan was to keep most of collection in Pasadena, administered by UCLA, the Simon board, the university was to build a separate museum facility on campus for part of the collection. However, Simon withdrew his offer three months after the announcement was made, in 1969, his son Robert Simon committed suicide
28.
Hunt's
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Hunts is the name of a brand of preserved tomato products owned by ConAgra Foods, Inc. The company was founded in 1888, in Sebastopol, California, fruit Packing Co. by Joseph and William Hunt. The brothers relocated to nearby Santa Rosa in 1890, and then to Hayward in 1895 and this small canning operation grew rapidly, focused on canning the products of Californias booming fruit and vegetable industries. By 1941, the plant shipped a million cans of soup, fruits, vegetables. In 1943, Hunts was taken over by Norton Simons Val Vita Food Products - a competing firm founded in the early 1930s, the merged firm kept the Hunts name and incorporated as Hunt Foods, Inc. The new management decided to focus the company on canned tomato products, the Wesson Oil & Snowdrift Company merged with Hunts Foods, Inc. in 1960 to become Hunt-Wesson Foods. Hunt-Wesson merged with the McCall Corporation and Canada Dry to form Norton Simon Inc. in 1968, Norton Simon was acquired by Esmark in 1983, which merged with Beatrice Foods the next year. In 1985, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts acquired Beatrice with the goal of selling off businesses, Hunt-Wesson, the company which included the Hunts brands, was sold in 1990 to agribusiness giant ConAgra Foods. It also is the name appearing on Manwich brand sloppy joes products. Reddi-wip whipped cream was also under the Hunts banner. In May 2010, Hunts ketchup temporarily removed high fructose corn syrup from its ingredients, the new ingredients were tomatoes, sugar, vinegar, salt and other seasonings. The product changed back to high fructose corn syrup in May 2012, H. J. Heinz Company Red Gold Hunts corporate website
29.
Dr Pepper
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Dr Pepper is a carbonated soft drink marketed as having a unique flavor. The drink was created in the 1880s by Charles Alderton in Waco, Texas, variants include a version without high fructose corn syrup, Diet Dr Pepper, as well as a line of additional flavors, first introduced in the 2000s. Patent Office recognizes December 1,1885, as the first time Dr Pepper was served and it was introduced nationally in the United States at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition as a new kind of soda pop, made with 23 flavors. Its introduction in 1885 preceded the introduction of Coca-Cola by one year and it was formulated by Brooklyn-born pharmacist Charles Alderton in Morrisons Old Corner Drug Store in Waco, Texas. To test his new drink, he first offered it to store owner Wade Morrison, patrons at Morrisons soda fountain soon learned of Aldertons new drink and began ordering a Waco. Alderton gave the formula to Morrison, who named it Dr. Pepper, as with Coca-Cola, the formula for Dr Pepper is a trade secret, and allegedly the recipe is kept as two halves in safe deposit boxes in two separate Dallas banks. Theories abound about the origins of the drinks name. One conjecture is the pep refers to pepsin, in 2009, an old ledger book filled with formulas and recipes was discovered by Bill Waters while shopping at antiques stores in the Texas Panhandle. Several sheets and letterheads hinted it had come from the W. B. Morrison & Co, Old Corner Drug Store and faded letters on the books cover spelled out Castles Formulas. John Castles was a partner of Morrisons for a time and worked at that location as early as 1880, One recipe in the book titled D Peppers Pepsin Bitters was of particular interest, and some speculated it could be an early recipe for Dr Pepper. However, Dr Pepper Snapple Group insists it is not the formula for Dr Pepper, the book was put up for auction in May 2009, but no one purchased it. Like many early sodas, the drink was marketed as a tonic and energizing pick-me-up. Others believe the drink was named after a real Dr. Pepper, One candidate is Dr. Charles T. However, Morrison lived nearly 50 miles from Rural Retreat, another possibility is Dr. Pepper of Christiansburg, Virginia. U. S. Census records show a young Morrison working as a clerk in Christiansburg. One of the pages of this census supposedly shows a Dr. Pepper and daughter Malinda or Malissa. The period after Dr was discarded for stylistic and legibility reasons in the 1950s, Dr Peppers logo was redesigned and the text in this new logo was slanted. The period made Dr. look like Di, after having been used intermittently in previous logos, followed by some debate, the period was removed permanently
30.
Forstmann Little & Company
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Forstmann, Little & Company was a private equity firm, specializing in leveraged buyouts. At its peak in the late 1990s, Forstmann Little was among the largest private equity firms globally, ultimately, the firm would suffer from the bursting of the internet and telecom bubbles, having invested heavily in technology and telecommunications companies. Ted Forstmann was a partner of Derald Ruttenberg at the Deepdale Country Club on Long Island. He arranged for Ruttenberg to meet Henry Kravis and Jerry Kohlberg of the start-up Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Kravis and Kohlberg proposed what they called a leveraged buyout. After the two had left, Ruttenberg suggested that Forstmann could do the same himself, Ruttenberg arranged funding for Forstmann, who launched Forstmann Little & Company in 1978. The company was founded by brothers Ted and Nick Forstmann, with the deaths of Brian Little and Nicholas Forstmann in 2000 and 2001, respectively, Ted Forstmann was the chief partner. A third brother, J. Anthony Forstmann, is a partner in the firm. Since its inception in 1978, the firm more than 30 acquisitions. Successful acquisitions include Gulfstream Aerospace, Topps Playing Cards, Dr Pepper, Stanadyne, the company has usually been successful in making a profit on such purchases, selling Gulfstream to General Dynamics, and General Instrument to Motorola. In the case of Gulfstream, Ted Forstmann took direct control of the ailing companys day-to-day operations to improve the companys attractiveness to a potential acquirer. The company has also had some flops, such as McLeodUSA, while Forstmann settled the case for $15 million, the suit was considered a landmark launching a series of similar actions between private equity fund managers and public entity investors. One prominent episode in the life of the company was the 1988 bidding war for RJR Nabisco, Forstmann Little offered to acquire RJR Nabisco, but the management instead chose Shearson Lehman Hutton. In the end, the board of directors chose Forstmann Littles arch-rival, the episode was popularized in the book Barbarians at the Gate, The Fall of RJR Nabisco. In 2004, Forstmann Little acquired IMG in a $750 million deal, Barbarians at the Gate Kohlberg Kravis Roberts Ted Forstmann Forstmann Little & Company
31.
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company
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The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, based in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and founded by R. J. Reynolds in 1875, is the second-largest tobacco company in the U. S. RJR is a wholly owned subsidiary of Reynolds American Inc. which in turn is 42% owned by British American Tobacco of the United Kingdom. He bought his first factory building from the Moravian Church and established the little red factory with seasonal workers, the first year, he produced 150,000 pounds of tobacco, by the 1890s, production had increased to several million pounds a year. The companys factory buildings were the largest buildings in Winston-Salem, with new technologies such as steam power, the second primary factory building, built in 1892, is the oldest Reynolds factory still standing and was sold to Forsyth County in 1990. At the beginning of the 1900s, Reynolds bought most of the tobacco factories in Winston-Salem. The company produced 25% of Americas chewing tobacco, 1907s Prince Albert smoking tobacco became the companys national showcase product, which led to high-profile advertising in New York Citys Union Square. The Camel cigarette became the most popular cigarette in the country, Winston-Salem was the eighth-largest port of entry in the United States by 1916. In 1917, the company bought 84 acres of property in Winston-Salem and built 180 houses that it sold at cost to workers, at the time Reynolds died in 1918, his company owned 121 buildings in Winston-Salem. He was so integral to company operations that executives did not hang another chief executives portrait next to Reynolds in the board room until 41 years later. Reynolds brother William Neal Reynolds took over following Reynolds death, and it made two-thirds of the cigarettes in the state. Reynolds Tobacco diversified into areas, buying Pacific Hawaiian Products, the makers of Hawaiian Punch, in 1962, Sea-Land Service in 1969. Sea-Land was spun off in 1984, because of the companys diversification, the company changed its name to R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. was a subsidiary, Reynolds Industries merged with Nabisco Brands in 1985, and the name changed to RJR Nabisco in August 1986. In 1987, a war ensued between several financial firms to acquire RJR Nabisco. Finally, the private equity takeover firm Kohlberg Kravis and Roberts & Co was responsible for the 1988 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco and this was documented in several articles in The Wall Street Journal by Bryan Burrough and John Helyar. These articles were used as the basis of a bestselling book, Barbarians at the Gate, The Fall of RJR Nabisco. He used the money to open his own investment firm, RJM Group, in 1999 RJR Nabisco spun off R. J. Reynolds Tobacco, which began trading on June 15 as R. J, Reynolds Tobacco Holdings, Inc. and a year later announced it would buy Nabisco Group Holdings Inc. the company that had been RJR Nabisco
32.
Del Monte Foods
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Del Monte Foods, Inc is a North American food production and distribution company headquartered at 3003 Oak Road, Walnut Creek, California, USA. Del Monte Foods is one of the countrys largest producers, distributors and marketers of branded processed food for the U. S. retail market and its portfolio of brands includes Del Monte, S&W, Contadina, College Inn, Fruit Burst. Nils Lommerin, is the current Chief Executive Officer of the Del Monte Foods, several Del Monte products hold the number one or two market share position. The company also produces, distributes and markets private label food, in 2014, Del Monte Foods, Inc.67 billion. Assets that are under Del Monte Foods, Inc. but were not part of the deal will continue to operate as a company under the name Big Heart Pet Brands. In the 1870s and 1880s, California became a producer of fruits. By 1892, the Del Monte brand was introduced when the firm expanded its business, in 1898, the California Fruit Canners Association formed when 18 West Coast canning companies merged. The Del Monte brand was one of several brands marketed by the new company and it introduced the Del Monte Shield in 1909. The new company grew to more than 60 canneries in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah. In 1917, it acquired pineapple farms and a cannery in Hawaii and, in the 1920s, added canneries in Florida, after WWII, it constructed or purchased more facilities overseas. These multinational operations made the name California Packing Corporation obsolete, and in June 1967, Del Monte became part of R. J. After being acquired by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in 1988, RJR Nabisco sold several Del Monte divisions, the fresh fruit business was sold to Polly Peck. RJR Nabisco retained Del Monte Canada and Venezuela, the remaining food processing divisions, known as Del Monte Foods, were sold to Merrill Lynch, Citicorp Venture Capitol, and Kikkoman in 1989. Kikkoman separately acquired Del Monte brand in Asia, in 1990, the European division was subject to a management buyout and Hawaiian Punch was sold to Procter & Gamble. Del Monte sold part of its Philippines division in 1991 and the remainder in 1996, in 1993, Del Montes dried fruit division was sold to Yorkshire Food Group. In 1996, Del Monte sold its division to Kraft. In 1996, Del Monte Mexico was sold to Hicks, Muse, Tate & Furst, texas Pacific Group acquired Del Monte in 1997. Del Monte acquired Contadina from Nestlé in 1997 and reacquired Del Monte Venezuela from Nabisco in 1998, Del Monte subsequently established an East Coast headquarters in Pittsburgh, home of Heinz, in a building which sits on a portion of the site of Three Rivers Stadium
33.
RJR Nabisco
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RJR Nabisco, Inc. was an American conglomerate, selling tobacco and food products, headquartered in the Calyon Building in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. RJR Nabisco stopped operating as an entity in 1999, however. RJR Nabisco was formed in 1985 by the merger of Nabisco Brands, in 1988 RJR Nabisco was purchased by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. in what was at the time the largest leveraged buyout in history. In 1999, due to concerns about tobacco lawsuit liabilities, the business was spun off into a separate company. Nabisco is currently owned by Mondelēz International Inc, RJR Nabisco Holdings Corp. was the parent company of RJR Nabisco, Inc. It became RJR Nabisco on April 25,1986 after the companys $4.9 billion purchase of Nabisco Brands Inc. in 1985. In August 1986, the RJR Nabisco board announced that F. Ross Johnson would replace J. Tylee Wilson as head of the company effective January 1,1987. Soon after that, Johnson, believing bucolic Winston-Salem did not have the image for a world-class company. The company decided against New York City and Dallas, Texas, Atlanta was selected because it was nouveau riche and overbuilt. On January 15,1987, the RJR Nabisco board approved a move from Winston-Salem to Cobb County, Georgia, north of Atlanta. The move would affect 250 to 300 employees, while Winston-Salem would still have 14,000 people working for the company, RJR Nabisco donated the 519, 000-square-foot World Headquarters Building to Wake Forest University but continued to use it until the September 1987 move. Later, RJR Nabiscos Planters-Life Savers Division moved to the headquarters building. The RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout was, at the time, widely considered to be the pre-emininent example of corporate and executive greed. Bryan Burrough and John Helyar published Barbarians at the Gate, The Fall of RJR Nabisco, Ross Johnson was the President and CEO of RJR Nabisco at the time of the leveraged buyout and Henry Kravis was the managing partner at Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. The leveraged buyout was in the amount of $25 billion, although KKR eventually took control of RJR Nabisco, RJR management and Shearson Lehman Hutton had originally announced that they would take RJR Nabisco private at $75 per share. Forstmann Little, Shearson Lehman Hutton, and Merrill Lynch, KKR quickly introduced a tender offer to obtain RJR Nabisco for $90 per share—a price that enabled it to proceed without the approval of RJR Nabiscos management. RJRs management team, working with Shearson Lehman Hutton and Salomon Brothers, submitted a bid of $112, KKRs final bid of $109, while a lower dollar figure, was ultimately accepted by the board of directors. It was accepted because KKRs offer was guaranteed whereas managements lacked a reset, additionally, many in RJRs board of directors had grown concerned at recent disclosures of Johnsons unprecedented golden parachute deal
34.
Lake Louise (Alberta)
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Lake Louise, named Lake of the Little Fishes by the Stoney Nakota First Nations people, is a glacial lake within Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada. It is located 5 km west of the Hamlet of Lake Louise, Lake Louise is named after the Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and the wife of the Marquess of Lorne, who was the Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883. The emerald colour of the water comes from rock flour carried into the lake by melt-water from the glaciers that overlook the lake, the lake has a surface of 0.8 km2 and is drained through the 3 km long Louise Creek into the Bow River. Fairmonts Chateau Lake Louise, one of Canadas grand railway hotels, is located on Lake Louises eastern shore and it is a luxury resort hotel built in the early decades of the 20th century by the Canadian Pacific Railway. Moraine Lake and Lake Agnes are also accessible from Lake Louise, a variety of hiking trails exist around the lake. Hiking trails include trips to Saddleback Pass, Fairview Mountain, Mirror Lake, Lake Agnes, Big Beehive, Little Beehive, Devils Thumb, Mount Whyte, and Mount Niblock. Some of these trails are open to mountain biking and horseback riding, kayaking and canoeing are popular activities during summer, and a boat launch and rental facility are maintained on the north-eastern shore. The nearby Lake Louise Ski Area, formerly known as Lake Louise Mountain Resort, offers amenities for alpine and Cross-country skiing, as well as heli-skiing and snowboarding. The lake can be used for ice fishing and ice skating in winter, while the area offers settings for snowmobiling, dog sledding, snowshoeing
35.
Diet drink
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Diet drinks are sugar-free, artificially sweetened versions of fizzy beverages with virtually no calories. They are generally marketed toward health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, the beginning of the diet drink or refreshment era was in 1952, when Kirsch Bottling in Brooklyn, New York launched a sugar-free ginger ale called No-Cal. It was designed for diabetics, not dieters, and distribution remained local, royal Crown Cola placed an announcement in an Atlanta newspaper in 1958 announcing a diet product, Diet Rite. In 1962, Dr Pepper released a version of its soft drink. In 1963, The Coca-Cola Company joined the diet soft drink market with Tab, Tab was originally sweetened with cyclamates and saccharin. Tab, Diet Rite, and Fresca were the only brand-name diet refreshments on the market until Pepsi released Patio Diet Cola in 1963, Diet 7 Up was released in 1963 under the name Like. It was discontinued in 1969 due to the U. S. government ban of cyclamate sweetener, after reformulation, it was reintroduced as Diet 7 Up in 1970. It was renamed Sugar Free 7 Up in 1973 then back to Diet 7 Up in 1979, Coca-Cola countered by releasing Diet Coke in 1982. After the release of Diet Coke, Tab took a backseat on the Coca-Cola production lines, additionally, a study was released claiming that saccharin was a possible carcinogen, leading to Coca-Colas decision to decrease production of Tab. Prompted by the popularity of soft drinks, in the mid-1980s some of those in the alcohol industry began to follow their lead with some beer companies putting sugar-free beer on the market. By the early 1990s, an array of companies had their own diet refreshments on supermarket shelves. Tab made a comeback during the late 1990s, after new studies demonstrated that saccharin is not an important factor in the risk of cancer, nevertheless, The Coca-Cola Company has maintained its 1984 reformulation, replacing some of the saccharin in Tab with NutraSweet. By 2002, some companies had diversified to include such flavors as vanilla and lemon among their products. By 2004, several companies had released sugar-free or diet alcoholic products too. Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar, sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages, some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, aspartame, commonly known by the brand name NutraSweet, is one of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners. The 1982 introduction of aspartame-sweetened Diet Coke accelerated this trend, today, at least in the United States, diet is nearly synonymous with the use of aspartame in beverages
36.
Tonic water
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Tonic water is a carbonated soft drink in which quinine is dissolved. Originally used as a prophylactic against malaria, tonic water usually now has a significantly lower quinine content and is consumed for its distinctive bitter flavour and it is often used in mixed drinks, particularly in gin and tonic. The drink gained its name from the effects of its bitter flavouring, the quinine was added to the drink as a prophylactic against malaria, since it was originally intended for consumption in tropical areas of South Asia and Africa, where the disease is endemic. Quinine powder was so bitter that British officials stationed in early 19th Century India and other tropical posts began mixing the powder with soda and sugar, the first commercial tonic water was produced in 1858. The mixed drink gin and tonic also originated in British colonial India, since 2010, at least four tonic syrups have been released in the United States. Consumers add carbonated water to the syrup to make tonic water, medicinal tonic water originally contained only carbonated water and a large amount of quinine. However, most tonic water contains a less significant amount of quinine. As a consequence, it is bitter, and is also usually sweetened. Some manufacturers also produce diet tonic water, which may contain artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, traditional-style tonic water with little more than quinine and carbonated water is less common, but may be preferred by those who desire the bitter flavor. Still, it is recommended as a relief for leg cramps. Because of quinines risks, the FDA cautions consumers against using off-label quinine drugs to treat leg cramps, tonic water is often used as a drink mixer for cocktails, especially those made with gin or vodka. Tonic water with lemon or lime flavour added is known as lemon or bitter lime. Tonic water will fluoresce under ultraviolet light, owing to the presence of quinine, in fact, the sensitivity of quinine to ultraviolet light is such that it will appear visibly fluorescent in direct sunlight
37.
Bitter lemon
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Bitter lemon is a carbonated soft drink flavoured with quinine and lemon. The signature bitter taste is produced by a combination of the quinine, the principal difference between tonic water and bitter lemon is the addition of lemon juice and rind. Bitter lemon is drunk both by itself and as a mixer, and is sold across the world, the generic bitter lemon drink dates back to 1834. Schweppes introduced its brand of lemon in 1957
38.
Green tea
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Green tea is a type of tea that is made from Camellia sinensis leaves that have not undergone the same withering and oxidation process used to make oolong and black tea. Green tea originated in China, but its production has spread to countries in Asia. Several varieties of green tea exist, which differ substantially because of the variety of C. sinensis used, growing conditions, horticultural methods, production processing, Tea consumption has its legendary origins in China during the reign of Emperor Shennong. A book written by Lu Yu in 600-900 AD, Tea Classic, is considered important in green tea history. Steeping, or brewing, is the process of making tea, higher-quality teas, like gyokuro, use more tea leaves and are steeped multiple times for short durations. Steeping temperatures range from 61°C to 87°C and times from 30 seconds to three minutes, generally, lower-quality green teas are steeped hotter and longer while higher-quality teas are steeped cooler and shorter, but usually for multiple times. Steeping too hot or for too long results in the release of excessive amounts of tannins, leading to a bitter, astringent brew, the brew’s taste is also affected by the steeping technique. Green tea extracts have been used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for a variety of uses, Green tea leaves are initially processed by soaking in an alcohol solution, which may be further concentrated to various levels, byproducts of the process are also packaged and used. Extracts may be sold in liquid, powder, capsule, or tablet form, Green tea extract supplements are accessible over the counter in various forms. Standardized green tea extract is 90 percent total polyphenols, and 1 capsule equals 5 cups of tea, regular green tea is 99. 9% water, provides 1 Calorie per 100 mL serving, is devoid of significant nutrient content and contains phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and caffeine. Other components include three kinds of flavonoids, known as kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin, although numerous claims have been made for the health benefits of green tea, human clinical research has not provided conclusive evidence of any effects. There is no evidence that green tea helps to prevent or treat cancer in people. A review of existing studies concluded that while suggestive evidence existed, daily consumption of black tea has been associated with a significant reduction in death from all cancers. A2015 meta-analysis of nine prospective cohort studies concluded that an amount of green tea consumption may be associated with a lower risk of liver cancer in Asian women. This association was not seen in Asian men or when one cup of tea was consumed daily. Similarly, another analysis of observational data conducted in 2012 suggested that tea consumption may have a favorable effect on lung cancer risk. The observed effect was strongest in those who consumed more than seven cups of green tea daily, a 2011 meta-analysis of epidemiological studies found limited evidence that green tea consumption may be associated with a moderately reduced risk of liver cancer in Chinese and Japanese people. Limited evidence suggests that tea consumption is not associated with the risk of developing pancreatic cancer or prostate cancer
39.
Wink (soft drink)
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Wink is a primarily grapefruit-based soft drink, although it also contains other citrus flavors. It is currently owned and manufactured by Canada Dry in North America and it was introduced by Canada Dry in 1965. During the 1960s and 1970s, Winks advertising billed it as The Sassy One, the jingle went Wink, the sassy one, from Canada Dry. For a brief period, Wink introduced a Dr. Seuss-like character called the Wink Gink, there was a Diet Wink Low Calorie version in the mid to late 60s. Infamously, there was a Wink logo on the sign of the house from which James Earl Ray assassinated Martin Luther King in Memphis. In the United States, Wink is available from some bottlers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, North Carolina, additionally, Wink is also available in some areas of Canada, and is sold as part of the CPlus brand. In 2004, Wink was temporarily discontinued in Canada, as part of a re-launch of the product, Wink was re-introduced several months later as with new packaging as CPlus Wink Twist, a re-formulation that is slightly sweeter than the original
40.
Pennsauken Township, New Jersey
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Pennsauken Township is a township in Camden County, in the US state of New Jersey, and a suburb of Philadelphia. Pennsauken Township was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 18,1892, from portions of the now-defunct Stockton Township. The exact origin of the name Pennsauken is unclear, but it derives from the language of the Lenni Lenape people from Pindasenauken. Alternatively, the Penn in the name refers to William Penn. Pennsauken was home to Americas first drive-in movie theater, created in 1933 with the opening of the Camden Drive-In in Pennsauken and it featured the comedy Wives Beware, released in the theaters as Two White Arms. For 50 years, the township was the home to the Pennsauken Mart, a large indoor market. Most of the moved to the Grand Market Place in Willingboro Township. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 12.082 square miles. The township includes Pettys Island, a 392-acre island in the Delaware River although most of the island actually sits across a strait from neighboring Camden. Once an oil storage and distribution facility, the island is now the site of a cargo shipping operation. Pettys Island is currently the focal point of the waterfront redevelopment plan. The two municipalities are connected across the Delaware River by the Betsy Ross Bridge which is owned and operated by the Delaware River Port Authority. In New Jersey, Pennsauken borders Camden, Cherry Hill, Collingswood and Merchantville in Camden County, as of the census of 2010, there were 35,885 people,12,633 households, and 8,995 families residing in the township. The population density was 3,438.9 per square mile, there were 13,275 housing units at an average density of 1,272.2 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26. 91% of the population,23. 8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the family size was 3.36. In the township, the population was out with 24. 1% under the age of 18,9. 7% from 18 to 24,26. 0% from 25 to 44,27. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38.0 years, for every 100 females there were 91.8 males
41.
Pepsi
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Pepsi is a carbonated soft drink produced and manufactured by PepsiCo. Originally created and developed in 1893 and introduced as Brads Drink, it was renamed as Pepsi-Cola on August 28,1898 and it is currently known in North America alternatively as Pepsi-Cola as of 2014. The drink Pepsi was first introduced as Brads Drink in New Bern, North Carolina, United States, in 1893 by Caleb Bradham and it was renamed Pepsi Cola in 1898 after the root of the word dyspepsia and the kola nuts used in the recipe. The original recipe also included sugar and vanilla, Bradham sought to create a fountain drink that was appealing and would aid in digestion and boost energy. In 1903, Bradham moved the bottling of Pepsi-Cola from his drugstore to a rented warehouse and that year, Bradham sold 7,968 gallons of syrup. The next year, Pepsi was sold in bottles. In 1909, automobile race pioneer Barney Oldfield was the first celebrity to endorse Pepsi-Cola, describing it as A bully drink. refreshing, invigorating, the advertising theme Delicious and Healthful was then used over the next two decades. In 1926, Pepsi received its first logo redesign since the design of 1905. In 1929, the logo was changed again, assets were sold and Roy C. Megargel bought the Pepsi trademark. Megargel was unsuccessful, and soon Pepsis assets were purchased by Charles Guth, Loft was a candy manufacturer with retail stores that contained soda fountains. He sought to replace Coca-Cola at his stores fountains after Coke refused to him a discount on syrup. Guth then had Lofts chemists reformulate the Pepsi-Cola syrup formula, on three separate occasions between 1922 and 1933, The Coca-Cola Company was offered the opportunity to purchase the Pepsi-Cola company, and it declined on each occasion. The original trademark application for Pepsi-Cola was filed on September 23,1902 with registration approved on June 16,1903, in the applications statement, Caleb Bradham describes the trademark and indicated that the mark was in continuous use for his business since August 1,1901. The Pepsi-Colas description is a syrup for soda water. The trademark expired on April 15,1904, a second Pepsi-Cola trademark is on record with the USPTO. The federal status for the 1905 trademark is registered and renewed and is owned by PepsiCo of Purchase, in 2014, the 1940 wordmark was used again and replacing the current wordmark on many cans. During the Great Depression, Pepsi gained popularity following the introduction in 1936 of a 12-ounce bottle, coming at a time of economic crisis, the campaign succeeded in boosting Pepsis status. From 1936 to 1938, Pepsi-Colas profits doubled, Pepsis success under Guth came while the Loft Candy business was faltering
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New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
