1.
Cantata++
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It is developed and sold by QA Systems, and was formerly a product of IPL Information Processing Ltd. Cantata and Cantata++ were originally developed by IPL Information Processing Systems until 2012 when QA Systems GmbH acquired the business, in November 2012 the tool was rebranded at version 6.2 as Cantata. Until 2014 there have been 19 versions released since Cantata its release in 1992, the IDE of Cantata is based on Eclipse. Cantata belongs to a category of unit testing frameworks used for dynamic testing of software. These tools bring compiled test cases to execution with the code under test. The test executable will run on a platform, a native operating system. The integration of debuggers is optional, typical users of Cantata are either developers of application software programmed in C and C++, or of system software designed for embedded systems and mobile devices. The development and verification of functional safety software in many industries is governed by international regulatory standards, therein requirements can be found which relate to functional Safety and how to ensure a certain Safety Integrity Level. Peter Liggesmeyer, Software-Qualität, Testen, Analysieren und Verifizieren von Software, spektrum, Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, Berlin,2002, ISBN 3-8274-1118-1. Rune Winther, Bjoern Axel Gran, Gustav Dahll, Computer Safety, Reliability, dorothy Graham, Mark Fewster, Experiences of Test Automation, Case Studies of Software Test Automation. Addison-Wesley Longman, Amsterdam 2012, ISBN 0-321-75406-9, patricia Rodríguez Dapena, Software Safety Verification in Critical Software Intensive Systems. Eindhoven, Universiteit Eindhoven,2002, OCLC905503460, national Aerospace Laboratory NLR, Unit Testing at the NLR,2001, p.23. School of Engineering, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Master Thesis, european Software Process Improvement, SPI in Embedded Software Applications Case study, GPS RECEIVER - ACHIEVING DO-178B CERTIFIABLE SOFTWARE. Case study Aerospace, HERSHEL/PLANCK VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION, update to Cantata 6.0, EMBEDDED - ELECTRONIC PRODUCT REVIEWS - DEBUG AND OPTIMIZATION
2.
Musical composition
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People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an outline of the song, called the lead sheet. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, in some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play, sing and/or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, a piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze, although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music, according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds. in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear and this is what the Ancients called melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant and this is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition. In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a live acoustic event. Since the invention of recording, a classical piece or popular song may also exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory, by reading written musical notation, compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar, electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to a lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era, for example, used only acoustic and mechanical such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord. A 2000s-era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier, different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the performance of a composed song or piece. In free jazz, the performers may play without any sheet music, improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously during the performance, as opposed to having a composer write down the music beforehand. Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era, instrumentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments, during the classical period, solo instrumentalists were expected to be able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era, composers began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, in contemporary classical music, some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer should improvise during certain sections
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Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
4.
Accompaniment
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Accompaniment is the musical parts which provide the rhythmic and/or harmonic support for the melody or main themes of a song or instrumental piece. There are many different styles and types of accompaniment in different genres and styles of music, in homophonic music, the main accompaniment approach used in popular music, a clear vocal melody is supported by subordinate chords. In popular music and traditional music, the accompaniment parts typically provide the beat for the music, the accompaniment for a vocal melody or instrumental solo can be played by a single musician playing an instrument such as piano, pipe organ, or guitar. A solo singer can accompany herself by playing guitar or piano while she sings, and in rare cases. With choral music, the accompaniment to a vocal solo can be provided by other singers in the choir, accompaniment parts range from so simple that a beginner can play them to so complex that only an advanced player or singer can perform them. An accompanist is a musician who plays an accompaniment part, accompanists often play keyboard instruments (e. g. piano, pipe organ, synthesizer or, in folk music and traditional styles, a guitar. A number of classical pianists have found success as accompanists rather than soloists, arguably the best known example is Gerald Moore, the accompaniment instrumentalists and/or singers can be provided with a fully notated accompaniment part written or printed on sheet music. This is the norm in Classical music and in most large ensemble writing, chord-playing musicians can improvise chords, fill-in melodic lines and solos from the chord chart. It is rare for chords to be written out in music notation in pop. Some guitarists, bassists and other stringed instrumentalists read accompaniment parts using tabulature, drummers can play accompaniment by following the lead sheet, a sheet music part in music notation, or by playing by ear. In some cases, an arranger or composer may give a bassist a bass part that is written out in music notation. Comping Counter-melody Figure Figured bass Guitar picking Hauptstimme Strum The dictionary definition of accompaniment at Wiktionary
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Choir
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A choir is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical repertoire, which spans from the Medieval era to the present. Most choirs are led by a conductor, who leads the performances with arm, a body of singers who perform together as a group is called a choir or chorus. The former term is often applied to groups affiliated with a church and the second to groups that perform in theatres or concert halls. Choirs may sing without instrumental accompaniment, with the accompaniment of a piano or pipe organ, with a small ensemble, choirs are often led by a conductor or choirmaster. Other than four, the most common number of parts are three, five, six, and eight, choirs can sing with or without instrumental accompaniment. Singing without accompaniment is called a cappella singing, many choirs perform in one or many locations such as a church, opera house, or school hall. In some cases choirs join up to become one mass choir that performs for a special concert, in this case they provide a series of songs or musical works to celebrate and provide entertainment to others. Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as a concert, by way of visible gestures with the hands, arms, face. The primary duties of the conductor or choirmaster are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, and to listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble. The conductor or choral director typically stands on a raised platform, many choral conductors use their hands to conduct. In the 2010s, most conductors do not play an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods of music history. In Baroque music from the 1600s to the 1750s, conductors performing in the 2010s may lead an ensemble while playing a harpsichord or the violin, conducting while playing a piano may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance, however, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be sung. Conductors act as guides to the choirs they conduct and they choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments, work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the singers. Choral conductors may also have to conduct instrumental ensembles such as if the choir is singing a piece for choir. They may also attend to matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions
6.
Madrigal
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A madrigal is a secular vocal music composition, usually a partsong, of the Renaissance and early Baroque eras. Traditionally, polyphonic madrigals are unaccompanied, the number of voices varies from two to eight, and most frequently from three to six and it is quite distinct from the Italian Trecento madrigal of the late 13th and 14th centuries, with which it shares only the name. Madrigals originated in Italy during the 1520s, unlike many strophic forms of the time, most madrigals were through-composed. In the madrigal, the composer attempted to express the emotion contained in each line, a frottola generally would consist of music set to stanzas of text, while madrigals were through-composed. However, some of the poems were used for both frottola and madrigals. The poetry of Petrarch in particular shows up in a variety of genres. In Italy, the madrigal was the most important secular form of music of its time, the madrigal reached its formal and historical zenith by the second half of the 16th century. English and German composers, too, took up the madrigal in its heyday, after the 1630s, the madrigal began to merge with the cantata and the dialogue. With the rise of opera in the early 17th century, the aria gradually displaced the madrigal, in the early 16th century, several humanistic trends converged which allowed the madrigal to form. First, there was a reawakened interest in use of Italian as a vernacular language, third, printed secular music had become widely available in Italy due to the recent invention of moveable type and the printing press. The music being written and sung, principally the frottola but also the ballata, canzonetta, and mascherata, was light and these popular music styles used repetition and soprano-dominated chordal textures, styles considerably more simple than those used by most of the resident composers of the Franco-Flemish school. Literary tastes were changing, and the more serious verse of Bembo and his school needed a means of expression more flexible and open than was available in the frottola. The first madrigals were written in Florence, either by native Florentines or by Franco-Flemish musicians in the employment of the Medici family, the madrigal did not replace the frottola right away, during the transitional decade of the 1520s, both frottole and madrigals were written and published. The first book of madrigals labeled as such was the Madrigali de diversi musici, libro de la Serena of Philippe Verdelot. Verdelot, a French composer, had written the pieces in the late 1520s and he included music by both Sebastiano and Costanzo Festa, as well as Maistre Jhan of Ferrara, in addition to his own music. They sold so well that Adrian Willaert made arrangements of some of works for single voice. Verdelot published madrigals for five and six voices as well, with the collection for six voices appearing in 1541, particularly popular was the first collection of madrigals by Jacques Arcadelt. Originally published in Venice, in 1539, it was reprinted throughout Europe for many years after, becoming the most often reprinted madrigal book of the entire era
7.
Church cantata
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A church cantata or sacred cantata is a cantata intended to be performed during a liturgical service. The liturgical calendar of the German Reformation era had, without counting Reformation Day, composers like Georg Philipp Telemann composed cycles of church cantatas comprising all 72 of these occasions. Other occasions for church cantatas include weddings and funeral services, in the 19th century cantatas were composed by composers such as Felix Mendelssohn. Most cantatas for occasions in the year made reference to the content of the readings and/or of Lutheran hymns appropriate for the occasion. Also chorale melodies of such hymns appeared in cantata compositions, for instance for Bach most typically in the closing chorale of the cantata. Thus below also readings and hymns associated with the occasion are listed, data such as readings and hymns generally apply to Bachs Leipzig, differences may occur in other places, or other times, as indicated. Advent Advent is celebrated on the four Sundays before Christmas, sometimes, like in Leipzig, there was a tempus clausum for the last three Sundays of Advent. Christmas to Epiphany The Christmas season was celebrated from Christmas Day through Epiphany, three days were observed for Christmas, with a Christmas cantata performed every day. The next feast days were New Year and Epiphany, Sundays may occur between the third day of Christmas and New Year and/or between New Year and Epiphany, thus the period had at least five occasions, or at most seven. Sundays after Epiphany Depending on the date of Easter, a number of Sundays occurred between Epiphany and Septuagesima, the third Sunday before Ash Wednesday. Only the feast of Annunciation was celebrated with a cantata, even if it fell in that time, on Good Friday, a Passion was performed, in most cases rather considered an Oratorio than a cantata. In Graupners Darmstadt there was also a cantata on Maundy Thursday, Easter to Pentecost Eastertide comprises the time up to Pentecost, starting with three days of Easter. There are five Sundays between Easter and Ascension, Ascension is followed by one Sunday before the three feast days of Pentecost. The Sundays between Easter and Pentecost have Latin names, derived from the beginning of the prescribed readings, for example, the first Sunday after Easter is called Quasimodogeniti. Some sources name the Sunday after Easter the second Sunday in Easter, Trinity and the Sundays after Trinity Trinity is the Sunday after Pentecost. A variable number of Sundays occurs between Trinity and the first Sunday in Advent, a maximum of 27, if Easter is extremely early, johns Day was celebrated on 24 June, with cantatas written by, among others, Bach and Telemann. Feast of St. Michael St. Michaels Day was celebrated on 29 September with, for instance, cantatas by Bach and Telemann, but in Graupners Darmstadt there was apparently no demand for such cantatas. Feast of St. Stephen St. Stephens Day falls on 26 December, Reformation Day Reformation Day is celebrated on 31 October and for instance Bach and Graupner wrote cantatas for the occasion
8.
Christmas cantata
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A Christmas cantata or Nativity cantata is a cantata, music for voice or voices in several movements, for Christmas. The importance of the feast inspired many composers to write cantatas for the occasion, some designed to be performed in church services, the Christmas story, telling of music of the angels and suggesting music of the shepherds and cradle song, invited musical treatment. The term is called Weihnachtskantate in German, Cantate de Noël in French, Christmas cantatas have been written on texts in several other languages, such as Czech, Italian, Romanian, and Spanish. Christmas cantata can also mean the performance of the music, many choirs have a tradition of an annual Christmas cantata. Different from Christmas oratorios, which present the Christmas story, Christmas cantatas deal with aspects of it, Bachs Christmas Oratorio, written for the season 1734/1735 touches many of these themes. It consists of six parts, each part is a complete work, bach structured the report from the Gospels which connects the parts to a whole, as told by the Evangelist, in six topics. In Parts I to IV he followed the Gospel of Luke, in Parts V, in some instances he deviated from the prescribed readings, rather continuing the tradition of older works by Heinrich Schütz and others. Many Christmas cantatas – as cantatas in general – were written in the Baroque era for church services, cantata texts frequently incorporated Bible quotations and chorale. Chorale cantatas rely on the text of one chorale only, later composers also set free text, poems and carols. The cantata form originated in Italy, alongside the oratorio. Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV91,25 December 1724, on Luthers hymn Unser Mund sei voll Lachens, BWV110,25 December 1725 Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe, BWV 197a,25 December. His late cantata Gloria in excelsis Deo is derived from the Gloria in his Missa in B minor, therefore, the cantata is for five parts and in Latin. The text of the liturgical Gloria begins with the angels song, gottfried Heinrich Stölzel composed for the season 1736/1737 a structure of six cantatas for six feast days around Christmas, similar to Bachs Christmas Oratorio. More of his Christmas cantatas were published in 2007 by Hofmeister, during the Age of Enlightenment, church music was less prominent. In 1796 Jakub Jan Ryba wrote Česká mše vánoční, which tells within the frame of a Mass a Christmas story in Czech, Christmas cantatas were also composed by Gerard von Brucken Fock and Charles H. Gabriel, among others. In the 20th century, Benjamin Britten set in 1942 a sequence of carols as A Ceremony of Carols and his cantata Saint Nicolas, written in 1948, after World War II, has also been termed a Christmas cantata. Rudolf Mauersberger composed for the Dresdner Kreuzchor which he conducted, Eine kleine Weihnachtskantate, ralph Vaughan Williams wrote Hodie, and Arthur Honegger composed as his last work Une cantate de Noël for the Basler Kammerchor and their founder Paul Sacher. He began his work with a setting of Psalm 130 and continued with carols, lee Scott, Otto Albert Tichý and Arnold van Wyk, among others
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Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
10.
Church cantata (Bach)
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Throughout his life as a musician, Johann Sebastian Bach composed cantatas for both secular and sacred use. His church cantatas are cantatas which he composed for use in the Lutheran church, the extant cantatas are around two thirds of that number, with limited additional information on the ones that went missing or survived as fragments. The listing below contains information as available in scholarship, and may include cantatas that are or were associated with Bach. Bachs earliest cantatas date from more than 15 years before he became Thomaskantor in Leipzig in 1723 and his earliest extant cantatas were composed in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. In 1708 he moved to Weimar where he wrote most of his church cantatas before the Leipzig era and these pre-Leipzig cantatas are not generally grouped as one of the five cycles mentioned in the Nekrolog. The extant cantatas of the era are primarily known by their recasting as a cantata in one of the Leipzig cycles. Bach started composing cantatas around 1707, when he was still an organist in Arnstadt, the first documented performances of his work take place in Mühlhausen, where he was appointed in 1708. In Weimar, Bach was from 1714 to 1717 commissioned to compose one cantata a month. In the course of almost four years there he covered most occasions of the liturgical year. The expression Weimar cycle has been used for the cantatas composed in Weimar from 1714, in Köthen, where Bach worked from 1717 to 1723, he restaged some of his earlier church cantatas. Apart from composing several secular cantatas, Lobet den Herrn, alle seine Heerscharen,5, is the only new church cantata he appears to have composed there. He collected them in annual cycles, five are mentioned in obituaries, Leipzig observed tempus clausum, quiet time, in Advent and Lent, when no cantatas were performed. All cantatas for these occasions date from Bachs earlier time and he reworked some cantatas from this period for different occasions. The high holidays Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were each celebrated on three days, further feasts on fixed days were New Years Day, Epiphany and Reformation Day. Sacred cantatas were performed for the inauguration of a new city council, consecration of church and organ, weddings, confession, funerals. Bachs first cantata cycle consists of cantatas or similar liturgical works first performed from 30 May 1723 to 4 June 1724, Bach started a second annual cycle on the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724, planned to contain only chorale cantatas, each based on a single Lutheran hymn. Bachs second cantata cycle consists of cantatas first performed from 11 June 1724 to 27 May 1725, the first 40 cantatas of this cycle are chorale cantatas, thus this cycle is also known as the chorale cantata cycle. Bachs chorale cantatas written at a date and restagings of earlier chorale cantatas are also usually understood as being included in this cycle
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Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
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High culture
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The term high culture comprehends the cultural products of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as art. The Preface defines culture as “the disinterested endeavour after man’s perfection” pursued, obtained, moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term “high culture” is contrasted with the terms “popular culture”, in Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In the U. S. Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, history The high culture of the West originated in the Classical-world traditions of intellect and aesthetics in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In the Classical Greco-Roman tradition, the mode of language was published and preserved in works of elevated style. Certain forms of language used by authors in valorized epochs were held up in antiquity and this ideal associated with humanism, was communicated in Renaissance Italy through institutions such as the Renaissance court schools. Renaissance humanism soon spread through Europe becoming much of the basis of upper class education for centuries, of comparable importance are those works of art and music considered to be of the highest excellence and broadest influence. Together these texts and art works constitute the artefacts representative of the culture of the Western world. Cultural traditions In the Western and some East Asian traditions, art that demonstrates the imagination of the artist is accorded the status of high art, much of high culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called High Art. This term is broader than Arnolds definition and besides literature includes music, visual arts. The decorative arts would not generally be considered High Art, such an environment enables artists, as near as possible, to realize their creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints. Art music is a term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations. In this regard, art music frequently occurs as a term to popular music. Art film is the result of filmmaking which is typically a serious, film critics and film studies scholars typically define an art film using a. According to the film scholar David Bordwell, art cinema itself is a film genre, there was a drive, beginning in the 19th century, to open museums and concert halls to give the general public access to high culture. University liberal arts courses still play an important role in the promotion of the concept of high culture, organisations such as the Arts Council of Great Britain, and in most European countries, whole ministries administer these programmes. This includes the subsidy of new works by composers, writers, there are also many private philanthropic sources of funding, which are especially important in the US, where the federally funded Corporation for Public Broadcasting also funds broadcasting. These may be seen as part of the concept of official culture
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Instrumental
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An instrumental is a musical composition or recording without lyrics, or singing, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a Big Band setting. The music is primarily or exclusively produced by musical instruments, if the instrumental section highlights the skill, musicality, and often the virtuosity of a particular performer, the section may be called a solo. If the instruments are percussion instruments, the interlude can be called a percussion interlude or percussion break and these interludes are a form of break in the song. One example of a genre in which both vocal/instrumental and solely instrumental songs are produced is blues, another example of a genre in popular culture is Hip Hop, Pop, and R&B. Many upcoming or rising artists in Hip Hop, Pop, and R&B will find an instrumental online on a website, like www. beatsbytoon. com, an instrumental version of a song which otherwise features vocals is also known as a -1. The opposite of instrumental music, that is, music for voices alone, without any accompaniment instruments, is a cappella, an Italian phrase that means in the chapel. In early music, instruments such as trumpet and drums were considered outdoor instruments, a capella music exists in both Classical music choir pieces and in popular music styles such as doo wop groups and Barbershop quartets. Some recordings which include brief examples of the voice are typically considered instrumentals. An ominous statement at the end Inclusion of field recordings which may or may not contain non-lyrical words, a few songs categorized as instrumentals may even include actual vocals, if they appear only as a short part of an extended piece. Falling just outside that definition is Theme From Shaft by Isaac Hayes. com with a sample of each
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Sonata
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Sonata, in music, literally means a piece played as opposed to a cantata, a piece sung. The term evolved through the history of music, designating a variety of forms until the Classical era, when it took on increasing importance, by the early 19th century, it came to represent a principle of composing large-scale works. It was applied to most instrumental genres and regarded—alongside the fugue—as one of two methods of organizing, interpreting and analyzing concert music. Though the musical style of sonatas has changed since the Classical era, most 20th-, the term sonatina, pl. sonatine, the diminutive form of sonata, is often used for a short or technically easy sonata. In the Baroque period, a sonata was for one or more instruments almost always with continuo, sonatas for a solo instrument other than keyboard have been composed, as have sonatas for other combinations of instruments. Although the four, five, or six movements of the sonata da chiesa are also most often in one key, one or two of the internal movements are sometimes in a contrasting tonality. This scheme, however, was not very defined, until the works of Arcangelo Corelli when it became the essential sonata. The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes, on the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera then tended to be freely intermixed. Although nearly half of Bachs 1,100 surviving compositions, arrangements and they are frequently virtuosic, and use more distant harmonic transitions and modulations than were common for other works of the time. They were admired for their variety and invention. Both the solo and trio sonatas of Vivaldi show parallels with the concerti he was writing at the same time. He composed over 70 sonatas, the majority of which are of the solo type, most of the rest are trio sonatas. The sonatas of Domenico Paradies are mild and elongated works with a graceful and this evolution stretched over fifty years. The term came to both to the structure of individual movements and to the layout of the movements in a multi-movement work. In the transition to the Classical period there were several names given to multimovement works, including divertimento, serenade, the usage of sonata as the standard term for such works began somewhere in the 1770s. Haydn labels his first piano sonata as such in 1771, after which the term divertimento is used sparingly in his output, the term sonata was increasingly applied to either a work for keyboard alone, or for keyboard and one other instrument, often the violin or cello. It was less and less frequently applied to works with more than two instrumentalists, for piano trios were not often labelled sonata for piano, violin. Initially the most common layout of movements was, Allegro, which at the time was understood to not only a tempo
15.
Figured bass
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Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the Baroque era, provided the harmonic structure of the music. The phrase is shortened to continuo, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the continuo group. The titles of many Baroque works make mention of the section, such as J. S. Bachs Concerto for Two Violins, Strings. The makeup of the group is often left to the discretion of the performers. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular works, such as operas. Harps, lutes, and other instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. The keyboard player realizes a continuo part by playing, in addition to the bass line, notes above it to complete chords. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are expected to use their musical judgment. Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased. Basso continuo, though a structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, mostly sacred choral works. An example is C. P. E. Bachs Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist, masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, the phrase tasto solo indicates that only the bass line is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period, composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious, early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10,11, and 15
16.
Chamber music
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Chamber music is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of instruments—traditionally a group that could fit in a palace chamber or a large room. Most broadly, it includes any art music that is performed by a number of performers. However, by convention, it usually does not include solo instrument performances, because of its intimate nature, chamber music has been described as the music of friends. Playing chamber music requires special skills, both musical and social, that differ from the skills required for playing solo or symphonic works, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe described chamber music as four rational people conversing. The analogy to conversation recurs in descriptions and analyses of chamber music compositions, from its earliest beginnings in the Medieval period to the present, chamber music has been a reflection of the changes in the technology and the society that produced it. During the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, instruments were used primarily as accompaniment for singers, String players would play along with the melody line sung by the singer. There were also purely instrumental ensembles, often of stringed precursors of the violin family, some analysts consider the origin of classical instrumental ensembles to be the sonata da camera and the sonata da chiesa. These were compositions for one to five or more instruments, the sonata da camera was a suite of slow and fast movements, interspersed with dance tunes, the sonata da chiesa was the same, but the dances were omitted. These forms gradually developed into the trio sonata of the Baroque – two treble instruments and an instrument, often with a keyboard or other chording instrument filling in the harmony. Both the bass instrument and the instrument would play the basso continuo part. During the Baroque period, chamber music as a genre was not clearly defined, often, works could be played on any variety of instruments, in orchestral or chamber ensembles. The Art of Fugue by Johann Sebastian Bach, for example, sometimes composers mixed movements for chamber ensembles with orchestral movements. Telemanns Tafelmusik, for example, has five sets of movements for various combinations of instruments, Baroque chamber music was often contrapuntal, that is, each instrument played the same melodic materials at different times, creating a complex, interwoven fabric of sound. Because each instrument was playing essentially the same melodies, all the instruments were equal, in the trio sonata, there is often no ascendent or solo instrument, but all three instruments share equal importance. In the second half of the 18th century, tastes began to change, many preferred a new, lighter Galant style. And clearly defined melody and bass to the complexities of counterpoint, now a new custom arose that gave birth to a new form of chamber music, the serenade. Patrons invited street musicians to play evening concerts below the balconies of their homes, their friends, patrons and musicians commissioned composers to write suitable suites of dances and tunes, for groups of two to five or six players. These works were called serenades, nocturnes, divertimenti, or cassations, the young Joseph Haydn was commissioned to write several of these
17.
Aria
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An aria in music was originally any expressive melody, usually, but not always, performed by a singer. The term became used almost exclusively to describe a piece for one voice, with or without orchestral accompaniment. The typical context for arias is opera, but vocal arias also feature in oratorios and cantatas, the term, which derives from the Greek and Latin aer first appeared in relation to music in the 14th century when it simply signified a manner or style of singing or playing. By the end of the 16th century, the term refers to an instrumental form. By the early 16th century it was in use as meaning a simple setting of strophic poetry, melodic madrigals. In the context of staged works and concert works, arias evolved from simple melodies into structured forms, the aria evolved typically in one of two forms. Binary form arias were in two sections, arias in ternary form were known as da capo arias, in the da capo aria the B episode would typically be in a different key – the dominant or relative major key. This version of form with ritornelli became a dominant feature of European opera throughout the 18th century. It is thought by some writers to be the origin of the forms of concerto. The ritornelli became essential to the structure of the aria – while the words determine the character of a melody the ritornello instruments often decided in terms it shall be presented. By the early 18th century, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti had established the aria form and it offered balance and continuity, and yet gave scope for contrast. The very regularity of its conventional features enabled deviations from the normal to be exploited with telling effect. In the early years of the century, arias in the Italian style began to take over in French opera, giving rise eventually to the French genre of ariette, normally in a relatively simple ternary form. Types of operatic aria became known by a variety of terms according to their character – e. g. aria parlante, aria di bravura, aria buffa, and so on. By the end of this first vocal paragraph the music, if it were in a key as it usually was, had modulated to the dominant. The orchestra then played a second ritornello usually shorter than the first, the singer re-entered and sang the same words through a second time. The music of this paragraph was often slightly more elaborate than that of the first. There were more repeats of words and perhaps more florid vocalisations, the key worked its way back to the tonic for the final vocal cadence after which the orchestra rounded the section off with a final ritornello
18.
Giacomo Carissimi
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Giacomo Carissimi was an Italian composer and music teacher. He is one of the most celebrated masters of the early Baroque or, more accurately, Carissimi established the characteristic features of the Latin oratorio and was a prolific composer of motets and cantatas. He was highly influential in musical developments in north European countries through his pupils, carissimis exact birthdate is not known, but it was probably in 1604 or 1605 in Marino near Rome, Italy. Of his early life almost nothing is known, giacomo’s parents, Amico and Livia, were married on 14 May 1595 and had four daughters and two sons, Giacomo was the youngest. Nothing is known of his musical training. In 1628 Carissimi moved north to Assisi, as maestro di cappella at the Cathedral of San Rufino, in 1628 he obtained the same position at the church of SantApollinare belonging to the Collegium Germanicum in Rome, which he held until his death. This was despite him receiving offers to work in very prominent establishments. In 1637 he was ordained a priest and he seems to have never left Italy at all during his entire lifetime. Carissimis position in the history of church, vocal and chamber music is similar to that of Francesco Cavalli in the history of opera. Carissimi is also noted as one of the first composers of oratorios, with Jephte as probably his best known work and these works and others are important for establishing the form of oratorio unaccompanied by dramatic action, which maintained its hold for 200 years. The name comes from their presentation at the Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso in Rome and he may also be credited for having given greater variety and interest to the instrumental accompaniments of vocal compositions. The British Museum also possesses numerous works by Carissimi, most of his oratorios are in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. Carissimi was active at the time when music was about to usurp the dominance of sacred music in Italy. The change was decisive and permanent, in addition, Carissimi was important as a teacher, and his influence spread far into Germany and France. Much of the style of Marc-Antoine Charpentier, for instance, was influenced by Carissimi. Toro within the 1632 series of books edited by Eric Flint
19.
Henry Purcell
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Henry Purcell was an English composer. Although incorporating Italian and French stylistic elements into his compositions, Purcells legacy was a uniquely English form of Baroque music, Purcell was born in St Anns Lane, Old Pye Street Westminster – the area of London later known as Devils Acre – in 1659. Henry Purcell Senior, whose older brother Thomas Purcell was also a musician, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal, Henry the elder had three sons, Edward, Henry and Daniel. Daniel Purcell, the youngest of the brothers, was also a composer who wrote the music for much of the final act of The Indian Queen after Henry Purcells death. Henry Purcells family lived just a few hundred yards west of Westminster Abbey from 1659 onwards, after his fathers death in 1664, Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle Thomas, who showed him great affection and kindness. Thomas was himself a gentleman of His Majestys Chapel, and arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister, Henry studied first under Captain Henry Cooke, Master of the Children, and afterwards under Pelham Humfrey, Cookes successor. Henry was a chorister in the Chapel Royal until his voice broke in 1673, when he became assistant to the organ-builder John Hingston, who held the post of keeper of wind instruments to the King. Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old and it is assumed that the three-part song Sweet tyranness, I now resign was written by him as a child. After Humfreys death, Purcell continued his studies under Dr John Blow and he attended Westminster School and in 1676 was appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey. Henry Purcells earliest anthem Lord, who can tell was composed in 1678 and it is a psalm that is prescribed for Christmas Day and also to be read at morning prayer on the fourth day of the month. In 1679, he wrote songs for John Playfords Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues and an anthem, the dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known, perhaps the most notable example is the anthem They that go down to the sea in ships. The challenging work opens with a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostlings range, beginning on the upper D, in 1679, Blow, who had been appointed organist of Westminster Abbey in 1669, resigned his office in favour of his pupil. Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, between 1680 and 1688 Purcell wrote music for seven plays. It was written to a libretto furnished by Nahum Tate, and performed in 1689 in cooperation with Josias Priest, a dancing master, priests wife kept a boarding school for young gentlewomen, first in Leicester Fields and afterwards at Chelsea, where the opera was performed. Both works run to less than one hour, at the time, Dido and Aeneas never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular in private circles. The composition of Dido and Aeneas gave Purcell his first chance to write a musical setting of a dramatic text. It was his opportunity to compose a work in which the music carried the entire drama. The story of Dido and Aeneas derives from the source in Virgils epic the Aeneid
20.
George Frideric Handel
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George Frideric Handel was a German, later British baroque composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. Handel received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712 and he was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Within fifteen years, Handel had started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera, musicologist Winton Dean writes that his operas show that Handel was not only a great composer, he was a dramatic genius of the first order. As Alexanders Feast was well received, Handel made a transition to English choral works, after his success with Messiah he never composed an Italian opera again. Almost blind, and having lived in England for nearly fifty years, he died in 1759 and his funeral was given full state honours, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey in London. Handel was born in 1685 in Halle-on-Saal, Duchy of Magdeburg, to Georg Händel and his father,63 when George Frideric was born, was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Georg Händel was the son of a coppersmith, Valentin Händel who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching and they were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Hapsburg possession as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years War. Halle was a prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry. Even the smaller churches all had able organists and fair choirs, and humanities, the Thirty Years War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished. But since the middle of the war the city was under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, the arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata, which did not describe Handels family. Handel was the child of this marriage, the first son died still born. Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric, Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687 and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690. Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the gymnasium in Halle, Mainwaring is the source for almost all information of Handels childhood, and much of that information came from J. C. Smith, Jr. Handels confidant and copyist. Whether they came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation and it is from Mainwaring that the portrait of Handels father as implacably opposed to any musical education comes. This did nothing to dampen young Handels inclination, in fact, Mainwaring tells the story of Handels secret attic spinnet, Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep, but Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training. Somehow Handel made his way to the organ, where he surprised everyone with his playing. Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction, Handels father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel
21.
Motet
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In western music, a motet is a mainly vocal musical composition, of highly varied form and style, from the late medieval era to the present. The motet was one of the pre-eminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music, according to Margaret Bent, a piece of music in several parts with words is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the 13th to the late 16th century and beyond. In the early 20th century, it was believed the name came from the Latin movere. The Medieval Latin for motet is motectum, and the Italian mottetto was also used, if the word is from Latin, the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another. Today, however, the French etymology is favoured by reference books, in fact, the troped clausulas that were the forerunner of the motet were originally called motelli, soon replaced by the term moteti. The earliest motets arose in the 13th century from the organum tradition exemplified in the Notre Dame school of Léonin and Pérotin, the motet probably arose from clausula sections, usually strophic interludes, in a longer sequence of organum, to which upper voices were added. Usually the clausula represented a sequence in Latin which was sung as a discant over a cantus firmus. The motet took a definite rhythm from the words of the verse, the main exception is the conductus motet, in which the parts proceed in essentially homophonic rhythms. The practice of discant over a cantus firmus marked the beginnings of counterpoint in Western music, from these first motets arose a medieval tradition of secular motets. It is suspected that, for the sake of intelligibility, in performance the cantus firmus, among the trouvères, Robert de Reins La Chievre and Richart de Fournival composed motets. While it grew out of the isorhythmic motet, the Renaissance composers of the motet generally abandoned the use of a repeated figure as a cantus firmus. During this time, however, the use of cantus firmi in works such as the parody mass tended to stretch the cantus firmus out to great lengths compared to the multivoice descant above it. This tended to obscure the rhythm supplied by the cantus firmus that had been apparent in the medieval isorhythmic motet. The cascading, passing chords created by the interplay between multiple voices, and the absence of a strong or obvious beat, are the features that distinguish medieval, the texts of antiphons were frequently used as motet texts. This is the sort of composition that is most familiarly designated by the term motet, in essence, these motets were sacred madrigals. The language of the text was the feature, if it is Latin, it is a motet, if the vernacular. Religious compositions in vernacular languages were often called madrigali spirituali, spiritual madrigals, secular motets continued to be written, however. These motets typically set a Latin text in praise of a monarch, commemorating some public triumph, nevertheless, the themes of courtly love often found in the medieval secular motet were banished from the Renaissance motet
22.
Dieterich Buxtehude
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Dieterich Buxtehude was a Danish-German organist and composer of the Baroque period. His organ works represent a part of the standard organ repertoire and are frequently performed at recitals. He composed in a variety of vocal and instrumental idioms. Today, Buxtehude is considered one of the most important composers in Germany of the mid-Baroque and he is thought to have been born with the name Diderich Buxtehude. His parents were Johannes Buxtehude and Helle Jespersdatter and his father originated from Oldesloe in the Duchy of Holstein, which at that time was a part of the Danish Monarchy. Scholars dispute both the year and country of Dieterichs birth, although most now accept that he was born in 1637 in Helsingborg, Skåne and his obituary stated that he recognized Denmark as his native country, whence he came to our region, he lived about 70 years. Others, however, claim that he was born at Oldesloe, later in his life he Germanized his name and began signing documents Dieterich Buxtehude. His father — Johannes Buxtehude — was the organist at St. Olafs church in Helsingør, Dieterich was employed as an organist, first in Helsingborg, and then at Helsingør. St. Mary’s in Helsingør is the church where Buxtehude was employed that still has the organ in its original location. Buxtehudes last post, from 1668, was at the Marienkirche, there he succeeded Franz Tunder and followed in many of the footsteps of his predecessor. He married Tunders daughter Anna Margarethe in 1668 – it was not uncommon practice that a man marry the daughter of his predecessor in his occupation, Buxtehude and Anna Margarethe had seven daughters who were baptized at the Marienkirche, however, his first daughter died as an infant. After his retirement as organist at St Olafs Church, his father joined the family in Lübeck in 1673, Johannes died a year later, and Dieterich composed his funeral music. Dieterichs brother Peter, a barber, joined them in 1677, in 1703, Handel and Mattheson both traveled to meet Buxtehude, who was by then elderly and ready to retire. He offered his position in Lübeck to Handel and Mattheson but stipulated that the organist who ascended to it must marry his eldest daughter, both Handel and Mattheson turned the offer down and left the day after their arrival. In addition to his duties, Buxtehude, like his predecessor Tunder. His surviving church music is praised for its musical qualities rather than its progressive elements. The bulk of Buxtehudes oeuvre consists of music, which covers a wide variety of styles, and organ works. Chamber music constitutes a part of the surviving output, although the only chamber works Buxtehude published during his lifetime were fourteen chamber sonatas
23.
Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, BWV 147
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Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, BWV147, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. It was written originally in Weimar in 1716 for Advent and expanded in 1723 for the feast of the Visitation in Leipzig, Bach composed the cantata in his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig for the Marian feast Mariae Heimsuchung. He used as a base a cantata in six movements composed in Weimar for the fourth Sunday in Advent, as Leipzig observed tempus clausum from Advent II to Advent IV, Bach could not perform the cantata for that occasion and rewrote it for the feast of the Visitation. The words are verses 6 and 16 of the hymn Jesu, the cantata is scored for four soloists and a four-part choir, a trumpet, two oboes, two violins, viola and basso continuo including bassoon. Its ten movements are in two parts, movements 1 to 6 to be performed before the sermon, the others after the sermon, chorus, Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben 2. Aria, Schäme dich, o Seele nicht 4, recitative, Verstockung kann Gewaltige verblenden 5. Aria, Bereite dir, Jesu, noch itzo die Bahn 6, chorale, Wohl mir, daß ich Jesum habe Part II7. Aria, Hilf, Jesu, hilf, daß ich auch dich bekenne 8, recitative, Der höchsten Allmacht Wunderhand 9. Aria, Ich will von Jesu Wundern singen 10, chorale, Jesus bleibet meine Freude The opening chorus renders the complete words in three sections, the third one a reprise of the first one and even the middle section not different in character. An instrumental ritornello is heard in the beginning and in the end as well as, slightly changed, in great contrast all three sections conclude with a part accompanied only by basso continuo. Sections one and three begin with a fugue with colla parte instruments, the fugue subject stresses the word Leben by a melisma extended over three measures. The soprano starts the theme, the alto enters just one measure later, in section three the pattern of entrances is the same, but building from the lowest voice to the highest. The three arias of the cantata are scored for voice and solo instruments or only continuo, whereas the last aria. The simple four-part choral part is embedded in a setting of the full orchestra dominated by a motive in pastoral triplets derived from the first line of the chorale melody. The music of the movements is now best known for the piano transcription by Dame Myra Hess of Hugh P. J. S. Bach,6 Favourite Cantatas, Joshua Rifkin, One voice per part, The Bach Ensemble, Jane Bryden, Drew Minter, Jeffrey Thomas, Jan Opalach, LOiseau-Lyre 1985 J. S. Bach, Cantatas, John Eliot Gardiner, Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists, Ruth Holton, Michael Chance, Anthony Rolfe Johnson, Stephen Varcoe, Archiv Produktion 1990 J. S. Bach, Complete Cantatas Vol.7, Ton Koopman, Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir, Lisa Larsson, Bogna Bartosz, Gerd Türk, Klaus Mertens, Antoine Marchand 1997 J. S
24.
Musopen
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Musopen Inc. is a 501 non-profit organization located in Tarzana, California, launched by Aaron Dunn in 2005. It aims to set free by providing music to the public free of charge. Some content is free of charge with limitations and registration is required. Musopen provides a library of public domain music recordings and sheet music. It also raises money to finance classical music recordings which are released into the public domain, in 2008, Musopen released newly commissioned recordings of the 32 Beethoven piano sonatas into the public domain. In 2010, the organized a fundraiser via Kickstarter to commission recordings of a larger repertoire, raising a total of $68,359. In July 2012, Musopen announced that the editing of the recordings was finished, after which the files were uploaded to its website. The final list of music was announced in August 2012, in September 2013, a new Kickstarter fundraiser was launched by Musopen to record the complete works of Frédéric Chopin. The fundraiser was successful, exceeding the goal of $75,000 by over $15,000. All recording for this project has been finished and editing was completed in April 2015, Musopen operates under a freemium model, in that some content is available free of charge, but premium downloads require a subscription. Sheet music is available for download to all for free, and recordings can be played using an HTML5 or Flash player
25.
Handel at Cannons
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George Frideric Handel was the house composer at Cannons from August 1717 until February 1719. The Chandos Anthems and other important works by Handel were conceived, Cannons was a large house in Middlesex, the seat of James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos who was a patron of Handel. The duke, a player, had a private orchestra. Handel settled in England in 1712, but appears not to have maintained his own household in London until 1723. He attracted the patronage of such as Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. At the end of Handels stay at Cannons, the Duke and his friends helped him establish a new company in London. Handel wrote church music for performance at Cannons, the Chandos Te Deum, while Handel was at Cannons, the ducal chapel was still being constructed. The church music was performed at the parish church, the church reopened in 1716 after the Duke had reconstructed the building to his baroque taste. St Lawrence still contains artwork by Louis Laguerre and Bellucci, at the east end of the church is the organ used by Handel. Modernised over the years, it was restored in 1994 using the parts of the original 1716 single-manual organ as the reference point. The Chandos Anthems were written at a time when the establishment at Cannons was still being expanded. The scoring of the varies, with strings predominating including first and second violins, cellos. There is usually a part for an oboe, and one for organ. Bassoons occasionally join the cellos and basses, the number of singers at Handels disposition is unknown. Although Daniel Defoe referred to the duke having a choir at a slightly later period. Handels Esther, which is now recognised as the first English oratorio, was performed by the Cannons musicians as early as 1718, Handel used several parts of his Brockes Passion in Esther. Another premiere in May 1718 is without doubt the masque Acis, the libretto was by John Gay, who was to collaborate with Pepusch in The Beggars Opera in 1728. According to tradition, Acis and Galatea was performed in the garden, appropriately for Cannons, which had expensive water features, the pastoral hero Acis is transformed into a fountain at the end
26.
Christmas Oratorio
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The Christmas Oratorio, BWV248, is an oratorio by Johann Sebastian Bach intended for performance in church during the Christmas season. The date is confirmed in Bachs autograph manuscript, the next performance was not until 17 December 1857 by the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin under Eduard Grell. The Christmas Oratorio is a sophisticated example of parody music. The author of the text is unknown, although a likely collaborator was Christian Friedrich Henrici, the work belongs to a group of three oratorios written towards the end of Bachs career in 1734 and 1735 for major feasts, the others being the Ascension Oratorio and the Easter Oratorio. All parody earlier compositions, although the Christmas Oratorio is by far the longest and most complex work, the oratorio is in six parts, each part being intended for performance on one of the major feast days of the Christmas period. The piece is presented as a whole or split into two equal parts. The total running time for the work is nearly three hours. The structure of the story is defined to an extent by the particular requirements of the church calendar for Christmas 1734/35. Bach abandoned his practice when writing church cantatas of basing the content upon the Gospel reading for that day in order to achieve a coherent narrative structure. Bach removed the content for the Third Day of Christmas, Johns Gospel and that Bach saw the six parts as comprising a greater, unified whole is evident both from the surviving printed text and from the structure of the music itself. The edition has not only a title—Weihnachts-Oratorium—connecting together the six sections, as John Butt has mentioned, this points, as in the Mass in B minor, to a unity beyond the performance constraints of the church year. The oratorio was written for performance on six feast days of Christmas during the winter of 1734 and 1735, the original score also contains details of when each part was performed. It was incorporated within services of the two most important churches in Leipzig, St. Thomas and St. Nicholas, as can be seen below, the work was only performed in its entirety at the St. Nicholas Church. Parts I and III are written in the keys of D major, parts I and III are similarly scored for exuberant trumpets, while the Pastoral Part II is, by contrast, scored for woodwind instruments and does not include an opening chorus. Part IV is written in F major and marks the furthest musical point away from the opening key. Bach then embarks upon a back to the opening key, via the dominant A major of Part V to the jubilant re-assertion of D major in the final part. The music represents a sophisticated expression of the parody technique. Bach took the majority of the choruses and arias from works which had written some time earlier
27.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
28.
Liturgy
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Liturgy is the customary public worship performed by a religious group, according to its beliefs, customs and traditions. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy is a response to and participation in. Ritualization may be associated with events such as birth, coming of age, marriage. It thus forms the basis for establishing a relationship with a divine agency, methods of dress, preparation of food, application of cosmetics or other hygienic practices are all considered liturgical activities. Technically speaking, liturgy is a subset of ritual, when ritual is undertaken to participate in a divine act or assist a divine action, it is liturgy. If the ritual does not have this purpose it is not liturgy, a daily activity such as the Muslim salah and Jewish synagogue services would be ritual but not liturgy. If the Temple were re-established, the ritual undertaken by the Judaic priesthood within the Temple would be liturgy, for a simple definition, liturgy is basically the pattern/way of worship the worshippers, worship. So you could use orthodox liturgy which would have different aspects to the Eucharistic liturgy or the catholic liturgy. The word liturgy, derived from the term in ancient Greek, leitourgia. In origin it signified the often expensive offerings wealthy Greeks made in service to the people, and thus to the polis, through the leitourgia, the rich carried a financial burden and were correspondingly rewarded with honours and prestige. The leitourgia were assigned by the polis, the State and Roman Empire, the performance of such supported the patrons standing among the elite and the popular at large. The holder of a Hellenic leitourgia was not taxed a specific sum, but was entrusted with a particular ritual, however groups of rich citizens were assigned to pay for expenses such as civic amenities and even payment of warships. Eventually, under the Roman Empire, such obligations, known as munera, devolved into a competitive, Buddhist liturgy is a formalized service of veneration and worship performed within a Buddhist Sangha community in nearly every traditional denomination and sect in the Buddhist world. It is often done once or more times a day and can vary among the Theravada, Mahayana, the liturgy mainly consists of chanting or reciting a sutra or passages from a sutras, a mantra, and several gathas. Depending on what practice the practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home, the liturgy is almost always performed in front of an object or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water and food. Jewish liturgy are the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism and these prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book. In general, Jewish men are obligated to pray three times a day within specific time ranges, while, according to the Talmud, women are only required to pray once daily, as they are generally exempted from obligations that are time dependent. Additional prayers, Musaf are recited by Orthodox and Conservative congregations on Shabbat, major Jewish holidays, a fifth prayer service, Neila, is recited only on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement
29.
Christoph Graupner
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Christoph Graupner was a German harpsichordist and composer of high Baroque music who was a contemporary of Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann and George Frideric Handel. Born in Hartmannsdorf near Kirchberg in Saxony, Graupner received his first musical instruction from his uncle, Graupner went to the University of Leipzig where he studied law and then completed his musical studies with Johann Kuhnau, the cantor of the Thomasschule. In 1705 Graupner left Leipzig to play the harpsichord in the orchestra of the Hamburg Opera under the direction of Reinhard Keiser, alongside George Frideric Handel, then a young violinist. In addition to playing the harpsichord, Graupner composed six operas in Hamburg, some of them in collaboration with Keiser, in 1709 Graupner accepted a post at the court of Hesse-Darmstadt and in 1711 became the court orchestra’s Hofkapellmeister. Graupner spent the rest of his career at the court in Hesse-Darmstadt and he wrote music for nearly half a century, from 1709 to 1754, when he became blind. Graupner inadvertently played a key role in the history of music, precarious finances in Darmstadt during the 1710s forced a reduction of musical life. The opera house was closed, and many court musicians salaries were in arrears, after many attempts to have his salary paid, and having several children and a wife to support, in 1723 Graupner applied for the Cantorate in Leipzig. Telemann had been the first choice for this position, but withdrew after securing an increase in Hamburg. Graupners audition Magnificat, set in the style of his teacher, mentor and predecessor, Kuhnau, however, Graupners patron would not release him from his contract. Graupners past due salary was paid in full, his salary was increased, with such favorable terms, Graupner remained in Darmstadt, thus clearing the way for Bach to become the kantor in Leipzig. There are about 2,000 surviving works in his catalog, nearly all of Graupners manuscripts are housed in the ULB in Darmstadt, Germany. Graupner wrote for exotic combinations of instruments, including the oboe damore, flute damore, and viola damore. Over half of his sinfonias require brass and timpani, with about 25 sinfonias requiring 3 to 4 timpani, one 5 timpani, after he died, Graupners works fell into obscurity for a number of reasons. His manuscripts became the object of a legal battle between his heirs and the rulers of Hesse-Darmstadt. A final court decision denied the Graupner estate ownership of the music manuscripts, the heirs were unable to obtain permission to sell or publish his works and they remained inaccessible to the public. Dramatic changes in music styles had reduced the interest in Graupners music, on the positive side however, the Landgraves seizure of Graupners musical estate ensured its survival in toto. Fate was not so kind to J. S. Bachs musical legacy, another factor that contributed to Graupners posthumous obscurity was that, unlike Bach, Graupner had very few pupils other than Johann Friedrich Fasch to carry on his musical legacy. Graupners music is enjoying a revival, due in part to the research efforts of many musicologists, performers
30.
Georg Philipp Telemann
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Georg Philipp Telemann was a German Baroque composer and multi-instrumentalist. Almost completely self-taught in music, he became a composer against his familys wishes, after studying in Magdeburg, Zellerfeld, and Hildesheim, Telemann entered the University of Leipzig to study law, but eventually settled on a career in music. He held important positions in Leipzig, Sorau, Eisenach, and Frankfurt before settling in Hamburg in 1721, Telemanns music incorporates several national styles and is even at times influenced by Polish popular music. He remained at the forefront of all new musical tendencies and his music is an important link between the late Baroque and early Classical styles, Telemann was born in Magdeburg, then the capital of the Duchy of Magdeburg, Brandenburg-Prussia. His father Heinrich, deacon at the Church of the Holy Spirit, the future composer received his first music lessons at 10, from a local organist, and became immensely interested in music in general, and composition in particular. Despite opposition from his mother and relatives, who forbade any musical activities, Telemann found it possible to study and compose in secret, even creating an opera at age 12. Telemann was becoming equally adept both at composing and performing, teaching himself flute, oboe, violin, recorder, double bass, in 1701 he graduated from the Gymnasium and went to Leipzig to become a student at the Leipzig University, where he intended to study law. He ended up becoming a musician, regularly composing works for Nikolaikirche. In 1702 he became director of the opera house Opernhaus auf dem Brühl. Prodigiously productive, Telemann supplied a wealth of new music for Leipzig, including operas, one of which was his first major opera. However, he engaged in a conflict with the cantor of Thomaskirche. The conflict intensified when Telemann started employing numerous students for his projects, including those that were Kuhnaus, Telemann left Leipzig in 1705 at the age of 24 after receiving an invitation to become Kapellmeister for the court of Count Erdmann II of Promnitz at Sorau. He became Konzertmeister on 24 December 1708 and Secretary and Kapellmeister in August 1709, during his tenure at Eisenach Telemann created a very large amount of music, at least four annual cycles of church cantatas, dozens of sonatas and concertos, and other works. In 1709 he married Amalie Louise Juliane Eberlin, lady-in-waiting to the Countess of Promnitz and their daughter was born in January 1711. The mother died soon afterwards, leaving Telemann depressed and distraught, after less than a year he sought another position, and moved to Frankfurt on 18 March 1712 at the age of 31 to become city music director and Kapellmeister at the Barfüsserkirche. In Frankfurt, he gained his mature personal style. Here, as in Leipzig, he was a force in the citys musical life. By 1720 he had adopted the use of the da capo aria, operas such as Narciso, which was brought to Frankfurt in 1719, written in the Italian idiom of composition, made a mark on Telemanns output
31.
Bach Gesellschaft
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The German Bach-Gesellschaft was a society formed in 1850 for the express purpose of publishing the complete works of Johann Sebastian Bach without editorial additions. The collected works are known as the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe, on completion of the project, the Society dissolved itself. The nineteenth-century society needs to be distinguished from its successor, the Neue Bachgesellschaft, the Bach-Gesellschaft began publishing Bachs works in 1851 with a volume that started with BWV1, the cantata Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV1. It completed publication in 1900 with its forty-sixth volume, additionally, Vol.45, part 1 includes a revised edition of the English Suites and French Suites that had previously been published in Vol.13. Among the editors was Alfred Dörffel, brahms was one of the subscribers to the project and also served on the editorial board. A list of subscribers was printed in each volume, nevertheless, the Bach-Gesellschafts volumes were a groundbreaking achievement and contributed greatly to the study and appreciation of Bachs music. They remained the standard edition of Bachs complete works until the publication of the Neue Bach-Ausgabe by Bärenreiter, Bach-Gesellschaft Edition - A complete list of volumes with German titles and publication dates. Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe at IMSLP - completely sorted, indexed and split in PDF according to BWV index, BGA Edition - The Bach-Gesellschaft Edition reproduced in paperback
32.
Philipp Spitta
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Julius August Philipp Spitta was a German music historian and musicologist best known for his 1873 biography of Johann Sebastian Bach. He was born in Wechold, near Hoya, and his father, also called Philipp Spitta, was a theologian, as a child, the younger Spitta learnt the piano, organ, and composition. He studied theology and classical philology at the University of Göttingen from 1860, while at university, he composed, wrote a biography of Robert Schumann, and became friends with Johannes Brahms. The students he taught include Oskar Fleischer, Max Friedlaender, Carl Krebs, Max Seiffert, Emil Vogel, Peter Wagner and he was influenced by neo-Kantian philosophy. In his Bach biography, he wrote the first major study of German choral, most of his papers are divided between the library of the Berlin Hochschule für Musik, the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, and the library of the University of Łódz. He contributed many articles to periodicals, and wrote articles on Schumann, Spontini. Works by or about Philipp Spitta at Internet Archive
33.
Parody
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A parody is a work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work—its subject, author, style, or some other target—by means of satiric or ironic imitation. As the literary theorist Linda Hutcheon puts it, parody … is imitation, another critic, Simon Dentith, defines parody as any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice. Parody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music, animation, gaming, the writer and critic John Gross observes in his Oxford Book of Parodies, that parody seems to flourish on territory somewhere between pastiche and burlesque. According to Aristotle, Hegemon of Thasos was the inventor of a kind of parody, in ancient Greek literature, a parodia was a narrative poem imitating the style and prosody of epics but treating light, satirical or mock-heroic subjects. Indeed, the components of the Greek word are παρά para beside, counter, against, Thus, the original Greek word παρῳδία parodia has sometimes been taken to mean counter-song, an imitation that is set against the original. The Oxford English Dictionary, for example, defines parody as imitation turned as to produce a ridiculous effect, because par- also has the non-antagonistic meaning of beside, there is nothing in parodia to necessitate the inclusion of a concept of ridicule. Old Comedy contained parody, even the gods could be made fun of, the Frogs portrays the hero-turned-god Heracles as a Glutton and the God of Drama Dionysus as cowardly and unintelligent. The traditional trip to the Underworld story is parodied as Dionysus dresses as Heracles to go to the Underworld, roman writers explained parody as an imitation of one poet by another for humorous effect. In French Neoclassical literature, parody was also a type of poem where one work imitates the style of another to produce a humorous effect, the Ancient Greeks created satyr plays which parodied tragic plays, often with performers dressed like satyrs. In classical music, as a term, parody refers to a reworking of one kind of composition into another. The term is sometimes applied to procedures common in the Baroque period. The musicological definition of the parody has now generally been supplanted by a more general meaning of the word. In its more contemporary usage, musical parody usually has humorous, even satirical intent, in which familiar musical ideas or lyrics are lifted into a different, often incongruous, context. Musical parodies may imitate or refer to the style of a composer or artist. For example, The Ritz Roll and Rock, a song and dance performed by Fred Astaire in the movie Silk Stockings, parodies the Rock. Conversely, while the work of Weird Al Yankovic is based on particular popular songs. The first usage of the parody in English cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is in Ben Jonson, in Every Man in His Humour in 1598, A Parodie. The next citation comes from John Dryden in 1693, who also appended an explanation, suggesting that the word was in common use, in the 20th century, parody has been heightened as the central and most representative artistic device, the catalysing agent of artistic creation and innovation
34.
Bach cantata
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The cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach are among his most significant and celebrated compositions. While many have been lost, at least 209 of the cantatas composed by Bach have survived, as far as we know, Bachs earliest surviving cantatas date from 1707, the year he moved to Mühlhausen. Most of Bachs cantatas date from his first years as Thomaskantor, in his first years in Leipzig, starting after Trinity of 1723, it was not unusual for him to compose a new work every week. Works from three annual cycles of cantatas for the calendar have survived. These relate to the readings prescribed by the Lutheran liturgy for the specific occasion and he composed his last cantata probably in 1745. His cantatas usually require four soloists and a choir, but he also wrote solo cantatas for typically one soloist. The words for many cantatas combine Bible quotes, contemporary poetry and chorale, another cantata in which Bach used that term is Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke, BWV84. Typically, he began a heading with the abbreviation J. J. followed by the name of the celebration, the beginning of the words, Bach often signed his cantatas with SDG, short for Soli Deo Gloria. Bach often wrote a page for the autograph score and copies of the original parts. For example, he titled the parts of Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV38, using a mix of languages to describe the occasion, the incipit, post Trinit / Aus tieffer Noth schrey ich zu dir. / â /4. / di / Signore / J. S. Bach, the occasion for which the piece was performed is given first, in Latin, Dominica 21. The title follows, given in German in the orthography of Bachs time, the scoring and finally his name appear in a mix of French and Italian, the common languages among musicians at the time, partly abbreviated. Bach wrote more than 200 cantatas, of which many have survived, in the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, Wolfgang Schmieder assigned them each a number within groups, 1–200, 201–216, 217–224. Since Schmieders designation, several of the cantatas he thought authentic have been redesignated spurious, however, the spurious cantatas retain their BWV numbers. The List of Bach cantatas is organized by BWV number, most arias follow the form of a da capo aria, repeating the first part after a middle section. The final chorale is typically a homophonic setting of a traditional melody, in an exemplary way both cantatas cover the prescribed readings, starting with a related psalm from the Old Testament, Part I reflects the Gospel, Part II the Epistle. Bach did not follow any scheme strictly, but composed as he wanted to express the words, a few cantatas are opened by an instrumental piece before the first chorus, such as the Sinfonia of Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, BWV29. A solo movement begins Gott, man lobet dich in der Stille, BWV120, many cantatas composed in Weimar are set like chamber music, mostly for soloists, with a four-part setting only in the closing chorale, which may have been sung by the soloists
35.
Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen, BWV 51
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Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen BWV51, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. The work is Bachs only church cantata scored for a solo soprano, the work may have been composed earlier, possibly for an occasion at the court of Christian, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, for whom Bach had composed the Hunting Cantata and the Shepherd Cantata. Bach structured the work in five movements, with the solo voice accompanied by a Baroque orchestra of a trumpet, strings. Bach used the cantata in Leipzig for the 15th Sunday after Trinity on 17 September 1730, the closing chorale is the fifth stanza of Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren, added to Johann Gramanns hymn in Königsberg in 1549. Bach used the same stanza in a different setting to close his cantata Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir, Bach led the performance on 17 September 1730. Bachs manuscript indicates the 15th Sunday after Trinity et in ogni tempo, the latter phrase indicates the possible general use of the work, with a cantata text that has no direct relevance to the scriptural readings. The dedication for the 15th Sunday was added later, indicating that the cantata was not intended for the specific occasion, Bach composed BWV51 during a period when he composed church cantatas only irregularly, some of them to complete his earlier cycles. According to the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff, Bach may have written the cantata shortly before 1730 for an unknown occasion, the performance material survived but does not reveal further detail, other than indicating one later performance. Bach had written two cantatas for Christian, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. Both the soprano part, which covers two octaves and requires a high C, and the trumpet part, which at times trades melodic lines with the soprano on an equal basis, are extremely virtuosic. The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr assumes that Bach had a gifted singer. The trumpet part was written for Gottfried Reiche, Bachs principal trumpeter at the time. The scoring is unique in Bachs cantatas, but was used by Italian composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti. Bachs son Friedemann Bach arranged the work by adding a second trumpet, Bach structured the cantata in five movements and scored it for a soprano soloist and a Baroque orchestra of trumpets, two violins, viola, and basso continuo. The title of the autograph reads, Dominica 15 post Trinitatis / et / In ogni Tempo. / Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen, / à / Soprano solo /1 Tromba* /2 Violino / Viola / e / Continuo / di / Joh, Seb, Bach. It is the church cantata by Bach scored for solo soprano. The duration is given as 20 minutes, in the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe
36.
Fugue
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A fugue usually has three sections, an exposition, a development, and a final entry that contains the return of the subject in the fugues tonic key. In the Middle Ages, the term was used to denote any works in canonic style, by the Renaissance. Since the 17th century, the fugue has described what is commonly regarded as the most fully developed procedure of imitative counterpoint. Most fugues open with a main theme, the subject, which then sounds successively in each voice, when each voice has entered. This is often followed by a passage, or episode, developed from previously heard material. In this sense, a fugue is a style of composition, the form evolved during the 18th century from several earlier types of contrapuntal compositions, such as imitative ricercars, capriccios, canzonas, and fantasias. The famous fugue composer Johann Sebastian Bach shaped his own works after those of Johann Jakob Froberger, Johann Pachelbel, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Dieterich Buxtehude and others. With the decline of sophisticated styles at the end of the period, the fugues central role waned, eventually giving way as sonata form. The English term fugue originated in the 16th century and is derived from the French word fugue or the Italian fuga and this in turn comes from Latin, also fuga, which is itself related to both fugere and fugare. A fugue begins with the exposition and is according to certain predefined rules, in later portions the composer has more freedom. Further entries of the subject will occur throughout the fugue, repeating the accompanying material at the same time, the various entries may or may not be separated by episodes. What follows is a chart displaying a fairly typical fugal outline, S = subject, A = answer, CS = countersubject, T = Tonic, D = Dominant A fugue begins with the exposition of its subject in one of the voices alone in the tonic key. After the statement of the subject, a second voice enters and states the subject with the subject transposed to another key, to make the music run smoothly, it may also have to be altered slightly. A tonal answer is called for when the subject begins with a prominent dominant note. To prevent an undermining of the sense of key, this note is transposed up a fourth to the tonic rather than up a fifth to the supertonic. Answers in the subdominant are also employed for the same reason, while the answer is being stated, the voice in which the subject was previously heard continues with new material. If this new material is reused in later statements of the subject, it is called a countersubject, if this material is only heard once. The countersubject is written in invertible counterpoint at the octave or fifteenth, for example, when the note G sounds in one voice above the note C in lower voice, the interval of a fifth is formed, which is considered consonant and entirely acceptable
37.
Ludwig van Beethoven
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Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts
38.
Carl Maria von Weber
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Carl Maria Friedrich Ernst von Weber was a German composer, conductor, pianist, guitarist and critic, one of the first significant composers of the Romantic school. Webers operas Der Freischütz, Euryanthe and Oberon greatly influenced the development of the Romantische Oper in Germany, a brilliant pianist himself, Weber composed four sonatas, two concertos and the Konzertstück in F minor, which influenced composers such as Chopin, Liszt and Mendelssohn. The Konzertstück provided a new model for the one-movement concerto in several contrasting sections, Webers shorter piano pieces, such as the Invitation to the Dance, were later orchestrated by Berlioz, while his Polacca Brillante was later set for piano and orchestra by Liszt. Webers compositions for clarinet, bassoon, and horn occupy an important place in the musical repertoire. His compositions for the clarinet, which include two concertos, a concertino, a quintet, a duo concertante, and variations on a theme from his opera Silvana, are performed today. His Concertino for Horn and Orchestra requires the performer to simultaneously produce two notes by humming while playing—a technique known as multiphonics and his bassoon concerto and the Andante e Rondo ungarese are also popular with bassoonists. Webers contribution to vocal and choral music is also significant and his body of Catholic religious music was highly popular in 19th-century Germany, and he composed one of the earliest song cycles, Die Temperamente beim Verluste der Geliebten. Weber was also notable as one of the first conductors to conduct without a piano or violin and his operas influenced the work of later opera composers, especially in Germany, such as Marschner, Meyerbeer and Wagner, as well as several nationalist 19th-century composers such as Glinka. Homage has been paid to Weber by 20th-century composers such as Debussy, Stravinsky, Mahler, Weber also wrote music journalism and was interested in folksong, and learned lithography to engrave his own works. Weber was born in Eutin, Bishopric of Lübeck, the eldest of the three children of Franz Anton von Weber and his wife, Genovefa Weber, a Viennese singer. The von was an affectation, Franz Anton von Weber was not actually an aristocrat, both his parents were Catholic and originally came from the far south of Germany. Franz Anton began his career as a officer in the service of the Duchy of Holstein. In 1787 Franz Anton went on to Hamburg where he founded a theatrical company, Franz Antons half-brother, Fridolin, married Cäcilia Stamm and had four musical daughters, Josepha, Aloysia, Constanze and Sophie, all of whom became notable singers. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart attempted to woo Aloysia, composing pieces for her. But after she rejected his advances, Mozart went on to marry Constanze, a gifted violinist, Franz Anton had ambitions of turning Carl into a child prodigy like Franzs nephew-by-marriage, Mozart. Carl was born with a hip disease and did not begin to walk until he was four. But by then, he was already a singer and pianist. Webers father gave him an education, which was however interrupted by the familys constant moves
39.
Felix Mendelssohn
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Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family and he was brought up without religion until the age of seven, when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a prodigy, but his parents were cautious. Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany, where he revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Leipzig Conservatoire, which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook, Mendelssohn wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions and he is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era. Mendelssohns father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn, the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and his mother was Lea Salomon, a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy. Mendelssohn was the second of four children, his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional, the family moved to Berlin in 1811, leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn banks role in breaking Napoleons Continental System blockade. Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny, Felix, Paul, Fanny became a well-known pianist and amateur composer, originally Abraham had thought that she, rather than Felix, would be the more musical. However, at time, it was not considered proper, by either Abraham or Felix, for a woman to have a career in music, so Fanny remained an active. Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it. Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment, Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that Europe came to their living room. Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion, he and his wife decided not to have Felix circumcised. Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education, Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822, formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy for themselves and their children. The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Leas brother, Jakob Salomon Bartholdy, in 1829, his sister Fanny wrote to him of Bartholdy this name that we all dislike. Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him, Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy and he began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six, and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris. After the family moved to Berlin, all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger, from at least May 1819 Felix studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin. This was an important influence on his future career, Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy, who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach
40.
Anton Bruckner
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Josef Anton Bruckner was an Austrian composer known for his symphonies, masses, and motets. The first are considered emblematic of the stage of Austro-German Romanticism because of their rich harmonic language, strongly polyphonic character. Bruckners compositions helped to define contemporary musical radicalism, owing to their dissonances, unprepared modulations, unlike other musical radicals such as Richard Wagner and Hugo Wolf who fit the enfant terrible mould, Bruckner showed extreme humility before other musicians, Wagner in particular. This apparent dichotomy between Bruckner the man and Bruckner the composer hampers efforts to describe his life in a way that gives a straightforward context for his music. On the other hand, Bruckner was greatly admired by subsequent composers including his friend Gustav Mahler, Anton Bruckner was born in Ansfelden on 4 September 1824. The ancestors of Bruckners family were farmers and craftsmen, their history can be traced to as far back as the 16th century and they lived near a bridge south of Sindelburg, which led to their being called Pruckhner an der Pruckhen. Bruckners grandfather was appointed schoolmaster in Ansfelden in 1776, this position was inherited by Bruckners father, Anton Bruckner senior and it was a poorly paid but well-respected position in the rural environment. Music was a part of the curriculum, and Bruckners father was his first music teacher. Bruckner learned to play the organ early as a child and he entered school when he was six, proved to be a hard-working student, and was promoted to upper class early. While studying, Bruckner also helped his father in teaching the other children, after Bruckner received his confirmation in 1833, Bruckners father sent him to another school in Hörsching. The schoolmaster, Johann Baptist Weiß, was a music enthusiast, here, Bruckner completed his school education and learned to play the organ excellently. Around 1835 Bruckner wrote his first composition, a Pange lingua – one of the compositions which he revised at the end of his life, when his father became ill, Anton returned to Ansfelden to help him in his work. Bruckners father died in 1837, when Bruckner was 13 years old, the teachers position and house were given to a successor, and Bruckner was sent to the Augustinian monastery in Sankt Florian to become a choirboy. In addition to practice, his education included violin and organ lessons. Bruckner was in awe of the great organ, which was built during the late baroque era and rebuilt in 1837. Later, the organ was to be called the Bruckner Organ, despite his musical abilities, Bruckners mother sent her son to a teaching seminar in Linz in 1841. After completing the seminar with an excellent grade, Bruckner was sent as an assistant to a school in Windhaag. The living standards and pay were horrible, and Bruckner was constantly humiliated by his superior, despite the difficult situation, Bruckner never complained or rebelled, a belief of inferiority was to remain one of Bruckners main personal characteristics during his whole life
41.
Name-day
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A name day is a tradition in some countries in Europe, Latin America, Catholic and Orthodox Christian countries in general. It consists of celebrating a day of the year that is associated with ones given name, the celebration is similar to a birthday. The custom originated with the Christian calendar of saints, believers named after a saint would celebrate that saints feast day, or in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Name days have greater resonance in the Catholic and Orthodox parts of Europe—Protestant churches showing less veneration of saints. In many countries, however, name-day celebrations no longer have connection to explicitly Christian traditions, the name days originate in the list of holidays celebrated in commemoration of saints and martyrs of the church. For example, the name Karl or Carl is celebrated in Sweden on January 28, the church promoted celebration of name days over birthdays, as the latter was seen as a pagan tradition. Where name days occur an official list is held containing the current assignations of names to days, there are different lists for Finnish, Swedish, Sami, and other countries that celebrate namedays, though some names are celebrated on the same day in many countries. From the 18th century and onwards the list of name days has been modified in Sweden, Name days in Bulgaria are almost always associated with Bulgarian Eastern Orthodox celebrations. Some names can be celebrated on more than one day and some have started following foreign traditions. St. Georges day and St. Johns day are two of the most popular name days in Bulgaria, another example of a name day connected with Christianity is Tsvetnitsa. On this day people with names derived from flowers, trees, herbs, Name days are frequently connected with some year or season features like Dimitrovden being the beginning of winter and Gergyovden being the end of it according to traditional folklore. Name days in Bulgaria are important and widely celebrated, children celebrate their name days by bringing sweets and chocolates to school. By an ancient Bulgarian tradition, everybody is welcome on name days, common well-wishes include May you hear your name from grandchildren and great-grandchildren. May you hear your name only in good things, and May your name be healthy and well. In Croatia, name day is a day corresponding to a date in the Catholic calendar when the saints day is celebrated. Even though celebration of the day is less usual than celebrating birthday. This is due to the fact that the date of birth is seldom known, the names that are celebrated on the certain saints day are all the names that correspond to the respective name and all the derivative names. In the Czech Republic, each day of the year corresponds to a personal name, people celebrate their name day on the date corresponding to their own given name. Name days are commonly of less importance than birthdays to Czech people, however, name day celebrations can be, and often are, held together with friends or co-workers of the same name and in this way it can grow in size and importance
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