1.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
2.
Cape Verdean Creole
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Cape Verdean Creole is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken on the islands of Cape Verde. It is the language of virtually all Cape Verdeans and is used as a second language by the Cape Verdean diaspora. The language has particular importance for studies since it is the oldest creole. It is the most widely spoken Portuguese-based creole language, the current designation of this language is Cape Verdean Creole. However, in everyday usage the language is simply called Creole by its speakers, the names Cape Verdean and Cape Verdean language have been proposed for whenever the language will be standardized. The history of Cape Verdean Creole is hard to trace due to a lack of written documentation, There are presently three theories about the formation of Creole. The monogenetic theory claims that the creole was formed by the Portuguese by simplifying the Portuguese language in order to make it accessible to African slaves and that is the point of view of authors like Prudent, Waldman, Chaudenson, Lopes da Silva. Authors like Adam and Quint argue that Creole was formed by African slaves using the grammar of Western African languages, according to A. Carreira, Cape Verdean Creole was formed from a Portuguese pidgin, on the island of Santiago, starting from the 15th century. That pidgin was then transported to the west coast of Africa by the lançados, from there, that pidgin diverged into two proto-Creoles, one that was the base of all Cape Verdean Creoles, and another that was the base of the Guinea-Bissau Creole. Cross referencing information regarding the settlement of each island with the linguistic comparisons, the spreading of Cape Verdean Creole within the islands was done in three phases, In a first phase, the island of Santiago was occupied, followed by Fogo. In a second phase, the island of São Nicolau was occupied, followed by Santo Antão, in spite of Creole being the first language of nearly all the population in Cape Verde, Portuguese is still the official language. As Portuguese is used in life, Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole live in a state of diglossia. Due to this presence of Portuguese, a decreolization process occurs for all the different Cape Verdean Creole variants. Check in this text, Santiago variant, Quêl mudjêr cú quêm m’ encôntra ónti stába priocupáda púrqui êl sqêci dí sês minínus nâ scóla. Alguêm lembrâ-’l quí sês minínus sâ tâ pricisába dí material pâ úm pesquisa, pâ gradêci â túdu quêm djudâ-’l, êl cumêça tâ fála, tâ flâ cômu êl stába contênti di fúndu di curaçãu. São Vicente variant, Quêl m’djêr c’ quêm m’ encontrá ônt’ táva priocupáda púrq’ êl sq’cê d’ sês m’nín’s nâ scóla, alguêm lembrá-’l qu’ sês m’nín’s táva tâ pr’cisá d’ material pâ úm pesquisa, entõ êl bâi encontrá-’s nâ biblioteca tâ procurá úq’ ês cría. Pâ gradecê â túd’ quêm j’dá-’l, êl c’meçá tâ fála, translation to Portuguese, Aquela mulher com quem eu encontrei-me ontem estava preocupada porque ela esqueceu-se das suas crianças na escola, e quando ela foi procurá-las ela não as viu. Alguém lembrou-lhe que as suas crianças estavam a precisar de material para uma pesquisa, para agradecer a todos os que ajudaram-na, ela começou a falar, dizendo como ela estava contente do fundo do coração
3.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
4.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
5.
Cape Verde
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Located 570 kilometres off the coast of West Africa, the islands cover a combined area of slightly over 4,000 square kilometres. The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited until the 15th century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, ideally located for the Atlantic slave trade, the islands grew prosperous throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates. The end of slavery in the 19th century led to economic decline, Cape Verde gradually recovered as an important commercial center and stopover for shipping routes. Incorporated as a department of Portugal in 1951, the islands continued to agitate for independence. Since the early 1990s, Cape Verde has been a representative democracy. Lacking natural resources, its economy is mostly service-oriented, with a growing focus on tourism. Its population of around 512,000 is mostly of mixed European and sub-Saharan African heritage, a sizeable diaspora community exists across the world, slightly outnumbering inhabitants on the islands. Historically, the name Cape Verde has been used in English for the archipelago and, since independence in 1975, for the country. In 2013, the Cape Verdean government determined that the Portuguese designation Cabo Verde would henceforth be used for official purposes, such as at the United Nations, Cape Verde is a member of the African Union. The name of the stems from the nearby Cap-Vert, on the Senegalese coast. In 1444 Portuguese explorers had named that landmark as Cabo Verde, on 24 October 2013, the countrys delegation announced at the United Nations that the official name should no longer be translated into other languages. Instead of Cape Verde, the designation Republic of Cabo Verde is to be used, before the arrival of Europeans, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited. The islands of the Cape Verde archipelago were discovered by Genoese and Portuguese navigators around 1456, according to Portuguese official records, the first discoveries were made by Genoa-born António de Noli, who was afterwards appointed governor of Cape Verde by Portuguese King Afonso V. Other navigators mentioned as contributing to discoveries in the Cape Verde archipelago are Diogo Gomes, Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, in 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded a settlement they called Ribeira Grande. Ribeira Grande was the first permanent European settlement in the tropics, in the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the Atlantic slave trade. Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements, sir Francis Drake, an English corsair privateering under a letter of marque granted by the English crown, twice sacked the capital Ribeira Grande in 1585 when it was a part of the Iberian Union. After a French attack in 1712, the town declined in relative to nearby Praia. Decline in the trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis
6.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
7.
Fixed exchange-rate system
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There are benefits and risks to using a fixed exchange rate. In doing so, the rate between the currency and its peg does not change based on market conditions, the way floating currencies do. A fixed exchange-rate system can also be used as a means to control the behavior of a currency, however, in doing so, the pegged currency is then controlled by its reference value. In other words, a currency is dependent on its reference value to dictate how its current worth is defined at any given time. The central bank provides the assets and/or the foreign currency or currencies which are needed in order to any payments imbalances. In the 21st century, the associated with large economies typically do not fix or peg exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange system was the Peoples Republic of China which, in July 2005. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a basis to establish a final conversion rate against the Euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone. The gold standard or gold standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914. The period between the two wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs, the early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates. Timeline of the exchange rate system, The earliest establishment of a gold standard was in the United Kingdom in 1821 followed by Australia in 1852. Under this system, the value of all currencies was denominated in terms of gold with central banks ready to buy. Each central bank maintained gold reserves as their official reserve asset, for example, during the “classical” gold standard period, the U. S. dollar was defined as 0.048 troy oz. of pure gold. Following the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system replaced gold with the U. S. dollar as the reserve asset. The regime intended to combine binding legal obligations with multilateral decision-making through the International Monetary Fund, the rules of this system were set forth in the articles of agreement of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. S. Dollar and to exchange rates within 1% of parity by intervening in their foreign exchange markets. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce
8.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
9.
Banco Nacional Ultramarino
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Banco Nacional Ultramarino was a Portuguese bank with operations throughout the world, especially in Portugals former overseas provinces. It ceased existence as an independent legal entity in Portugal following its merger with Caixa Geral de Depósitos, the Chinese names meaning is literally Great West Ocean Bank or Atlantic Bank. Banco Nacional Ultramarino was established in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1864 as a bank of issue for Portuguese overseas territories, the next year it opened branches in Luanda, Angola and Praia, Cabo Verde. Three years after that, in 1868, BNU opened branches in São Tomé and Príncipe, Goa, in 1901 BNU lost its banking monopoly, but retained its note-issuing monopoly in the countries in which BNU operated. The next year, BNU opened branches in Macau and in Bolama, just before World War 1, in 1912, BNU opened branches in Dili, East Timor (present-day Timor Leste, and in Brazil. 1919 - BNU established an office in Stanleyville and a branch in Paris. 1920 - BNU established an office in Bombay. 1926 - BNU lost its monopoly in Angola with creation of Banco de Angola. BNU transferred its branch in Stanleyville to Banco de Angola,1929 - BNU established Anglo-Portuguese Colonial and Overseas Bank, its subsidiary in London, and converted its branch in Paris to a subsidiary, Banque Franco-Portugaise d’Outre-Mer. In 1952 BNU closed its branches in India, in 1965 BNU, Banco Português do Atlântico, Banco de Angola, and the South African company, General Mining and Finance, founded Bank of Lisbon and South Africa. This was later renamed Mercantile Lisbon Bank, in the 1970s, BNU bought a stake in Banque Interatlantique in Luxembourg, and established a representative office in London. In 1974 the Portuguese government nationalized BNU, following the Carnation Revolution, in 1993, the government split National Bank into a central bank, Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe, and a commercial bank, Banco Internacional de Sao Tome e Principe. In Cape Verde, BNUs interests became Bank of Cape Verde, in 1993, the government spun off the commercial banking operations into a new bank, Banco Comercial do Atlantico. 1988 - Portuguese Government-owned Caixa Geral de Depósitos became the majority shareholder of BNU,1991 - BNU opened a branch in London. 1993 - BNU opened a branch in Zhuhai, a Special Economic Zone of China,1993 - Caixa Geral de Depósitos became the majority shareholder in Banque Franco-Portugaise d’Outre-Mer. In 2002, CGD closed the bank by merging its operations into CGDs branch in Paris,1995 - The Chinese government confirmed that BNU would remain a note issuer in Macao until at least 2010. 1999 - BNU opened representative offices in Mumbai and Panjim,2000 - BNU reached an agreement with the Administration of Macau Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, under which BNU remains an Agent of the Treasury. A. But remained wholly owned subsidiary of Caixa Geral de Depósitos, retaining until 2010 its functions as a note issuer and Agent of the Treasury
10.
Portuguese escudo
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The escudo was the currency of Portugal prior to the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999 and its removal from circulation on 28 February 2002. The escudo was subdivided into 100 centavos, amounts in escudos were written as escudos $ centavos with the cifrão as the decimal separator. Because of the rate of 1000 réis = $1, three decimal places were initially used. Escudo gold coinage was introduced in 1722 with denominations including 1⁄2 escudo,2,4, and 8 escudos. The escudo was introduced on 22 May 1911, after the 1910 Republican revolution. The term mil réis remained a colloquial synonym of escudo up to the 1990s, one million réis was called one conto de réis, or simply one conto. This expression passed on to the escudo, meaning 1, 000$, the escudos value was initially set at 675$00 =1 kg of gold. After 1914, the value of the fell, being fixed in 1928 at 108$25 to the Pound Sterling. This was altered to 110$00 to the Pound Sterling in 1931, a new rate of 27$50 escudos to the U. S. dollar was established in 1940, changing to 25$00 in 1940 and 28$75 in 1949. During World War II, escudos were heavily sought after by Nazi Germany, through Swiss banks, as currency to make purchases to Portugal. Inflation throughout the 20th century made centavos essentially worthless by its end, with the entry of Portugal in the Eurozone, the conversion rate to the euro was set at 200$482 to €1. The escudo was used in the Portuguese mainland, the Azores and Madeira, for more details, see the escudos of Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe. Only Cape Verde continues to use the escudo, in Macau, the currency during the colonial period was, as it is today, the pataca. Timor-Leste adopted the escudo whilst still a Portuguese colony, having used the pataca. Portuguese India adopted the escudo before it was annexed by India, the gold escudo mintage period for each denomination was different, 1⁄2 escudo through 1821,2 escudos through 1789, and 4 escudos through 1799. The 8 escudo coin was struck between 1722–30. Between 1912 and 1916, silver 10,20 and 50 centavos, bronze 1 and 2 centavos and cupro-nickel 4 centavos were issued between 1917 and 1922. In 1920, bronze 5 centavos and cupro-nickel 10 and 20 centavos were introduced, followed, in 1924, by bronze 10 and 20 centavos, aluminium bronze was replaced with cupro-nickel in 1927
11.
Decagon
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In geometry, a decagon is a ten-sided polygon or 10-gon. A regular decagon has all sides of length and each internal angle will always be equal to 144°. Its Schläfli symbol is and can also be constructed as a pentagon, t. By simple trigonometry, d =2 a, and it can be written algebraically as d = a 5 +25. The side of a regular decagon inscribed in a circle is −1 +52 =1 ϕ. As 10 =2 ×5, a power of two times a Fermat prime, it follows that a regular decagon is constructible using compass and straightedge, or by an edge-bisection of a regular pentagon. An alternative method is as follows, Construct a pentagon in a circle by one of the shown in constructing a pentagon. Extend a line from each vertex of the pentagon through the center of the circle to the side of that same circle. Where each line cuts the circle is a vertex of the decagon, the five corners of the pentagon constitute alternate corners of the decagon. Join these points to the adjacent new points to form the decagon, both in the construction with given circumcircle as well as with given side length is the golden ratio dividing a line segment by exterior division the determining construction element. In the construction with given circumcircle the circular arc around G with radius GE3 produces the segment AH, a M ¯ M H ¯ = A H ¯ A M ¯ =1 +52 = Φ ≈1.618. In the construction with side length the circular arc around D with radius DA produces the segment E10F. E1 E10 ¯ E1 F ¯ = E10 F ¯ E1 E10 ¯ = R a =1 +52 = Φ ≈1.618, the regular decagon has Dih10 symmetry, order 20. There are 3 subgroup dihedral symmetries, Dih5, Dih2, and Dih1, and 4 cyclic group symmetries, Z10, Z5, Z2, and Z1. These 8 symmetries can be seen in 10 distinct symmetries on the decagon, john Conway labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the form is r20 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices or edges, cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms, only the g10 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges
12.
Heptagon
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In geometry, a heptagon is a seven-sided polygon or 7-gon. The heptagon is also referred to as the septagon, using sept- together with the Greek suffix -agon meaning angle. A regular heptagon, in all sides and all angles are equal, has internal angles of 5π/7 radians. The area of a regular heptagon of side length a is given by, the apothem is half the cotangent of π /7, and the area of each of the 14 small triangles is one-fourth of the apothem. This expression cannot be rewritten without complex components, since the indicated cubic function is casus irreducibilis. As 7 is a Pierpont prime but not a Fermat prime and this type of construction is called a neusis construction. It is also constructible with compass, straightedge and angle trisector, the impossibility of straightedge and compass construction follows from the observation that 2 cos 2 π7 ≈1.247 is a zero of the irreducible cubic x3 + x2 − 2x −1. Consequently, this polynomial is the polynomial of 2cos, whereas the degree of the minimal polynomial for a constructible number must be a power of 2. An approximation for practical use with an error of about 0. 2% is shown in the drawing and it is attributed to Albrecht Dürer. Let A lie on the circumference of the circumcircle, then B D =12 B C gives an approximation for the edge of the heptagon. Example to illustrate the error, At a circumscribed circle radius r =1 m, since 7 is a prime number there is one subgroup with dihedral symmetry, Dih1, and 2 cyclic group symmetries, Z7, and Z1. These 4 symmetries can be seen in 4 distinct symmetries on the heptagon, john Conway labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the form is r14 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices or edges, cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms, only the g7 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges. However, no algebraic expressions with purely real terms exist for the solutions of this equation, because it is an example of casus irreducibilis. A heptagonal triangle has vertices coinciding with the first, second, and fourth vertices of a regular heptagon and angles π /7,2 π /7, thus its sides coincide with one side and two particular diagonals of the regular heptagon. Two kinds of star heptagons can be constructed from regular heptagons, labeled by Schläfli symbols, blue, and green star heptagons inside a red heptagon
13.
International status and usage of the euro
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The international status and usage of the euro has grown since its launch in 1999. Four small states have given a formal right to use the euro, and to mint their own coins. With or without an agreement these countries, unlike those in the eurozone and its international usage has also grown as a trading currency, acting as an economic or political alternative to using the United States dollar. Its increasing usage in this sense has led to its becoming the only significant challenger to the US dollar as the main reserve currency. Several European microstates outside the EU have adopted the euro as their currency, for EU sanctioning of this adoption, a monetary agreement must be concluded. All of these states had previously had monetary agreements to use yielded eurozone currencies, the Vatican and San Marino had their currencies pegged to the Italian lira and Monaco used the Monegasque franc, which was pegged to the French franc. Between 2010 and 2012, new agreements between the EU and Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City came into force, a similar agreement was negotiated with Andorra and came into force on 1 April 2012. Andorra did not previously have an official currency, however, the first Andorran euro coins did not enter into circulation until January 2015. Outside the EU, there are currently three French territories and a British territory that have agreements to use the euro as their currency, France is responsible for ensuring that the laws governing the EMU apply in their territories which use the euro. The first OCTs to adopt the euro through an agreement were the French overseas territories of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, located off the coast of Canada. They both adopted the euro on 1 January 1999 when the currency was first introduced at the electronic level, Mayotte subsequently held a referendum in 2009 in which it decided to become an integral part of France. Its status was changed from an OCT to an OMR, where EU laws apply without separate agreements, on 1 January 2014, on 22 February 2007, Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin were politically separated from the French Outermost region Guadeloupe to form two new French overseas collectivities. This caused their status in the EU to briefly be in limbo until ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon reaffirmed both territories remained in the EU. The euro continued to be used in both territories throughout this time without incident, with the adoption of the euro by Cyprus per 1 January 2008, the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which had previously used the Cypriot pound, also decided to adopt the euro. The base areas are a territory of the United Kingdom, an EU member state which itself does not use the euro. Their laws and currency have been aligned with those of the Republic of Cyprus, montenegro and Kosovo have also used the euro since its launch, as they previously used the German mark rather than the Yugoslav dinar. There were political concerns that Serbia could use the currency to destabilise these territories so they received Western help in adopting and using the mark and they switched to the euro when the mark was replaced. In October 2012, the President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli suggested that he was considering making the euro a third official currency of the country to go along with the US dollar, in various countries the euro is accepted by some merchants albeit not being official currency there
14.
Economy of Cape Verde
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Cape Verde is a small archipelagic nation that lacks resources and has experienced severe droughts. Agriculture is made difficult by lack of rain and is restricted to four islands for most of the year. Most of the nations GDP comes from the service industry, Cape Verde has significant cooperation with Portugal at every level of the economy, which has led it to link its currency first to the Portuguese escudo and, in 1999, to the euro. About 75% of food is imported, Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants, remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector. Since 1991, the policies the government has pursued include a welcome to foreign investors. Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported, Cape Verde has cold storage and freezing facilities as well as fish processing plants in Mindelo, Praia, and on Sal. However, the potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public accounting for almost 70% of the GDP. Although nearly 35% of the lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 2010 was only 9. 2%, of the 1998 total. In 1994-95 Cape Verde received a total of about U. S. $50 million in investments, of which 50% was in industry, 19% in tourism. Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, mining is an insignificant contributor to the countrys economy. Most of the countrys mineral requirements are imported, Cape Verde was not a natural gas or petroleum producer as of 2007. Cape Verdes strategic location at the crossroads of air and sea lanes has been enhanced by significant improvements at Mindelos harbor. Ship repair facilities at Mindelo were opened in 1983, and the harbors at Mindelo, the major ports are Mindelo and Praia, but all other islands have small port facilities, some of which are to be expanded in the near future. The archipelago has 3,050 kilometers of roads, of which 1,010 kilometers are paved, the new Praia International Airport is currently operative. Cape Verde is considered a country, and is included on the list of the United Nations Small Island Developing States. In 2007 the United Nations graduated Cape Verde from the category of Least Developed Countries, on December 18,2007, the General Council of the World Trade Organization approved a package for the accession of Cape Verde to the WTO
15.
Standard Catalog of World Coins
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The Standard Catalog of World Coins is a series of numismatic catalogs, commonly known as the Krause catalogs. They are published by Krause Publications, a division of F+W Media, the by-century volumes list by date virtually every coin type, most of which are photographed, with mintage and other information, plus market valuations in up to 5 grades. Listings are by denomination rather than series, as in earlier World coin catalogs, the proprietary Krause-Mishler numbers are widely used, for just a few countries earlier systems such as Y and C numbers are given instead. The century format is considered inconvenient and expensive for those who collect geographically. Originally covering 1835 or so to date, the main catalog evolved into an annual 20th century-only work, plus separate 17th, 18th, beginning with the 34th ed, listings covering 2001 to date are included in a separate 21st Century catalog. Data from the volumes are collated together in special editions for Crowns, Gold, German. Fantasies and medallion issues, which do not appear in the catalogs, are covered in a publication called Unusual World Coins. There is also a publication called Collecting World Coins that includes only 20th-, list priced at $73 to $85 they are often discounted, and can be found in many public libraries. Older editions are steeply discounted even though revisions between editions in many areas are minimal, following the appearance of unlicensed DVD versions, DVDs were included with the 1601-1700 4th edition, the 1901-2000 36th edition, and possibly others, but are now sold as a separate product. George S. Cuhaj is the current editor, with Thomas Michael credited as market analyst, although Krause collate contributions from many collecting experts, coin catalog Standard Catalog of World Paper Money A Guide Book of United States Coins Piedfort Vcoins. com Krause Publications Numismaster. com
16.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
17.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
18.
Dollar sign
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The dollar sign is a symbol primarily used to indicate the various units of currency around the world. The symbol can interchangeably have one or two vertical strokes, note that the two-stroked version is not the same symbol as the cifrão. In common usage, the sign appears to the left of the amount specified, the best documented explanation holds that the sign evolved out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation pˢ for pesos. A study of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p, a variation, though less plausible, of this hypothesis derives the sign from a combination of the Greek character psi and S. There are a number of hypotheses about the origin of the symbol, some with a measure of academic acceptance. Kingdom of Sicily Denaro minted in the Kingdom in Sicily at least by 1258–1266 had what could be construed as a dollar symbol. These coins were widely circulated due to the Crusades – and specifically the Crusade that targeted Tunis, several alternative hypotheses relate specifically to the dollar sign drawn with two vertical lines. A common hypothesis holds that the sign derives from the Spanish coat of arms, in 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted the symbol of the Pillars of Hercules and added the Latin warning Non plus ultra meaning nothing further beyond, indicating this is the end of the world. But when Christopher Columbus came to America, the legend was changed to Plus ultra, the Pillars of Hercules wrapped in a banner thus became a symbol of the New World. In this example the right-hand pillar clearly resembles the dollar sign, the symbol was adopted by Charles V and was part of his coat of arms representing Spains American possessions. The symbol was later stamped on coins minted in gold and silver, the coin, also known as Spanish dollar, was the first global currency used in the entire world since the Spanish Empire was the first global Empire. These coins, depicting the pillars over two hemispheres and a small S-shaped ribbon around each, were spread throughout America, Europe and Asia. According to this, traders wrote signs that, instead of saying Spanish dollar, had this made by hand. When the US got independence from the UK, they created the American dollar, a dollar sign with two vertical lines could have started off as a monogram of USA, used on money bags issued by the United States Mint. The letters U and S superimposed resemble the historical double-stroke dollar sign, robert Morris was such a zealous patriot – known as the Financier of the Revolution in the West – that conjecture does not overstep its bounds in purporting this hypothesis as viable. A similar idea claims that the letters U and S would stand for unit of silver, referencing pieces of eight again, another hypothesis is that it derives from the symbol used on a German Thaler. This refers to the Bible, Numbers, Chapter 21, a similar symbol, constructed by superposition of S and I or J, was used to denote German Joachimsthaler. It was known in the English-speaking world by the 17th century, robert Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock
, $,[1] or Esc[citation needed]
Cape Verde
