1.
Ivan Shopov
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Ivan Shopov, better known by his stage names Cooh and Balkansky, is a Bulgarian music producer, DJ, and graphic artist. He produces drum and bass and dubstep music, Shopov was born in Troyan, a town in central northern Bulgaria. At 16, he joined a band as a bassist. He got involved in music at age 18. In 2002, Shopov began a promotion of drum and bass throughout Bulgaria together with Valeri Sholevski, Shopov is a graduate of the National Academy of Arts in Sofia. Under the stage name Balkansky, Shopov released the 2008 album Kuker, the album combines Bulgarian and Balkan folk music with dubstep and other electronic music genres. In 2009, Cooh featured as a performer on the stage of the Spirit of Burgas festival in Burgas together with Ogonek
2.
Organic compound
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An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially
3.
Molecule
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A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge, however, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions. In the kinetic theory of gases, the molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules. A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one element, as with oxygen, or it may be heteronuclear. Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are not considered single molecules. Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances and they also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals and covalent crystals, the theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses, atoms may also be together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule. The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, in practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a system composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i. e, according to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word molecule derives from the Latin moles or small unit of mass. Molecule – extremely minute particle, from French molécule, from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles mass, a vague meaning at first, the vogue for the word can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased, earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. Molecules are held together by covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment, for example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements, a covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
4.
Amino acid
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Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways, in the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component of human muscles, cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in such as neurotransmitter transport. In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the acid groups attached to the first carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or α-amino acids and they include the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, which combine into peptide chains to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers, although a few D-amino acids occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator, twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as standard amino acids. The other two are selenocysteine, and pyrrolysine, pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons, for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. N-formylmethionine is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid, codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to expand the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids. Many important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids also play critical roles within the body. Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called essential for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body, others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species, because of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements, fertilizers, and food technology. Industrial uses include the production of drugs, biodegradable plastics, the first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820, usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis, in the structure shown at the top of the page, R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the group is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as amino acids
5.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
6.
Vinegar
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Vinegar is a liquid consisting of about 5–20% acetic acid, water, and other trace chemicals, which may include flavorings. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a variety of industrial, medical. Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation processes, in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars where fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of a few months or up to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a non-toxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria, fast methods add mother of vinegar to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced between 20 hours to three days, the conversion of ethanol and oxygen to acetic acid takes place by the following reaction, CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC, apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present and it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened for consumption. Balsamic vinegar is an aged vinegar produced in the Modena. The original product—Traditional Balsamic Vinegar—is made from the juice, or must. It is very dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product, a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow. It ranges from yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar. Because it contains no sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars, the other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid, a white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar to be mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost
7.
Metabolism
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Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, usually, breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical. Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly, enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cells environment or to signals from other cells. The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious, for example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the rate, influences how much food an organism will require. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the metabolic pathways. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their appearance in evolutionary history. Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three classes of molecule, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids. These biochemicals can be joined together to make such as DNA and proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds, many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals and their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform, the fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol, a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another class of lipids. Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with hydroxyl groups attached. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy, the basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose
8.
Salt (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
9.
Ester
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In chemistry, esters are chemical compounds derived from an acid in which at least one –OH group is replaced by an –O–alkyl group. Usually, esters are derived from an acid and an alcohol. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the classes of lipids. Esters with low weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules, nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. The word ester was coined in 1848 by German chemist Leopold Gmelin, probably as a contraction of the German Essigäther, ester names are derived from the parent alcohol and the parent acid, where the latter may be organic or inorganic. Esters derived from more complex carboxylic acids are, on the hand, more frequently named using the systematic IUPAC name. For example, the ester hexyl octanoate, also known under the trivial name hexyl caprylate, has the formula CH36CO25CH3, the chemical formulas of organic esters usually take the form RCO2R′, where R and R′ are the hydrocarbon parts of the carboxylic acid and the alcohol, respectively. For example, butyl acetate, derived from butanol and acetic acid would be written CH3CO2C4H9, alternative presentations are common including BuOAc and CH3COOC4H9. Cyclic esters are called lactones, regardless of whether they are derived from an organic or an inorganic acid, one example of a lactone is γ-valerolactone. An uncommon class of organic esters are the orthoesters, which have the formula RC3, triethylorthoformate is derived, in terms of its name from orthoformic acid and ethanol. Esters can also be derived from an acid and an alcohol. For example, triphenyl phosphate is the derived from phosphoric acid. Organic carbonates are derived from acid, for example, ethylene carbonate is derived from carbonic acid. So far an alcohol and inorganic acid are linked via oxygen atoms, in corollary, boron features borinic esters, boronic esters, and borates. As oxygen is a group 16 chemical element, sulfur atoms can replace some oxygen atoms in carbon–oxygen–central inorganic atom covalent bonds of an ester, esters contain a carbonyl center, which gives rise to 120 ° C–C–O and O–C–O angles. Unlike amides, esters are structurally flexible functional groups because rotation about the C–O–C bonds has a low barrier and their flexibility and low polarity is manifested in their physical properties, they tend to be less rigid and more volatile than the corresponding amides. The pKa of the alpha-hydrogens on esters is around 25, the preference for the Z conformation is influenced by the nature of the substituents and solvent, if present
10.
Carboxylate
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A carboxylate is a salt or ester of a carboxylic acid. Carboxylate salts have the general formula Mn, where M is a metal, carboxylate esters have the general formula RCOOR′. R and R′ are organic groups, R′ ≠ H, a carboxylate ion is the conjugate base of a carboxylic acid, RCOO−. It is an ion with negative charge, carboxylic acids easily dissociate into a carboxylate anion and a positively charged hydrogen ion, much more readily than alcohols do, because the carboxylate ion is stabilized by resonance. The negative charge that is left after deprotonation of the group is delocalized between the two electronegative oxygen atoms in a resonance structure. In contrast, an ion, once formed, would have a strong negative charge on the oxygen atom. Carboxylic acids thus have a lower pH than alcohols, the higher the number of protons in solution, formate ion, HCOO− Acetate ion, CH3COO− Lactate ion, CH3CHCOO− Oxalate ion, 2−2 Citrate ion, C 3H 5O3−3
11.
Conjugate acid
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A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a species formed by the reception of a proton by a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it. On the other hand, a base is merely what is left after an acid has donated a proton in a chemical reaction. Hence, a base is a species formed by the removal of a proton from an acid. A proton is a particle with a unit positive electrical charge, it is represented by the symbol H+ because it constitutes the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, that is. A cation can be an acid, and an anion can be a conjugate base, depending on which substance is involved. In an acid-base reaction, an acid plus a base reacts to form a conjugate base plus a conjugate acid, refer to the following figure, We say that the water molecule is the conjugate acid of the hydroxide ion after the latter received the hydrogen proton donated by ammonium. On the other hand, ammonia is the base for the acid ammonium after ammonium has donated a hydrogen ion towards the production of the water molecule. The strength of an acid is directly proportional to its dissociation constant. If a conjugate acid is strong, its dissociation will have an equilibrium constant. The strength of a base can be seen as the tendency of the species to pull hydrogen protons towards itself. If a conjugate base is classified as strong, it will hold on to the hydrogen proton when in solution, if a chemical species is classified as a weak acid, its conjugate base will be strong in nature. This can be observed in ammonias reaction with water, the reaction proceeds until most of the ammonia has been transformed to ammonium. This shift to the right in the equilibrium of the reaction means that ammonium does not dissociate easily in water. On the other hand, if a species is classified as a strong acid, an example of this case would be the dissociation of Hydrochloric acid HCl in water. Since HCl is an acid, its conjugate base will be a weak conjugate base. Therefore, in system, most H+ will be in the form of a Hydronium ion H 3O+ instead of attached to a Cl anion. To summarize, the stronger the acid or base, the weaker the conjugate, the acid and conjugate base as well as the base and conjugate acid are known as conjugate pairs. When finding a conjugate acid or base, it is important to look at the reactants of the chemical equation, to identify the conjugate acid, look for the pair of compounds that are related
12.
Ion
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An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by chemical or physical means. In chemical terms, if an atom loses one or more electrons. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net charge and is known as an anion. Ions consisting of only a single atom are atomic or monatomic ions, because of their electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds, such as salts. In the case of ionization of a medium, such as a gas, which are known as ion pairs are created by ion impact, and each pair consists of a free electron. The word ion comes from the Greek word ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a charged ion. In Faradays nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device, arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faradays ions. Arrhenius proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current, ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. These stabilized species are commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts. Electrons, due to their mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms. Thus, anions are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron repel each other, as such, in general, cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of its electron cloud. One particular cation contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom. Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, an anion, from the Greek word ἄνω, meaning up, is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge. A cation, from the Greek word κατά, meaning down, is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, there are additional names used for ions with multiple charges
13.
Resonance (chemistry)
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In chemistry, resonance or mesomerism is a way of describing delocalized electrons within certain molecules or polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed by one single Lewis structure. A molecule or ion with such delocalized electrons is represented by several contributing structures, each contributing structure can be represented by a Lewis structure, with only an integer number of covalent bonds between each pair of atoms within the structure. Several Lewis structures are used collectively to describe the molecular structure. Electron delocalization lowers the energy of the substance and thus makes it more stable than any of the contributing structures. The difference between the energy of the actual structure and that of the contributing structure with the lowest potential energy is called the resonance energy or delocalization energy. An isomer is a molecule with the chemical formula but with different arrangements of atoms in space. Resonance contributors of a molecule, on the contrary, can differ by the arrangements of electrons. Therefore, the resonance hybrid cannot be represented by a combination of isomers, benzene undergoes substitution reactions, rather than addition reactions as typical for alkenes. He proposed that the bond in benzene is intermediate of a single and double bond. The mechanism of resonance was introduced into quantum mechanics by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 in a discussion of the states of the helium atom. He compared the structure of the atom with the classical system of resonating coupled harmonic oscillators. Linus Pauling used this mechanism to explain the partial valence of molecules in 1928, the alternative term mesomerism popular in German and French publications with the same meaning was introduced by C. K. Ingold in 1938, but did not catch on in the English literature. The current concept of effect has taken on a related. The double headed arrow was introduced by the German chemist Fritz Arndt who preferred the German phrase zwischenstufe or intermediate stage, the real structure is an intermediate of these structures represented by a resonance hybrid. The contributing structures are not isomers and they differ only in the position of electrons, not in the position of nuclei. Each Lewis formula must have the number of valence electrons. Bonds that have different bond orders in different contributing structures do not have typical bond lengths, the real structure has a lower total potential energy than each of the contributing structures would have. This means that it is more stable than each separate contributing structure would be and it is a common misconception that resonance structures are actual transient states of the molecule, with the molecule oscillating between them or existing as an equilibrium between them
14.
Alcohol
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In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the alcohol ethanol, the predominant alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names also typically indicates that the substance includes a functional group and, so. But many substances, particularly sugars contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix, an important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. The word alcohol is from the Arabic kohl, a used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English, alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide Sb 2S3, hence the essence or spirit of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic, the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when spirits as a synonym for hard liquor. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, Vigo wrote, the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium, by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including alcohol of wine, the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia refers to vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum, Johnson glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat. The words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850, the term ethanol was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with ol the last part of alcohol. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol, e. g. as in methanol and ethanol. When necessary, the position of the group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol, propan-1-ol for CH 3CH 2CH 2OH, propan-2-ol for CH 3CHCH3. If a higher priority group is present, then the prefix hydroxy is used, in other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol, e. g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH, the simplest primary alcohol is methanol, for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RRCHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol, for the tertiary alcohols the general form is RRRCOH
15.
Lewis acids and bases
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A Lewis acid is a chemical species that reacts with a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct. A Lewis base, then, is any species that donates a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid to form a Lewis adduct, for example, OH− and NH3 are Lewis bases, because they can donate a lone pair of electrons. In the adduct, the Lewis acid and base share an electron pair furnished by the Lewis base, usually the terms Lewis acid and Lewis base are defined within the context of a specific chemical reaction. For example, in the reaction of Me3B and NH3 to give Me3BNH3, Me3B acts as a Lewis acid, the terminology refers to the contributions of Gilbert N. Lewis. Another example is boron trifluoride etherate, BF3•Et2O, the center dot is also used to represent hydrate coordination in various crystals, as in MgSO4•7H2O for hydrated magnesium sulfate. In general, however, the bond is viewed as simply somewhere along a continuum between idealized covalent bonding and ionic bonding. Classically, the term Lewis acid is restricted to trigonal planar species with an empty p orbital, for the purposes of discussion, even complex compounds such as Et3Al2Cl3 and AlCl3 are treated as trigonal planar Lewis acids. Other reactions might simply be referred to as acid-catalyzed reactions, some compounds, such as H2O, are both Lewis acids and Lewis bases, because they can either accept a pair of electrons or donate a pair of electrons, depending upon the reaction. Simplest are those that react directly with the Lewis base, but more common are those that undergo a reaction prior to forming the adduct. Again, the description of a Lewis acid is used loosely. For example, in solution, bare protons do not exist, BF3 + OMe2 → BF3OMe2 Both BF4− and BF3OMe2 are Lewis base adducts of boron trifluoride. Well known cases are the aluminium trihalides, which are viewed as Lewis acids. Aluminium trihalides, unlike the boron trihalides, do not exist in the form AlX3, a simpler case is the formation of adducts of borane. Monomeric BH3 does not exist appreciably, so the adducts of borane are generated by degradation of diborane, B2H6 +2 H− →2 BH4− In this case, an intermediate B2H7− can be isolated. Many metal complexes serve as Lewis acids, but usually only after dissociating a more weakly bound Lewis base, 2+ +6 NH3 → 2+ +6 H2O The proton is one of the strongest but is also one of the most complicated Lewis acids. It is convention to ignore the fact that a proton is heavily solvated, the key step is the acceptance by AlCl3 of a chloride ion lone-pair, forming AlCl4− and creating the strongly acidic, that is, electrophilic, carbonium ion. RCl +AlCl3 → R+ + AlCl4− A Lewis base is an atomic or molecular species where the highest occupied molecular orbital is highly localized, typical Lewis bases are conventional amines such as ammonia and alkyl amines. Other common Lewis bases include pyridine and its derivatives, some of the main classes of Lewis bases are amines of the formula NH3−xRx where R = alkyl or aryl
16.
Decarboxylation
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Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide. Usually, decarboxylation refers to a reaction of acids, removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain. The reverse process, which is the first chemical step in photosynthesis, is called carboxylation, enzymes that catalyze decarboxylations are called decarboxylases or, the more formal term, carboxy-lyases. The term decarboxylation literally means removal of the COOH and its replacement with a hydrogen, the term relates the state of the reactant and product. Decarboxylation is one of the oldest organic reactions, since it often entails simple pyrolysis, heating is required because the reaction is less favorable at low temperatures. Yields are highly sensitive to conditions, in retrosynthesis, decarboxylation reactions can be considered the opposite of homologation reactions, in that the chain length becomes one carbon shorter. Metals, especially copper compounds, are usually required, such reactions proceed via the intermediacy of metal carboxylate complexes. Decarboxylation of aryl carboxylates can generate the equivalent of the corresponding aryl anion, alkanoic acids and their salts do not always undergo decarboxylation readily. Exceptions are the decarboxylation of beta-keto acids, α, β-unsaturated acids, and α-phenyl, α-nitro, such reactions are accelerated due to the formation of a zwitterionic tautomer in which the carbonyl is protonated and the carboxyl group is deprotonated. Typically fatty acids do not decarboxylate readily, reactivity of an acid towards decarboxylation depends upon stability of carbanion intermediate formed in above mechanism. Many reactions have been named after workers in organic chemistry. The Barton decarboxylation, Kolbe electrolysis, Kochi reaction and Hunsdiecker reaction are radical reactions, the Krapcho decarboxylation is a related decarboxylation of an ester. In ketonic decarboxylation a carboxylic acid is converted to a ketone, hydrodecarboxylations involve the conversion of a carboxylic acid to the corresponding hydrocarbon. This is conceptually the same as the general term decarboxylation as defined above except that it specifically requires that the carboxyl group is. The reaction is common in conjunction with the malonic ester synthesis. The reaction involves the base of the carboxyl group, a carboxylate ion. Where reactions entail heating the carboxylic acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid, in these cases, the reaction is likely to occur by initial addition of water and a proton. Upon heating, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid decarboxylates to give the psychoactive compound Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, when cannabis is heated in vacuum, the decarboxylation of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid appears to follow first order kinetics
17.
Trivial name
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In chemistry, a trivial name is a nonsystematic name for a chemical substance. That is, the name is not recognized according to the rules of any system of chemical nomenclature such as IUPAC inorganic or IUPAC organic nomenclature. A trivial name is not a name and is usually a common name. Generally, trivial names are not useful in describing the properties of the thing being named. Properties such as the structure of a chemical compound are not indicated. And, in cases, trivial names can be ambiguous or will carry different meanings in different industries or in different geographic regions. On the other hand, systematic names can be so convoluted, as a result, a limited number of trivial chemical names are retained names, an accepted part of the nomenclature. Trivial names often arise in the language, they may come from historic usages in, for example. Many trivial names pre-date the institution of formal naming conventions, all elements that have been isolated have trivial names. In scientific documents, international treaties, patents and legal definitions and this need is satisfied by systematic names. One such system, established by the International Union of Pure, other systems have been developed by the American Chemical Society, the International Organization for Standardization, and the World Health Organization. However, chemists still use names that are not systematic because they are traditional or because they are more convenient than the systematic names. The word trivial, often used in a sense, was intended to mean commonplace. In addition to names, chemists have constructed semi-trivial names by appending a standard symbol to a trivial stem. Some trivial and semi-trivial names are so used that they have been officially adopted by IUPAC. Traditional names of elements are trivial, some originating in alchemy, IUPAC has accepted these names, but has also defined systematic names of elements that have not yet been prepared. It has adopted a procedure by which the scientists who are credited with preparing an element can propose a new name, once the IUPAC has accepted such a name, it replaces the systematic name. Nine elements were known by the Middle Ages – gold, silver, tin, mercury, copper, lead, iron, sulfur, and carbon
18.
IUPAC
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The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry /ˈaɪjuːpæk/ or /ˈjuːpæk/ is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries. It is a member of the International Council for Science, IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland, and the administrative office, known as the IUPAC Secretariat, is in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States. This administrative office is headed by IUPACs executive director, currently Lynn Soby, IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry. Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be national chemistry societies, national academies of sciences, there are fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations. IUPACs Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols is the world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements. Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by different committees with different responsibilities. These committees run different projects which include standardizing nomenclature, finding ways to bring chemistry to the world, IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry and other fields of science, but IUPAC has publications in many fields including chemistry, biology and physics. IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, the need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz. This committee was the first international conference to create an international naming system for organic compounds, the ideas that were formulated in that conference evolved into the official IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry. IUPAC stands as a legacy of this meeting, making it one of the most important historical international collaborations of chemistry societies, since this time, IUPAC has been the official organization held with the responsibility of updating and maintaining official organic nomenclature. IUPAC as such was established in 1919, one notable country excluded from this early IUPAC is Germany. Germanys exclusion was a result of prejudice towards Germans by the Allied powers after World War I, Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC during 1929. However, Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC during World War II, during World War II, IUPAC was affiliated with the Allied powers, but had little involvement during the war effort itself. After the war, East and West Germany were eventually readmitted to IUPAC, since World War II, IUPAC has been focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science without interruption. In 2016, IUPAC denounced the use of chlorine as a chemical weapon, the letter stated, Our organizations deplore the use of chlorine in this manner. According to the CWC, the use, stockpiling, distribution, IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities. Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries, the steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows, All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere. Any committee may start a project, if a projects spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding, it must take the issue to the Project Committee
19.
Parent structure
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Parent structures bearing one or more functional groups that are not specifically denoted by a suffix are called functional parents. Names of parent structures are used in IUPAC nomenclature as basis for systematic names, a parent hydride is a parent structure with one or more hydrogen atoms. Parent hydrides have a defined standard population of atoms attached to a skeletal structure. Parent hydrides are used extensively in organic nomenclature, but are used in inorganic chemistry. To construct a systematic name, affixes are attached to the parent name, which denote substituents that replace hydrogen
20.
2-Furoic acid
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2-Furoic acid is a heterocyclic carboxylic acid, consisting of a five-membered aromatic ring and a carboxylic acid group. Its name is derived from the Latin word furfur, meaning bran, the salts and esters of furoic acids are known as furoates. 2-Furoic acid is a compound most widely found in food products as a preservative. Other uses for 2-furoic acid include nylon preparation and optic technologies, 2-Furoic acid was first described by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780 as the first derivative of the compound furan. Since then, the compounds reactivity with different substances and organisms was tested and it was discovered that 2-furoic acid can be the sole source of carbon and energy for the organism Pseudomonas putida. The organism aerobically degrades the compound, 2-Furoic acid can be synthesized by the oxidation of either furfuryl alcohol or furfural. This can be achieved either chemically or biocatalytically, currently the industrial route involves the Cannizaro reaction of furfural in an aqueous NaOH solution, this route produces both 2-furoic acid and furfuryl alcohol. The bio-catalytic route involves the microorganism Nocardia corallina, experiments involving this microbial conversion resulted in high yields, 98% from 2-furfuryl alcohol and 88% from 2-furanaldehyde. Oxidation with N. corallina is unique because most other microorganisms produce two products from the oxidation, the acid and the alcohol, furthermore, aromatic ring destruction does not occur. In industrial use, 2-furoic acid is a preservative, acting as a bactericide and fungicide and it is also considered an acceptable flavoring ingredient and achieved a generally recognized as safe status in 1995 by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association. 2-Furoic acid is characterized as a liquid and has a distinct odor described in the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives as sweet, oily, herbaceous. 2-Furoic acid is used as a starting material for the production of furoate esters. It and its derivatives also aid in the production of nylons, for the most part 2-furoic acid is relatively stable. However, 2-furoic acid is reactive with oxidizing materials and it is not reactive with reducing agents, combustible materials, organic materials, metals, acids, or alkalis. 2-furoic acid may have an important role in the field of optic technology, studies concerning the preparation of 2-furoic acid crystals have shown indication of several favorable properties of non-linear optical materials. These crystals are transparent in the 200–2000 nm, wavelength region, are stable up to 130 °C, and generally have low absorption in the UV, visible. In optical and dielectric studies, 2-furoic acid crystals have shown to have decreasing dielectric constants with increasing frequencies. This could mean that the crystals may act as paraelectrics in the range before 318 K
21.
Acetate
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An acetate /ˈæsᵻteɪt/ is a salt formed by the combination of acetic acid with an alkaline, earthy, or metallic base. Acetate also describes the base or ion typically found in aqueous solution. The neutral molecules formed by the combination of the acetate ion, the simplest of these is hydrogen acetate with corresponding salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion CH3CO2−, or CH3COO−. Most of the approximately 5 billion kilograms of acid produced annually in industry is used in the production of acetates. In nature, acetate is the most common building block for biosynthesis, for example, the fatty acids are produced by connecting the two carbon atoms from acetate to a growing fatty acid. When part of a salt, the formula of the ion is written as CH3CO2−, C2H3O2−. Chemists abbreviate acetate as OAc− or, less commonly, AcO−, thus, HOAc is the abbreviation for acetic acid, NaOAc for sodium acetate, and EtOAc for ethyl acetate. The abbreviation Ac is also encountered in chemical formulas to indicate the acetate ion. This abbreviation is not to be confused with the symbol of actinium, for example, the formula for sodium acetate might be abbreviated as NaAc, rather than NaC2H3O2. Although its systematic name is ethanoate, the common acetate remains the preferred IUPAC name, the acetate anion, −, is one of the carboxylate family. It is the base of acetic acid. Above a pH of 5.5, acetic acid converts to acetate, CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO− + H+ Many acetate salts are ionic, examples of acetate complexes include chromium acetate and basic zinc acetate. Commercially important acetate salts are aluminium acetate, used in dyeing, ammonium acetate, a precursor to acetamide, all three salts are colourless and highly soluble in water. Acetate esters have the general formula CH3CO2R, where R is an organyl group, the esters are the dominant forms of acetate in the marketplace. Unlike the acetate salts, acetate esters are often liquids, lipophilic and they are popular because they have inoffensive, often sweet odors, they are inexpensive, and they are usually of low toxicity. Almost half of acetic acid production is consumed in the production of acetate, precursor to polyvinyl alcohol. The second largest use of acid is consumed in the production of cellulose acetate. In fact, acetate is jargon for cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of fibres or diverse products, Cellulose acetate can be found in many household products
22.
Carbonic acid
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Not to be confused with Carbolic acid, an antiquated name for phenol. Carbonic acid is a compound with the chemical formula H2CO3. It is also a name given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water. In physiology, carbonic acid is described as acid or respiratory acid. It plays an important role in the buffer system to maintain acid–base homeostasis. Carbonic acid, which is an acid, forms two kinds of salts, the carbonates and the bicarbonates. In geology, carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many features such as stalactites and stalagmites. It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound, however, in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples. 7×10−3 in pure water and ≈1. 2×10−3 in seawater. Hence, the majority of the dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid. In the absence of a catalyst, the equilibrium is reached quite slowly, the rate constants are 0.039 s−1 for the forward reaction and 23 s−1 for the reverse reaction. The addition of two molecules of water to CO2 would give orthocarbonic acid, C4, which only in minute amounts in aqueous solution. Addition of base to an excess of acid gives bicarbonate. With excess base, carbonic acid reacts to give carbonate salts, bicarbonate is an intermediate in the transport of CO2 out of the body via respiratory gas exchange. This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO2 and this equilibration plays an important role as a buffer in mammalian blood. A2016 theoretical report suggests that carbonic acid may play a role in protonating various nitrogen bases in blood serum. The oceans of the world have absorbed almost half of the CO2 emitted by humans from the burning of fossil fuels and it has been theorized that the extra dissolved carbon dioxide has caused the oceans average surface pH to shift by about −0.1 unit from pre-industrial levels. This theory is known as acidification, even though the ocean remains basic. Carbonic acid is a polyprotic acid — specifically it is diprotic meaning it has two protons which may dissociate from the parent molecule
23.
Blood
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma, plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water, and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are red blood cells, white blood cells. The most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, a protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma, vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system, Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- from the Greek word αἷμα for blood. In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones. The average adult has a volume of roughly 5 litres. These blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, by volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54. 3%, and white cells about 0. 7%. Whole blood exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. One microliter of blood contains,4.7 to 6.1 million,4.2 to 5.4 million erythrocytes, Red blood cells contain the bloods hemoglobin, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals
24.
Formic acid
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Formic acid, systemically named methanoic acid, is the simplest carboxylic acid. The chemical formula is HCOOH or HCO2H and it is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in some ants. Esters, salts, and the derived from formic acid are called formates. Formic acid is a colorless liquid having a pungent, penetrating odor at room temperature. It is miscible with water and most polar solvents, and is somewhat soluble in hydrocarbons. In hydrocarbons and in the phase, it consists of hydrogen-bonded dimers rather than individual molecules. Owing to its tendency to hydrogen-bond, gaseous formic acid does not obey the ideal gas law, solid formic acid consists of an effectively endless network of hydrogen-bonded formic acid molecules. This relatively complicated compound also forms an azeotrope with water. In nature, it is found in ants and in the trichomes of stinging nettle. Formic acid is a naturally occurring component of the atmosphere due primarily to forest emissions and it is commercially available in solutions of various concentrations between 85 and 99 w/w %. 2010 prices ranged from around €650/tonne in Western Europe to $1250/tonne in the United States, typical reaction conditions are 80 °C and 40 atm. The most widely used base is sodium methoxide, hydrolysis of the methyl formate produces formic acid, HCO2CH3 + H2O → HCO2H + CH3OH Efficient hydrolysis of methyl formate requires a large excess of water. This problem has led some manufacturers to develop energy-efficient methods of separating formic acid from the water used in direct hydrolysis. In one of these processes the formic acid is removed from the water by liquid-liquid extraction with an organic base, a significant amount of formic acid is produced as a byproduct in the manufacture of other chemicals. At one time, acetic acid was produced on a large scale by oxidation of alkanes and this oxidative route to acetic acid is declining in importance, so that the aforementioned dedicated routes to formic acid have become more important. The catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid has long been studied and this reaction can be conducted homogeneously. Formic acid can also be obtained by aqueous catalytic partial oxidation of wet biomass, a Keggin-type polyoxometalate is used as the homogeneous catalyst to convert sugars, wood, waste paper or cyanobacteria to formic acid and CO2 as the sole byproduct. Yields of up to 53% formic acid can be achieved, in the laboratory, formic acid can be obtained by heating oxalic acid in glycerol and extraction by steam distillation
25.
Propionic acid
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Propionic acid is a naturally occurring carboxylic acid with chemical formula CH3CH2COOH. It is a liquid with a pungent and unpleasant smell somewhat resembling body odor. The anion CH3CH2COO− as well as the salts and esters of propionic acid are known as propionates, Propionic acid was first described in 1844 by Johann Gottlieb, who found it among the degradation products of sugar. Over the next few years, other chemists produced propionic acid in various other ways, Propionic acid has physical properties intermediate between those of the smaller carboxylic acids, formic and acetic acids, and the larger fatty acids. It is miscible with water, but can be removed from water by adding salt, as with acetic and formic acids, it consists of hydrogen bonded pairs of molecules as both the liquid and the vapor. Propionic acid displays the properties of carboxylic acids, It can form amide, ester, anhydride. It can undergo alpha-halogenation with bromine in the presence of PBr3 as catalyst to form CH3CHBrCOOH, in the presence of cobalt or manganese ions, this reaction proceeds rapidly at temperatures as mild as 40–50 °C, CH3CH2CHO + 1⁄2 O2 → CH3CH2COOH. Large amounts of propionic acid were produced as a byproduct of acetic acid manufacture. At the current time, the worlds largest producer of propionic acid is BASF, bacteria of the genus Propionibacterium produce propionic acid as the end-product of their anaerobic metabolism. This class of bacteria is found in the stomachs of ruminants and the sweat glands of humans. It is also biosynthesized in the intestine of humans by bacterial fermentation of dietary fibre. Propionic acid inhibits the growth of mold and some bacteria at the levels between 0.1 and 1% by weight, as a result, most propionic acid produced is consumed as a preservative for both animal feed and food for human consumption. For animal feed, it is used directly or as its ammonium salt. The antibiotic Monensin is added to feed to favor propionibacteria over acetic acid producers in the rumen. This application accounts for half of the world production of propionic acid. Another major application is as a preservative in baked goods, which use the sodium and calcium salts, as a food additive, it is approved for use in the EU, USA and Australia and New Zealand. It is listed by its INS number or E number E280, Propionic acid is also useful as an intermediate in the production of other chemicals, especially polymers. In more specialized applications, it is used to make pesticides
26.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
27.
Valeric acid
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Valeric acid, or pentanoic acid, is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid with the chemical formula C5H10O2. Like other low-molecular-weight carboxylic acids, it has an unpleasant odor. It is found naturally in the flowering plant valerian, from which it gets its name. Its primary use is in the synthesis of its esters, volatile esters of valeric acid tend to have pleasant odors and are used in perfumes and cosmetics. Ethyl valerate and pentyl valerate are used as food additives because of their fruity flavors and it differs from valproic acid simply by lacking a 3-carbon side-chain. Mevalonic acid is derived from valeric acid by methylation, valeric acid can cause irritation if it comes into contact with the skin, eyes, or mucous membranes. 4-Hydroxy-4-methylpentanoic acid Pivalic acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid, also called isovaleric acid
28.
Valerian (herb)
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Valerian is a perennial flowering plant, with heads of sweetly scented pink or white flowers that bloom in the summer and can reach a height of 5 feet. Valerian flower extracts were used as a perfume in the 16th century, native to Europe and parts of Asia, valerian has been introduced into North America. The flowers are visited by many fly species, especially hoverflies of the genus Eristalis. It is consumed as food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the grey pug, other names used for this plant include garden valerian, garden heliotrope, setwall and all-heal. Red valerian, often grown in gardens, is sometimes referred to as valerian. Crude extract of valerian root is sold as a supplement in the form of capsules. Valerian root may have sedative and anxiolytic effects, the amino acid valine is named after this plant. Valerian has been used as a medicinal herb since at least the time of ancient Greece, hippocrates described its properties, and Galen later prescribed it as a remedy for insomnia. In medieval Sweden, it was placed in the wedding clothes of the groom to ward off the envy of the elves. In the 16th century, the Anabaptist reformer Pilgram Marpeck prescribed valerian tea for a sick woman, the seventeenth century astrological botanist Nicholas Culpeper thought the plant was under the influence of Mercury, and therefore hath a warming faculty. He recommended both herb and root, and said that the root boiled with liquorice, raisons and aniseed is good for those troubled with cough, also, it is of special value against the plague, the decoction thereof being drunk and the root smelled. The green herb being bruised and applied to the head taketh away pain, the name of the herb is derived from the personal name Valeria and the Latin verb valere. Many studies remain inconclusive and all require clinical validation, the mechanism of action of valerian in general, and as a mild sedative in particular, has not been fully elucidated. Valeric acid, which is responsible for the odor of mostly older valerian roots. Valeric acid is related to acid, a widely prescribed anticonvulsant. Valerian also contains isovaltrate, which has shown to be an inverse agonist for adenosine A1 receptor sites. This action likely does not contribute to the herbs possible sedative effects, hydrophilic extractions of the herb commonly sold over the counter, however, probably do not contain significant amounts of isovaltrate. Valerenic acid in valerian stimulates serotonin receptors as a partial agonist, the chief constituent of valerian is a yellowish-green to brownish-yellow oil which is present in the dried root, varying from 0.5 to 2. 0%, though an average yield rarely exceeds 0. 8%
29.
Hexanoic acid
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Hexanoic acid is the carboxylic acid derived from hexane with the general formula C5H11COOH. It is an oily liquid with an odor that is fatty, cheesy, waxy. It is a fatty acid found naturally in various fats and oils. It is also one of the components of vanilla, the primary use of hexanoic acid is in the manufacture of its esters for artificial flavors, and in the manufacture of hexyl derivatives, such as hexylphenols. The salts and esters of this acid are known as hexanoates or caproates, two other acids are named after goats, caprylic and capric. Along with hexanoic acid, these total 15% in goat milk fat. Caproic, caprylic, and capric acids are not only used for the formation of esters, but also commonly used neat in, butter, milk, cream, strawberry, bread, beer, nut, and other flavors
30.
Goat
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The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food, female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and juveniles of both sexes are called kids. Goat meat from animals is called kid or cabrito, while meat from older animals is known simply as goat or sometimes called chevon. To refer to the male, Old English used bucca until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century, nanny goat originated in the 18th century and billy goat in the 19th. Goats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, the most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains is the likely original ancestor of probably all domestic goats today. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü. Studies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date, historically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also used to produce parchment. Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 140 kg for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy. Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed, Goats have horns unless they are polled or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats, although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited, the horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile
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Heptanoic acid
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Heptanoic acid, also called enanthic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid. It is a liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils and it is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. The methyl ester of ricinoleic acid, obtained from castor oil, is the main commercial precursor to heptanoic acid. It is pyrolyzed to the ester of undecenoic acid and heptanal. Approximately 20,000 tons were consumed in Europe and US in 1980, heptanoic acid is used in the preparation of esters, such as ethyl heptanoate, which are used in fragrances and as artificial flavors. Heptanoic acid is used to esterify steroids in the preparation of such as testosterone enanthate, trenbolone enanthate, drostanolone enanthate. It is also one of many additives in cigarettes
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Caprylic acid
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Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. Its compounds are naturally in the milk of various mammals. It is a liquid that is minimally soluble in water with a slightly unpleasant rancid-like smell. Two other acids are named after goats via the Latin word capra, caproic acid, along with caprylic acid these total 15% in goat milk fat. Caprylic acid is used commercially in the production of esters used in perfumery, in addition, caprylic acid is used as an algaecide, bactericide, and fungicide in nurseries, greenhouses, garden centers, and interiorscapes on ornamentals. Products containing caprylic acid are formulated as soluble concentrate/liquids and ready-to-use liquids, for ghrelin to have a hunger-stimulating action on a hypothalamus, caprylic acid must be linked to a serine residue at the 3-position of ghrelin. To cause hunger, it must acylate an -OH group, other fatty acids in the same position have similar effects on hunger. The acid chloride of caprylic acid is used in the synthesis of perfluorooctanoic acid, caprylic acid is taken as a dietary supplement. There has also been interest in MCTs from endurance athletes and the bodybuilding community, but MCTs are not beneficial to improved exercise performance
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Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
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Nonanoic acid
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Nonanoic acid, also called pelargonic acid, is an organic compound composed of a nine-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid with structural formula CH37COOH. The esters and salts of nonanoic acid are called nonanoates, nonanoic acid is a clear, oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, but very soluble in chloroform, ether and it is commonly used in conjunction with glyphosate, a non-selective herbicide, for a quick burn-down effect in the control of weeds in turfgrass. Its critical point is at 712 K and 2.35 MPa, nonanoic acid is a fatty acid which occurs naturally as esters in the oil of pelargonium. Synthetic esters, such as methyl nonanoate, are used as flavorings, nonanoic acid is also used in the preparation of plasticizers and lacquers. The derivative 4-nonanoylmorpholine is an ingredient in some pepper sprays, the ammonium salt of nonanoic acid, ammonium nonanoate, is an herbicide. Nonanoic acid may be more potent than valproic acid in treating seizures, moreover, in contrast to valproic acid, nonanoic acid exhibited no effect on HDAC inhibition, suggesting that it is unlikely to show HDAC inhibition-related teratogenicity
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Pelargonium
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Pelargonium /ˌpɛlɑːrˈɡoʊniəm/ is a genus of flowering plants which includes about 200 species of perennials, succulents, and shrubs, commonly known as geraniums. Confusingly, Geranium is the name of a separate genus of related plants often called cranesbills. Both genera belong to the family Geraniaceae, linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus, Geranium, and they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’Héritier in 1789. Pelargonium species are evergreen perennials indigenous to temperate and tropical regions of the world and they are drought and heat tolerant, but can tolerate only minor frosts. Some species are popular garden plants, grown as bedding plants in temperate regions. Pelargonium occurs in a number of growth forms, including herbaceous annuals, shrubs, subshrubs, stem succulents. The erect stems bear five-petaled flowers in clusters, which are occasionally branched. Because not all flowers appear simultaneously but open from the centre outwards, the flower has a single symmetry plane, which distinguishes it from the Geranium flower, which has radial symmetry. Thus the lower three petals are differentiated from the two petals. The posterior sepal is fused with the pedicel to form a hypanthium, the nectary tube varies from only a few millimeters, up to several centimeters, and is an important floral characteristic in morphological classification. Stamens vary from 2 to 7, and their number, position relative to staminodes, there are five stigmata in the style. For the considerable diversity in morphology, see figure 1 of Röschenbleck et al. Leaves are usually alternate, and palmately lobed or pinnate, often on long stalks, the leaves of Pelargonium peltatum, have a thick cuticle better adapting them for drought tolerance. The Geraniaceae have a number of features unique amongst angiosperms, including highly rearranged plastid genomes differing in gene content, order. The first species of Pelargonium known to be cultivated was P. triste and it was probably brought to the Botanical Garden in Leiden before 1600 on ships which had stopped at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1631, the English gardener John Tradescant the elder bought seeds from Rene Morin in Paris, by 1724 P. odoratissimum, P. vitifolium, P. inquinans, P. zonale and P. peltatum had been introduced to Europe. The name Pelargonium was first proposed by Dillenius in 1732, who described and illustrated seven species of geraniums from South Africa that are now classified as Pelargonium, the name was then formally introduced by Johannes Burman in 1738. Linnaeus reputation prevented further differentiation for forty years, the eventual distinction between them was made by Charles Louis LHéritier de Brutelle based on the number of stamens or anthers, seven in the case of Pelargonium
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Decanoic acid
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For the term capric as it related to music see Capriccio Decanoic acid is a saturated fatty acid. Salts and esters of decanoic acid are called decanoates or caprates, the term capric acid is derived from the Latin caper / capra because the sweaty, unpleasant smell of the compound is reminiscent of goats. Capric acid occurs naturally in oil and palm kernel oil. It is found in the milk of mammals and to a lesser extent in other animal fats. Two other acids are named after goats, caproic and caprylic, along with decanoic acid, these total 15% in goat milk fat. Decanoic acid can be prepared from oxidation of primary alcohol decanol by using chromium trioxide oxidant under acidic conditions, neutralization of decanoic acid or saponification of its esters, typically triglycerides, with sodium hydroxide will give sodium decanoate. This salt is a component of some types of soap, Decanoic acid is used in the manufacture of esters for artificial fruit flavors and perfumes. It is also used as an intermediate in chemical syntheses and it is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes, lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals. Decanoate ester prodrugs of various pharmaceuticals are available, since decanoic acid is a fatty acid, forming a salt or ester with a drug will increase its lipophilicity and its affinity for fatty tissue. Since distribution of a drug from fatty tissue is usually slow, some examples of drugs available as a decanoate ester include nandrolone, fluphenazine, bromperidol, and haloperidol. This direct inhibition of excitatory neurotransmission by decanoic acid in the brain contributes to the anticonvulsant effect of the MCT ketogenic diet and it is unclear whether the ketones β-hydroxybutryate and acetone have direct antiseizure activity. Undecanoic acid Medium-chain triglyceride Nonanoic acid, a fatty acid
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Coconut oil
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Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
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Palm kernel oil
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Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the two edible oils derived from palm fruits, palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats, these give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and it is commonly used in commercial cooking because of its relatively low cost, and because it remains stable at high cooking temperatures and can be stored longer than other vegetable oils. Oil from the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis has long recognized in West African countries. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porims scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition, porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000. Palm kernel oil, similarly to coconut oil, is high in saturated fats and is more saturated than palm oil, Palm kernel oil is high in lauric acid which has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, both as LDL-C and HDL-C. Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty acids, Palm kernel oil is commonly used in commercial cooking because it is lower in cost than other oils and remains stable at high cooking temperatures. The oil can also be stored longer than other vegetable oils, the split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil/fat. Resembling coconut oil, palm oil is packed with myristic and lauric fatty acids and therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing powders. Lauric acid is important in making, a good soap must contain at least 15 per cent laurate for quick lathering. Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm
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Lauric acid
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The salts and esters of lauric acid are known as laurates. Lauric acid, as a component of triglycerides, comprises about half of the fatty acid content in milk, coconut oil, laurel oil. It is also found in human breast milk, cows milk, the palm tree Orbignya phalerata Mart, a species popularly known in Brazil as babassu - 50% in babassu oil. Attalea cohune, the cohune palm -46. 5% in cohune oil, astrocaryum murumuru a palm native to the Amazon -47. 5% in murumuru butter. It is used mainly for the production of soaps and cosmetics, for these purposes, lauric acid is reacted with sodium hydroxide to give sodium laurate, which is a soap. Most commonly, sodium laurate is obtained by saponification of various oils and these precursors give mixtures of sodium laurate and other soaps. In the laboratory, lauric acid may be used to investigate the mass of an unknown substance via the freezing-point depression. The choice of acid is convenient because the melting point of the pure compound is relatively high. Its cryoscopic constant is 3.9 °C·kg/mol, by melting lauric acid with the unknown substance, allowing it to cool, and recording the temperature at which the mixture freezes, the molar mass of the unknown compound may be determined. Lauric acid increases total serum cholesterol more than other fatty acids. But most of the increase is attributable to an increase in high-density lipoprotein, as a result, lauric acid has been characterized as having a more favorable effect on total HDL cholesterol than any other fatty acid, either saturated or unsaturated. In general, a lower total/HDL serum cholesterol ratio correlates with a decrease in atherosclerotic risk, defining the Role of Milkfat in Balanced Diets. In John E. Kinsella Advances in Food and Nutrition Research – Volume 37, champaign IL, American Oil Chemists Society. Kabara, Jon J. Fats Are Good for You and Other Secrets – How Saturated Fat and Cholesterol Actually Benefit the Body
