1.
Anatolia
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
2.
Halicarnassus
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Halicarnassus was an ancient Greek city at the site of modern Bodrum in Turkey. It was located in southwest Caria on a picturesque, advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf. The city was famous for the tomb of Mausolus, the origin of the word mausoleum and it was part of the Persian Empire until captured by Alexander the Great at the siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus originally occupied only an island near to the shore called Zephyria, which was the original name of the settlement. The suffix -ᾱσσός of Greek Ἁλικαρνᾱσσός is indicative of a substrate toponym and it has been recently proposed that the element -καρνᾱσσός is cognate with Luwian ha+ra/i-na-sà / ha+ra/i-ni-sà fortress. If so, the toponym is probably borrowed from Carian, a Luwic language spoken alongside Greek in Halicarnassus, the Carian name for Halicarnassus has been tentatively identified with Alos-δ karnos-δ in inscriptions. Some large Mycenaean tombs have found at Musgebi, not far from Halicarnassus. More than forty burial places dating back to time have been discovered. A rich collection of found in these tombs is now housed in the Bodrum Castle. These finds cast some light on the problem of determining the territories of ancient Arzawa and Ahhiyawa, the inhabitants appear to have accepted Anthes, a son of Poseidon, as their legendary founder, as mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of Antheadae. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia I of Caria, hecatomnus became king of Caria, at that time part of the Persian Empire, ruling from 404 BC to 358 BC and establishing the Hekatomnid dynasty. Mausolus moved his capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus and his workmen deepened the citys harbor and used the dragged sand to make protecting breakwaters in front of the channel. On land they paved streets and squares, and built houses for ordinary citizens, and on one side of the harbor they built a massive fortified palace for Mausolus, positioned to have clear views out to sea and inland to the hills—places from where enemies could attack. On land, the workmen also built walls and watchtowers, a Greek–style theatre, Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble, when he died in 353 BC, his wife, sister and successor, Artemisia II of Caria, began construction of a magnificent tomb for him and herself on a hill overlooking the city. This tomb of Mausolus came to be known as the Mausoleum, Artemisia was succeeded by her brother Idrieus, who, in turn, was succeeded by his wife and sister Ada when he died in 344 BC. However, Ada was usurped by her brother Pixodarus in 340 BC, on the death of Pixodarus in 335 BC his son-in-law, a Persian named Orontobates, received the satrapy of Caria from Darius III of Persia. When Alexander the Great entered Caria in 334 BC, Ada, during the siege of Halicarnassus the city was fired by the retreating Persians
3.
Roman provinces
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In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy, largest territorial and administrative unit of the empires territorial possessions outside of Italy. The word province in modern English has its origins in the used by the Romans. Provinces were generally governed by politicians of senatorial rank, usually former consuls or former praetors and this exception was unique, but not contrary to Roman law, as Egypt was considered Augustus personal property, following the tradition of earlier, Hellenistic kings. The territory of a people who were defeated in war might be brought under various forms of treaty, the formal annexation of a territory created a province in the modern sense of an administrative unit geographically defined. Republican provinces were administered in one-year terms by the consuls and praetors who had held office the previous year, Rome started expanding beyond Italy during the First Punic War. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicily in 241 BC, militarized expansionism kept increasing the number of these administrative provinces, until there were no longer enough qualified individuals to fill the posts. The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years,241 BC – Sicilia taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed at the end of the First Punic War. 237 BC – Corsica et Sardinia, these two islands were taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed soon after the Mercenary War, in 238 BC and 237 BC respectively. 197 BC – Hispania Citerior, along the east coast of the,197 BC - Hispania Ulterior, along the southern coast of the, part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War. 147 BC – Macedonia, mainland Greece and it was annexed after a rebellion by the Achaean League. 146 BC – Africa, modern day Tunisia and western Libya, home territory of Carthage and it was annexed following attacks on the allied Greek city of Massalia. 67 BC – Creta et Cyrenae, Cyrenaica was bequeathed to Rome in 78 BC, however, it was not organised as a province. 58 BC – Cilicia et Cyprus, Cilicia was created as a province in the sense of area of command in 102 BC in a campaign against piracy. The Romans controlled only a small area, in 74 BC Lycia and Pamphylia were added to the smal Roman possessions in Cilicia. Cilicia came fully under Roman control towards the end of the Third Mithridatic War - 73-63 BC, the province was reorganised by Pompey in 63 BC. Gallia Cisalpina was a province in the sense of an area of military command, during Romes expansion in Italy the Romans assigned some areas as provinces in the sense of areas of military command assigned to consuls or praetors due to risks of rebellions or invasions. This was applied to Liguria because there was a series of rebellions, Bruttium, in the early days of Roman presence in Gallia Cisalpina the issue was rebellion. Later the issue was risk of invasions by warlike peoples east of Italy, the city of Aquileia was founded to protect northern Italy form invasions
4.
Asia (Roman province)
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The Roman province of Asia or Asiana, in Byzantine times called Phrygia, was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. It was a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul, the arrangement was unchanged in the reorganization of the Roman Empire in 211. Antiochus III the Great had to give up Asia when the Romans crushed his army at the battle of Magnesia. After the Treaty of Apamea, the territory was surrendered to Rome. Asia province originally consisted of Mysia, the Troad, Aeolis, Lydia, Ionia, Caria, aegean islands except Crete, were part of the Insulae of Asiana. Part of Phrygia was given to Mithridates V Euergetes before it was reclaimed as part of the province in 116 BC, lycaonia was added before 100 BC while the area around Cibyra was added in 82 BC. The southeast region of Asia province was later reassigned to the province of Cilicia, during, the empire, Asia province was bounded by Bithynia to the north, Lycia to the south, and Galatia to the east. With no apparent heir, Attalus III of Pergamum having been an ally of Rome. Upon Attalus’s passing in 133 BC, Attalid pretender Eumenes III staged a rebellion and he defeated one of the consuls of 131 BC, Crassus Mucianus. The following consul Marcus Perperna, however, soon brought the war to a close and he defeated Eumenes in the first engagement, and followed up his victory by laying siege to Stratonikeia, whither Eumenes had fled. The town was compelled by famine to surrender, and the king fell into the consuls hands. Manius Aquillius formally established the region as Asia province, the bequest of the Attalid kingdom to Rome presented serious implications for neighboring territories. It was during this period that Pontus rose in status under the rule of Mithridates VI and he would prove to be a formidable foe to Rome’s success in Asia province and beyond. Rome had always been reluctant to involve itself in matters to the east. It typically relied on allies to arbitrate in the case of a conflict, very rarely would Rome send delegations to the east, much less have a strong governmental presence. This apathy did not change even after the gift from Attalus in 133 BC. In fact, parts of the Pergamene kingdom were voluntarily relinquished to different nations, for example, Great Phrygia was given to Mithridates V of Pontus. While the Senate was hesitant in involving itself in Asian affairs, others had no such reluctance, a law passed by Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC gave the right to collect taxes in Asia to members of the equestrian order
5.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
6.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
7.
Ionia
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Ionia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements, never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who, in the Archaic Period, settled mainly the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea. Ionian states were identified by tradition and by their use of Eastern Greek and it was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south. The cities within the region figured large in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks, according to Greek tradition, the cities of Ionia were founded by colonists from the other side of the Aegean. Their settlement was connected with the history of the Ionic people in Attica, which asserts that the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus. So intricate is the coastline that the voyage along its shores was estimated at four times the direct distance. A great part of area was, moreover, occupied by mountains. None of these mountains attains a height of more than 1,200 metres, the geography of Ionia placed it in a strategic position that was both advantageous and disadvantageous. Ionia was always a maritime power founded by a people who made their living by trade in peaceful times, the coast was rocky and the arable land slight. The native Luwians for the most part kept their fields further inland, the coastal cities were placed in defensible positions on islands or headlands situated so as to control inland routes up the rift valleys. The people of those valleys were of different ethnicity, the populations of the cities came from many civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean. Ancient demographics are available only from literary sources, Herodotus states that in Asia the Ionians kept the division into twelve cities that had prevailed in Ionian lands of the north Peloponnese, their former homeland, which became Achaea after they left. These Asian cities were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with Samos and Chios. Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was occupied by Ionians from Colophon. These cities do not match those of Achaea, moreover, the Achaea of Herodotus time spoke Doric, but in Homer it is portrayed as being in the kingdom of Mycenae, which most likely spoke Mycenaean Greek, which is not Doric. If the Ionians came from Achaea, they departed during or after the change from East Greek to West Greek there, Mycenaean continued to evolve in the mountainous region of Arcadia. Miletus and some other cities founded earlier by non-Greeks received populations of Mycenaean Greeks probably under the name of Achaeans, the tradition of Ionian colonizers from Achaea suggests that they may have been known by both names even then. In the Indian historic literary texts, the Ionians are referred to as yavanar or yona, in modern Turkish, the people of that region were called yunan and the country that is now Greece is known as Yunanistan
8.
Mycale
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The mountain forms a ridge, terminating in what was known anciently as the Trogilium promontory. There are several beaches on the north shore ranging from sand to pebbles, the south flank is mainly escarpment. In classical Greece nearly the entire ridge was a promontory enclosed by the Aegean Sea, the end of the former bay remains as a lake, Çamiçi Gölü. Samsun Daği does retain a promontory, the entire ridge was made into a national park of 109.85 square kilometres, Dilek Yarimadisi Milli Parki in 1966, which is in part accessible to the public. The remainder is a military reservation, the parks isolation has encouraged the return of the native ecology, which is 60% maquis. It is a refuge for species that used to be abundant in the region. Western Turkey is mainly fault-block terrain with steep-sided ridges running east-west, the source of the faulting is the closing of Tethys Sea and the collision of the African and Arabian plates with the Eurasian plate. The smaller Turkish and Aegean plates are being pushed together, generating ridges in Turkey and this orogenic belt was in place by 1.6 mya and continues to be a hot spot of earthquakes and volcanos. The entire block of mountains around the Menderes River is the Menderes Massif, Mycale is scored transversely by numerous ravines through which sources drain. The biggest ravine is Oluk Gorge, with cliffs 200 metres high, the main permanent streams are the Bal Deresi, the Sarap Dami and the Oluk Dereleri. The ample water supply supports a verdant maquis and these materials were not wasted on the renowned builders and sculptors of Ionia. The ridge and its environs offer a number of different ecologies, the crest is a sharp divide between the xerophytic southern slopes and the forested northern slopes, with 66.24 square kilometres of maquis and 35.74 square kilometres of mixed pine. Around the base of the promontory is a maritime environment, the maquis vegetation includes Pistacia lentiscus, Laurus nobilis, Quercus ilex, Q. frainetto and Q. In moister areas are to be found Nerium oleander, Platanus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, Laurus nobilis, Cupressus sempervirens, the mixed pine forest goes up to 700 metres. Migrants are Lynx caracal and Panthera pardus, monachus monachus breeds in caves around the shores of Mycale. They and other marine predators feed on Liza, Pagellus, Dentex vulgaris, Mycale, Miletus and the Maeander appear in the Trojan Battle Order of the Iliad, where they are populated by Carians. Just as Parthenia is the name of Samos so the reader is to understand Mycalessos as the previous name of Mycale. On being chosen as the birthplace of Apollo, Delos becomes fixed in the sea, there are no earlier instances of Mycale but some major cities later Ionian appear in Mycenaean Greek and Hittite records of the Late Bronze Age
9.
Lycia
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Lycia was a geopolitical region in Anatolia in what are now the provinces of Antalya and Muğla on the southern coast of Turkey, and Burdur Province inland. Known to history since the records of ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire in the Late Bronze Age, written records began to be inscribed in stone in the Lycian language after Lycias involuntary incorporation into the Achaemenid Empire in the Iron Age. At that time the Luwian speakers were decimated, and Lycia received an influx of Persian speakers, Lycia fought for the Persians in the Persian Wars, but on the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by the Greeks, it became intermittently a free agent. Due to the influx of Greek speakers and the sparsity of the remaining Lycian speakers, the Lycian language disappeared from inscriptions and coinage. On defeating Antiochus III in 188 BC the Romans gave Lycia to Rhodes for 20 years, in these latter stages of the Roman republic Lycia came to enjoy freedom as part of the Roman protectorate. The Romans validated home rule officially under the Lycian League in 168 BC and this native government was an early federation with republican principles, these later came to the attention of the framers of the United States Constitution, influencing their thoughts. Despite home rule under republican principles Lycia was not a state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians. In 43 AD the Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, Lycia was incorporated into the Roman Empire with a provincial status. It became an eparchy of the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, Lycia was under the Ottoman Empire, and was inherited by the Turkish Republic on the fall of that empire. The Greeks were withdrawn when the border between Greece and Turkey was negotiated in 1923, Lycia comprised what is now the westernmost portion of Antalya Province, the easternmost portion of Muğla Province, and the southernmost portion of Burdur Province. In ancient times the surrounding districts were, from west to east, Caria, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, all equally as ancient, and each speaking its own Anatolian language. The name of the Teke Peninsula comes from the name of Antalya Province. Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest, roughly, forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains, furthest west of the four are Boncuk Dağlari, or the Boncuk Mountains, extending from about Altinyayla, Burdur, southwest to about Oren north of Fethiye. This is a low range peaking at about 2,340 m. To the west of it the steep gorges of Dalaman Çayi, the stream,229 km long, enters the Mediterranean to the west of modern-day Dalaman. Upstream it is dammed in four places, after an origin in the vicinity of Sarikavak in Denizli Province. The next ridge to the east is Akdağlari, the White Mountains, about 150 km long, with a point at Uyluktepe, Uyluk Peak. This massif may have been ancient Mount Cragus, along its western side flows Eşen Çayi, the Esen River, anciently the Xanthus, Lycian Arñna, originating in the Boncuk Mountains, flowing south, and transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara
10.
Phrygia
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In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Turkey, centered on the Sakarya River. This later Midas was, however, also the last independent king of Phrygia before Cimmerians sacked the Phrygian capital, Gordium, Phrygia then became subject to Lydia, and then successively to Persia, Alexander and his Hellenistic successors, Pergamon, Rome and Byzantium. Phrygians gradually became assimilated into other cultures by the medieval era, after the Turkish conquest of Anatolia. Phrygia describes an area on the end of the high Anatolian plateau. The climate is harsh with hot summers and cold winters, olives will not easily grow here and the land is used for livestock grazing. South of Dorylaeum, there is another important Phrygian settlement, Midas City, situated in an area of hills, to the south again, central Phrygia includes the cities of Afyonkarahisar with its marble quarries at nearby Docimium, and the town of Synnada. At the western end of Phrygia stood the towns of Aizanoi, from here to the southwest lies the hilly area of Phrygia that contrasts to the bare plains of the regions heartland. Southwestern Phrygia is watered by the Maeander and its tributary the Lycus, one of the so-called Homeric Hymns describes the Phrygian language as not mutually intelligible with that of Troy. According to ancient tradition among Greek historians, the Phrygians anciently migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans, Herodotus says that the Phrygians were called Bryges when they lived in Europe. Some classical writers also connected the Phrygians with the Mygdones, the name of two groups of people, one of which lived in northern Macedonia and another in Mysia. The classical historian Strabo groups Phrygians, Mygdones, Mysians, Bebryces, Phrygian continued to be spoken until the 6th century AD, though its distinctive alphabet was lost earlier than those of most Anatolian cultures. The so-called Handmade Knobbed Ware found in Western Anatolia during this period has been identified as an import connected to this invasion. These scholars seek instead to trace the Phrygians origins among the nations of western Anatolia who were subject to the Hittites. Some scholars dismiss the claim of a Phrygian migration as a mere legend, no one has conclusively identified which of the many subjects of the Hittites might have represented early Phrygians. Josephus called Togarmah the Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians, however, the Greek source cited by Josephus is unknown, and it is unclear if there was any basis for the identification other than name similarity. Scholars of the Hittites believe Tegarama was in eastern Anatolia - some locate it at Gurun - far to the east of Phrygia, some scholars have identified Phrygia with the Assuwa league, and noted that the Iliad mentions a Phrygian named Asios. Another possible early name of Phrygia could be Hapalla, the name of the easternmost province that emerged from the splintering of the Bronze Age western Anatolian empire Arzawa, however, scholars are unsure if Hapalla corresponds to Phrygia or to Pisidia, further south. Herodotus also claims that Phrygian colonists founded the Armenian nation, however, little is known about these eastern Mygdones, and no evidence of Phrygian language in that region has been found
11.
Ionians
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The Ionians were one of the four major tribes that the Greeks considered themselves to be divided into during the ancient period, the other three being the Dorians, Aeolians, and Achaeans. The Ionian dialect was one of the three major divisions of the Hellenic world, together with the Dorian and Aeolian dialects. When referring to populations, “Ionian” defines several groups in Classical Greece, in the narrowest sense it referred to the region of Ionia in Asia Minor. Finally, in the broadest sense it could be used to all those who spoke languages of the East Greek group. The foundation myth which was current in the Classical period suggested that the Ionians were named after Ion, son of Xuthus, when the Dorians invaded the Peloponnese they expelled the Achaeans from the Argolid and Lacedaemonia. The displaced Achaeans moved into Aegilaus, in expelling the Ionians from the Aegilaus. The Ionians moved to Attica and mingled with the population of Attica. Unlike the austere and militaristic Dorians, the Ionians are renowned for their love of philosophy, art, democracy, unlike Aeolians and Dorians, Ionians appears in the languages of different civilizations around the eastern Mediterranean and as far east as the Indian subcontinent. They are not the earliest Greeks to appear in the records, that belongs to the Danaans. The trail of the Ionians begins in the Mycenaean Greek records of Crete, a fragmentary Linear B tablet from Knossos bears the name i-ja-wo-ne, interpreted by Ventris and Chadwick as possibly the dative or nominative plural case of *Iāwones, an ethnic name. The Knossos tablets are dated to 1400 or 1200 B. C. and thus pre-date the Dorian dominance in Crete and this name also appears in a fragment of the other early poet, Hesiod, in the singular Ἰάων, iāōn. In the Book of Genesis of the English Bible, Javan is a son of Japheth, Javan is believed nearly universally by Bible scholars to represent the Ionians, that is, Javan is Ion. The Hebrew is Yāwān, plural Yəwānīm, additionally, but less surely, Japheth may be related linguistically to the Greek mythological figure Iapetus. The locations of Biblical tribal countries have been the subjects of centuries of scholarship, the Book of Isaiah gives what may be a hint by listing the nations. That have not heard my fame including Javan and immediately after the isles afar off, are the isles in apposition to Javan or the last item in the series. If the former, the expression is used of the population of the islands in the Aegean Sea. The date of the Book of Isaiah cannot precede the date of the man Isaiah, the Assyrian word, which is preceded by the country determinative, has been reconstructed as *Iaunaia. More common is ia-a-ma-nu, ia-ma-nu and ia-am-na-a-a with the country determinative, sargon II related that he took the latter from the sea like fish and that they were from the sea of the setting sun. of Yadnana
12.
Dorians
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The Dorians were one of the four major ethnic groups among which the Hellenes of Classical Greece considered themselves divided. They are almost always referred to as just the Dorians, as they are called in the earliest literary mention of them in the Odyssey, and yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian, and which were not. Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions. In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek ethne, whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War, the degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as Ionian or Dorian has itself been disputed. At one extreme Édouard Will concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, at the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions. Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the fifth- and fourth-century BC literary tradition have been influenced by their own social politics. Accounts vary as to the Dorians’ place of origin, mythology gave them a Greek origin and eponymous founder, Dorus son of Hellen, the mythological patriarch of the Hellenes. The origin of the Dorians is a multi-faceted concept, in modern scholarship the term often has meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypothetical Proto-Greek speaking population. This dialect is known from records of classical northwest Greece, the Peloponnesus and Crete, a historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently the Return of the Heracleidai and by moderns the Dorian Invasion. This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece, no other records than Mycenaean are known to have existed in the Bronze Age, so a West Greek of that time and place cannot be proved or disproved. West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times, unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events. This provides circumstantial evidence that the Doric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenean civilization. The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnesus remains unattested by any solid evidence, though most of the Doric invaders settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily, in what is now southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis, Halikarnassos and Knidos in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros and these six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. Other such Dorian colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, a mans name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians. Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the case as do-ri-je-we, *Dōriēwei. An unattested nominative plural, *Dōriēwes, would have become Dōrieis by loss of the w, the tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of religious dignitaries celebrating a religious festival of Potnia, the mother goddess. The nominative singular, Dōrieus, remained the same in the classical period, many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership
13.
Carians
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The Carians were the ancient inhabitants of Caria in southwest Anatolia. It is not clear when the Carians enter into history, the definition is dependent on corresponding Caria and the Carians to the Karkiya or Karkisa mentioned in the Hittite records. Bronze Age Karkisa are first mentioned as having aided the Assuwa League against the Hittite King Tudhaliya I and this they did, allowing Manapa-Tarhunta to take back his kingdom. In 1274 BC, Karkisa are also mentioned among those who fought on the Hittite Empire side against the Egyptians in the Battle of Kadesh. Taken as a whole, Hittite records seem to point at a Luwian ancestry for the Carians and, as such, they would have lost their literacy through the Dark Age of Anatolia. Yet, the supposition is suitable from a linguistic point-of-view given that the Phoenicians were calling them KRK in their abjad script and they were referred to as krka in Old Persian. In some translations of Biblical texts, the Carians are mentioned in 2 Kings 11,4,11,19 and perhaps alluded to in 2 Samuel 8,18,15,18, and 20,23. They are also named as mercenaries in inscriptions found in ancient Egypt and Nubia, dated to the reigns of Psammetichus I and they are sometimes referred to as the Cari or Khari. Carian remnants have been found in the ancient city of Persepolis or modern Takht-e-Jamshid in Iran, according to Thucydides, it was largely the Carians who settled the Cyclades prior to the Minoans. The Middle Bronze Age expansion of the Minoans into this region seems to have come at their expense, in doing so, Minos expelled the Carians, many of which had turned to piracy as a way of life. During the Athenian purification of Delos, all graves were exhumed, yet the Carians roamed throughout the whole of Greece serving on expeditions for pay. And when they were driven thence into Asia, even here they were unable to live apart from the Greeks, the Carians were often linked by Greek writers to the Leleges, but the exact nature of the relationship between Carians and Leleges remains mysterious. The two groups seem to have distinct, but later intermingled with each other. Strabo wrote that they were so intermingled that they were often confounded with each other, however, Athenaeus stated that the Leleges stood in relation to the Carians as the Helots stood to the Lacedaemonians. This confusion of the two peoples is also in Herodotus, who wrote that the Carians, when they were allegedly living amid the Cyclades, were known as Leleges. The Carian language belongs to the Luwic group of the Anatolian family of languages, other Luwic languages besides Luwian proper are Lycian and Milyan. Although the ancestors of Carian and Lycian must have very close to Luwian. One of the Carian ritual centers was Mylasa, where they worshipped their supreme god, unlike Zeus, this was a warrior god
14.
Herodotus
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Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire and lived in the fifth century BC, a contemporary of Socrates. The Histories is the work which he is known to have produced. Despite Herodotus historical significance, little is known of his personal life and his place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact, of these only fragments of Hecataeuss work survive yet they allow us glimpses into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories. In his introduction to Hecataeus’s work, Genealogies, This points forward to the ‘folksy’ yet ‘international’ outlook typical of Herodotus. Yet, one scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as “a curious false start to history” since despite his critical spirit. It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a recorded by Eusebius. But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, He argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe. Yet, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his notions of the Danube. His debt to previous authors of prose ‘histories’ might be questionable, however, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship. It is on account of the strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics in early modern times branded him “The Father of Lies”. Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement, similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a “logos-writer”. Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view, the interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus’s own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, modern accounts of his life typically go something like this, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 484 BC. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, the epic poet Panyassis – a relative of Herodotus – is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. Herodotus expresses affection for the island of Samos, and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos, Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement
15.
Minoan civilization
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The Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands which flourished from about 2600 to 1100 BC. It preceded the Mycenaean civilization of Ancient Greece, the civilization was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of British archaeologist Arthur Evans. It has been described as the earliest of its kind in Europe, the term Minoan, which refers to the mythical King Minos, originally described the pottery of the period. Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth and the Minotaur, according to Homer, Crete once had 90 cities. The Minoan period saw trade between Crete and Aegean and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East, traders and artists, the Minoan cultural influence reached beyond Crete to the Cyclades, Egypts Old Kingdom, copper-bearing Cyprus, Canaan and the Levantine coast, and Anatolia. Some of its best art is preserved in the city of Akrotiri on the island of Santorini, although the Minoan language and writing systems remain undecipherable and are subjects of academic dispute, they apparently conveyed a language entirely different from the later Greek. The reason for the end of the Minoan period is unclear, theories include Mycenaean invasions from mainland Greece, the term Minoan refers to the mythical King Minos of Knossos. Its origin is debated, but it is attributed to archeologist Arthur Evans. Minos was associated in Greek mythology with the labyrinth, which Evans identified with the site at Knossos. However, Karl Hoeck had already used the title Das Minoische Kreta in 1825 for volume two of his Kreta, this appears to be the first known use of the word Minoan to mean ancient Cretan, Evans said that applied it, not invented it. Hoeck, with no idea that the archaeological Crete had existed, had in mind the Crete of mythology, although Evans 1931 claim that the term was unminted before he used it was called a brazen suggestion by Karadimas and Momigliano, he coined its archaeological meaning. Instead of dating the Minoan period, archaeologists use two systems of relative chronology, the first, created by Evans and modified by later archaeologists, is based on pottery styles and imported Egyptian artifacts. Evans system divides the Minoan period into three eras, early, middle and late. These eras are subdivided—for example, Early Minoan I, II and III, another dating system, proposed by Greek archaeologist Nicolas Platon, is based on the development of architectural complexes known as palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros. Platon divides the Minoan period into pre-, proto-, neo-, the relationship between the systems in the table includes approximate calendar dates from Warren and Hankey. The Thera eruption occurred during a phase of the LM IA period. Efforts to establish the volcanic eruptions date have been controversial, the eruption is identified as a natural event catastrophic for the culture, leading to its rapid collapse. Although stone-tool evidence exists that hominins may have reached Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, evidence for the first anatomically-modern human presence dates to 10, the oldest evidence of modern human habitation on Crete are pre-ceramic Neolithic farming-community remains which date to about 7000 BC
16.
Seamanship
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Seamanship is the art of operating a ship or boat. The degree of knowledge needed within these areas is dependent upon the nature of the work, navigation is the art and science of safely and efficiently directing the movements of a vessel from one point to another. Piloting uses water depth and visible references, while dead reckoning uses courses and distances from the last known position, more than just finding a vessels present location, safe navigation includes predicting future location, route planning and collision avoidance. Nautical navigation in western nations, like air navigation, is based on the nautical mile, navigation also includes electronics such as GPS and Loran. Celestial navigation involves taking sights by sextant on the planets, moon, stars, sun and using the data with a nautical almanac, accurate time information is also needed. After nautical dusk, navigation at sea referencing the horizon is no longer possible, a fundamental skill of professional seamanship is being able to maneuver a vessel with accuracy and precision. Unlike vehicles on land, a ship afloat is subject to the movements of the air around it, another complicating factor is the mass of a ship that has to be accounted for when stopping and starting. Ship-handling is about arriving and departing a berth or buoy, maneuvering in confined channels and harbours and in proximity to other ships, two other types of operations, berthing alongside another ship and replenishment at sea, are occasionally included. Fundamental to low-speed maneuvering is an understanding of the configuration and handedness of the propeller, thus to put the vessel into astern mode the rudder can be rotated through 180 degrees without altering the speed and direction of the engine. Since with the propeller or rudder configuration the propeller is designed to operate at maximum efficiency when going ahead. But with the Kortz Nozzle, the ahead and astern thrust is the same, most commercial vessels in excess of size limits determined by local authorities are handled in confined areas by a marine pilot. Marine pilots are seafarers with extensive seafaring experience and are usually qualified master mariners who have trained as expert ship-handlers. These pilots are conversant with all types of vessel and propulsion systems, as well as handling ships of all sizes in all weather and they are also experts in the geographical areas they work. In most countries, the pilot takes over the conduct of the navigation from the ship master and this means that the master and crew should adhere to the pilots orders in respect of the safe navigation of the vessel when in a compulsory pilotage area. The master may with good cause resume conduct of the vessels navigation, however this should never be done lightly. In situations where the pilot is an advisor even though he has the con, the master, upon realizing there is a dangerous situation developing, must take such action as to avoid an accident or at least to minimize the damage from one that cant be avoided. In some countries and areas, the role is as an advisor. However, in practice, they are likely to have the conduct of the vessel, especially on larger ships using tug boats to assist
17.
Mysians
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Mysians were the inhabitants of Mysia, a region in northwestern Asia Minor. Herodotus adds an account and description of later Mysians who fought in Darius army, citing the historian Xanthus, he also reports that the name of the people was derived from the Lydian name for the oxya tree. Little is known about the Mysian language, strabo noted that their language was, in a way, a mixture of the Lydian and Phrygian languages. As such, the Mysian language could be a language of the Anatolian group, however, a passage in Athenaeus suggests that the Mysian language was akin to the barely attested Paeonian language of Paeonia, north of Macedon
18.
Lydians
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The Lydians were an Anatolian people living in Lydia, a region in western Anatolia, who spoke the distinctive Lydian language, an Indo-European language of the Anatolian group. Questions raised regarding their origins, as defined by the language and reaching well into the 2nd millennium BC, continue to be debated by language historians, the Lydian capital was at Sfard or Sardis. Lydian power came to an end with the fall of their capital in events subsequent to the Battle of Halys in 585 BC. Material in the way of historical accounts of themselves found to date is scarce, herodotus states that the Lydians were the first men whom we know who coined and used gold and silver currency. While this specifically refers to coinage in electrum, some think that coinage per se arose in Lydia. This was the practice for girls not born into nobility. Nevertheless, a breakthrough for the understanding of the Lydian language has not occurred yet. Presently available texts begin around the century and extend until the 2nd century BC, which leads one scholar to conclude, Lydians wrote early. Several expressions on Lydians were in use in ancient Greek and in Latin languages. There are also works of visual arts depicting Lydians and/or using as theme subject matters of Lydian history. Lydia Lydia Lydian Treasure Luvian language
19.
Anatolian language
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The Anatolian languages are an extinct family of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Asia Minor, the best attested of them being the Hittite language. The list below gives the Anatolian languages in a flat arrangement. This model recognizes only one subgroup, the Luwic languages. Modifications and updates of the order continue, however. A second version opposes Hittite to Western Anatolian, and divides the latter node into Lydian, Palaic, Hittite was the language of the Hittite Empire, dated approximately 1650 to 1200 BC, which ruled over nearly all of Anatolia during that time. The earliest sources of Hittite are the 19th century BC Kültepe texts, the Assyrian records of the kârum kaneš, or port of Kanesh and this collection records Hittite names and words loaned into Assyrian from Hittite. The Hittite name for the city was Neša, from which the Hittite endonym for the language, the records show a gradual rise to power of the Anatolian language speakers over the native Hattians, until at last the kingship became an Anatolian privilege. From then on, little is heard of the Hattians, the records include rituals, medical writings, letters, laws and other public documents, making possible an in-depth knowledge of many aspects of the civilization. Most of the records are dated to the 13th century BC and they are written in cuneiform script borrowing heavily from the Mesopotamian system of writing. However, phonetic syllable signs are present also, representing syllables of the form V, CV, VC, CVC, Hittite is divided into Old, Middle, and New. Fortson gives the dates, which come from the reigns of the relevant kings, as 1570–1450, 1450–1380, all cuneiform Hittite came to an end at 1200 with the destruction of Hattusas and the end of the empire. Palaic, spoken in the north-central Anatolian region of Pala, extinct around the 13th century BC, is only from fragments of quoted prayers in Old Hittite texts. It was extinguished by the replacement of the culture, if not the population, as a result of an invasion by the Kaskas, which the Hittites could not prevent. The term, Luwic, was proposed by Craig Melchert as the node of a branch to include several languages that seem more closely related than the other Anatolian languages. This is not a neologism, as Luvic had been used in the early 20th century to mean the Anatolian language group as a whole, the name comes from Hittite luwili. The earlier use of Luvic fell into disuse in favor of Luvian, meanwhile, most of the languages now termed Luvian, or Luvic, were not known to be so until the latter 20th century. Even more fragmentary attestations might be discovered in the future, Luvian and Luvic have other meanings in English, so currently Luwian and Luwic are preferred. Luwian does not always have the same meaning, for example, Silvia Luraghis Luwian branch begins with a root language she terms the Luwian Group, which logically is in the place of Common Luwian or Proto-Luwian
20.
Classical Greece
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Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years in Greek culture. This Classical period saw the annexation of much of modern-day Greece by the Persian Empire, Classical Greece had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and on the foundations of western civilization. Much of modern Western politics, artistic thought, scientific thought, theatre, literature, in the context of the art, architecture, and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period, sometimes called the Hellenic period, corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The Classical period in this sense follows the Archaic period and is in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period and this century is essentially studied from the Athenian outlook because Athens has left us more narratives, plays, and other written works than the other ancient Greek states. From the perspective of Athenian culture in Classical Greece, the period referred to as the 5th century BC extends slightly into the 4th century BC. In this context, one might consider that the first significant event of this occurs in 508 BC, with the fall of the last Athenian tyrant. However, a view of the whole Greek world might place its beginning at the Ionian Revolt of 500 BC. The Persians were defeated in 490 BC, the Delian League then formed, under Athenian hegemony and as Athens instrument. Athens excesses caused several revolts among the cities, all of which were put down by force. After both forces were spent, a brief peace came about, then the war resumed to Spartas advantage, Athens was definitively defeated in 404 BC, and internal Athenian agitations mark the end of the 5th century BC in Greece. Since its beginning, Sparta had been ruled by a diarchy and this meant that Sparta had two kings ruling concurrently throughout its entire history. The two kingships were both hereditary, vested in the Agiad dynasty and the Eurypontid dynasty, according to legend, the respective hereditary lines of these two dynasties sprang from Eurysthenes and Procles, twin descendants of Hercules. They were said to have conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War, in 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras, but his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes, through his reforms, the people endowed their city with isonomic institutions — i. e. with equal rights for all —and established ostracism. The isonomic and isegoric democracy was first organized into about 130 demes, the 10,000 citizens exercised their power as members of the assembly, headed by a council of 500 citizens chosen at random. The territory of the city was divided into thirty trittyes as follows, ten trittyes in the coastal region ten trittyes in the ἄστυ. A tribe consisted of three trittyes, selected at random, one each of the three groups
21.
Didyma
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Didyma was an ancient Greek sanctuary on the coast of Ionia. It contained a temple and oracle of Apollo, the Didymaion, in Greek didyma means twin, but the Greeks who sought a twin at Didyma ignored the Carian origin of the name. Next to Delphi, Didyma was the most renowned oracle of the Hellenic world and its establishment preceded literacy and even the Hellenic colonization of Ionia. Mythic genealogies of the origins of the Branchidae line of priests, designed to capture the origins of Didyma as a Hellenic tradition, date to the Hellenistic period. The ruins of Didyma are located a distance to the northwest of modern Didim in Aydin Province, Turkey. Didyma was the largest and most significant sanctuary on the territory of the classical city Miletus. To approach it, visitors would follow the Sacred Way to Didyma, along this route were ritual waystations, and statues of male and female members of the Branchidae family, as well as animal figures. Some of these statues, dating to the 6th century BC, are now in the British Museum, also, as Wilamowitz suggested, there may be a connection to Cybele Dindymene, the Cybele of Mount Dindymon. Excavations by German archaeologists have uncovered a major sanctuary dedicated to Artemis, the 6th century Didymaion, dedicated to Apollo, enclosed a smaller temple that was its predecessor, which archaeologists have identified. Its treasury was enriched by gifts from Croesus, Apollo was worshipped in nearby Miletus under the name Delphinius. At Didyma, he was worshipped as Didymeus and his other names in the area were Philesios, and Carinus. Until its destruction by the Persians in 494 BC, Didymas sanctuary was administered by the family of the Branchidae, who claimed descent from an eponymous Branchos, the priestess, seated above the sacred spring, gave utterances that were interpreted by the Branchidae. Both Herodotus and Pausanias dated the origins of the oracle at Didyma before the Ionian colonization of this coast, though the sanctuaries of Delphi and Ephesus were swiftly rebuilt, Didyma remained a ruin until the first steps of restoration were undertaken in 334 BC. After his capture of Miletus in 334 BC, Alexander the Great reconsecrated the oracle and placed its administration in the hands of the city, where the priest in charge was annually elected. Vitruvius recorded a tradition that the architects were Paeonius of Ephesus, whom Vitruvius credited with the rebuilding of the Temple of Artemis there, the peripteral temple was surrounded by a double file of Ionic columns. With a pronaos of three rows of four columns, the approaching visitor passed through a regularized grove formed of columns. The door usually leading to a cella was replaced by a wall with a large upper opening through which one could glimpse the upper part of the naiskos in the inner court. This was the location of an ancient spring, the naiskos—which was itself a small temple, containing in its own small cella the bronze image of the god—and a grove of laurels
22.
Miletus
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Miletus was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria. Its ruins are located near the village of Balat in Aydın Province. Before the Persian invasion in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus greatest wealth and splendor was reached during the Hellenistic era and later Roman times. Evidence of first settlement at the site has been inaccessible by the rise of sea level. The first available evidence is of the Neolithic, in the early and middle Bronze age the settlement came under Minoan influence. Legend has it that an influx of Cretans occurred displacing the indigenous Leleges, the site was renamed Miletus after a place in Crete. The Late Bronze Age, 13th century BC, saw the arrival of Luwian language speakers from south central Anatolia calling themselves the Carians, later in that century other Greeks arrived. The city at that time rebelled against the Hittite Empire, after the fall of that empire the city was destroyed in the 12th century BC and starting about 1000 BC was resettled extensively by the Ionian Greeks. Legend offers an Ionian foundation event sponsored by a founder named Neleus from the Peloponnesus, the Greek Dark Ages were a time of Ionian settlement and consolidation in an alliance called the Ionian League. The Archaic Period of Greece began with a sudden and brilliant flash of art, Miletus is the birthplace of the Hagia Sophias architect Isidore of Miletus and Thales, a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher in c.624 BC. The ruins appear on maps at 37°31. 8N 27°16. 7E, about 3 km north of Balat and 3 km east of Batıköy in Aydın Province. In antiquity the city possessed a harbour at the entry of a large bay. The harbour of Miletus was additionally protected by the small island of Lade. Over the centuries the gulf silted up with alluvium carried by the Meander River, there is a Great Harbour Monument where, according to the New Testament account, the apostle Paul stopped on his way back to Jerusalem by boat. He met the Ephesian Elders and then headed out to the beach to bid farewell, recorded in the book of Acts 20. During the Pleistocene epoch the Miletus region was submerged in the Aegean Sea and it subsequently emerged slowly, the sea reaching a low level of about 130 meters below present level at about 18,000 BP. The site of Miletus was part of the mainland, a gradual rise brought a level of about 1.75 meters below present at about 5500 BP, creating several karst block islands of limestone, the location of the first settlements at Miletus. At about 1500 BC the karst shifted due to small crustal movements, since then the sea has risen 1.75 m but the peninsula has been surrounded by sediment from the Maeander river and is now land-locked
23.
Iasos
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Iasos or Iassos, also in Latinized form Iasus, was an ancient Greek city in Caria located on the Gulf of Iasos, opposite the modern town of Güllük, Turkey. It was originally on an island, but is now connected to the mainland and it is located in the Milas district of Muğla Province, Turkey, near the Alevi village of Kıyıkışlacık, about 31 km from the center of Milas. Ancient historians consider Iasos a colonial foundation of Argos, but archaeology shows a much longer history, the town appears on that occasion to have received additional settlers. The town, which appears to have occupied the whole of the island, had only ten stadia in circumference. Iasos was a member of the Delian League and was involved in the Peloponnesian War. After the Sicilian expedition of the Athenians, Iasos was attacked by the Spartans and their allies, it was governed at the time by Amorges, a Persian chief and it was taken by the Spartans, who captured Amorges and delivered him up to Tissaphernes. The town itself was destroyed on that occasion and it became part of the Hecatomnid satrapy in the 4th century and was conquered by Alexander. We afterwards find it besieged by Philip V, king of Macedon, the mountains in the neighbourhood of Iasus furnished a beautiful kind of marble, of a blood-red and livid white colour, which was used by the ancients for ornamental purposes. Near the town was a sanctuary of Hestia, with a statue of the goddess, the same story is related, by Strabo, of a temple of Artemis in the same neighbourhood. Iasus, as a fishing place, is alluded to by Athenaeus. The place is still existing, under the name of Askem or Asýn Kalessi, chandler relates that the island on which the town was built is now united to the mainland by a small isthmus. Part of the city still exist, and are of a regular, solid. In the side of the rock a theatre with many rows of still remains. Preliminary research was done by the French archaeologist Charles Texier in 1835, a number of ancient Greek inscriptions were removed from the site which were later donated to the British Museum by the Duke of St Albans. Since then, Iasos and the necropolis have been under regular scientific excavations on behalf of the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens by Doro Levi, Clelia Laviosa, from 2011 till 2013 the Director of Iasos excavations has been Marcello Spanu. The site of Iasos has been settled continuously since the Early Bronze Age, in early times, Iasos was influenced by the culture of the Cyclades islands. During the 1970s, archaeological excavations at Iasus revealed Mycenean buildings, at Iasus, Mycenaean buildings, approximately dated by the presence of LH IIIa ware, have been found below the protogeometric cemetery. Below this again two Minoan levels are reported, the earlier containing local imitations of MM II-LM I ware, middle and Late Minoan ware has also occurred at Cnidus
24.
Bodrum
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Bodrum is a district and a port city in Muğla Province, in the southwestern Aegean Region of Turkey. It is located on the southern coast of Bodrum Peninsula, at a point that checks the entry into the Gulf of Gökova, and is also the center of the eponymous district. The city was called Halicarnassus of Caria in ancient times and was famous for housing the Mausoleum of Mausolus, Bodrum Castle, built by the Knights Hospitaller in the 15th century, overlooks the harbour and the marina. The castle grounds include a Museum of Underwater Archaeology and hosts several festivals throughout the year. The city had a population of 36,317 in 2012, the name Bodrum derives from Petronium, named from the Hospitaller Castle of St. Peter. The site was known as Halicarnassus Bodrum has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Winter average is around 15 °C and in the summer 34 °C, summers are hot and mostly sunny and winters are mild and humid. Average swimming pool and sea temperatures for Bodrum, Halicarnassus was an ancient Greek city at the site of modern Bodrum in Turkey. The inhabitants appear to have accepted Anthes, a son of Poseidon, as their founder, as mentioned by Strabo. The Carian name for Halicarnassus has been identified with Alosδkarnosδ in inscriptions. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia I of Caria, the city later fell under Persian rule. Under the Persians, it was the city of the satrapy of Caria. Its strategic location ensured that the city enjoyed considerable autonomy, alexander the Great laid siege to the city after his arrival in Carian lands and, together with his ally, the queen Ada of Caria, captured it after fighting in 334 BCE. Mausolus ruled Caria from here, nominally on behalf of the Persians and independently in practical terms, the word mausoleum derives from the structure of this tomb. It was a structure decorated with reliefs and statuary on a massive base. Today only the foundations and a few pieces of sculpture remain, the Knights Hospitaller were given permission to build it by the Ottoman sultan Mehmed I, after Tamerlane had destroyed their previous fortress located in İzmirs inner bay. The castle and its town became known as Petronium, whence the modern name Bodrum derives, the fact that traditional agriculture was not a very rewarding activity in the rather dry peninsula also prevented the formation of a class of large landowners. Bodrum has no history of political or religious extremism either
25.
Myndus
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Myndus or Myndos was an ancient Dorian colony of Troezen, on the coast of Caria in Asia Minor, sited on the Bodrum Peninsula, a few miles northwest of Halicarnassus. The site is now occupied by the village of Gümüslük. Myndos was protected by walls, and had a good harbor. Otherwise, the place is not of importance in ancient history. Both Pliny and Stephanus of Byzantium mention Palaemyndus as an ancient Carian settlement near to Myndus, Pliny, however, mentions both Myndus and Neapolis as two different towns. Sections of the walls and gate have been restored with financial assistance from private companies. Myndian ships are mentioned in the expedition of Anaxagoras against Naxos, herodotus relates the story of how a captain from Myndus, Scylax, was found to have left no guards on his ship while a Persian force was preparing to attack the island of Naxos. Pleading with Megabates to no avail for Scylax, he released him anyway and this is a classic example of Ionian αταξιη, a charge commonly levelled at them, especially in the 5th century by Athens. Athenaeus states that the wine grown in the district of Myndus was good for digestion, remains of the city are visible in and around Gümüslük and in the adjacent waters, it is supposed that some unrecorded earthquake caused seafront sections of the ancient town to be submerged. As a result, much of the land and offshore areas are protected from interference, Myndus was an episcopal see of Caria, a suffragan of Stauropolis. The Notitiæ episcopatuum allude to it as late as the 12th or 13th century, the bishopric is included in the Catholic Churchs list of titular sees. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
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Knidos
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Knidos or Cnidus was an ancient Greek city of Caria and part of the Dorian Hexapolis, in south-western Asia Minor, modern-day Turkey. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the side of the Sinus Ceramicus. By the 4th century BC, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, but earlier, it was probably at the site of modern Datça. It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio, the debate about it being an island or cape is caused by the fact that in ancient times it was connected to the mainland by a causeway and bridge. Today the connection is formed by a sandy isthmus. The extreme length of the city was less than a mile. Knidos was a Hellenic city of high antiquity, diodorus Siculus claimed that Cnidus was founded by both Lacedaemonians and Argives. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject to Athens. During the hellenistic age, Knidos boasted a school, however. In their expansion into the region, the Romans easily obtained the allegiance of Knidians, eudoxus, the astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most remarkable of the Knidians mentioned in history. Bishop Evander was at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, no longer a residential bishopric, Cnidus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. The first Western knowledge of the site was due to the mission of the Dilettante Society in 1812, the most famous statue by Praxiteles, the Aphrodite of Knidos, was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican Museums, the Knidos Lion is now displayed under the roof of the Great Court in the British Museum
27.
Symi
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Symi, also transliterated as Syme or Simi, is a Greek island and municipality. It is mountainous and includes the town of Symi and its adjacent upper town Ano Symi, as well as several smaller localities, beaches. Symi is part of the Rhodes regional unit, the economy of Symi was traditionally based on the shipbuilding and sponge industries. The population reached 22,500 at its peak during that period, symis main industry is now tourism, and its permanent population has declined to 2,500, with a larger population during the summer. Geographically, Symi is part of the Dodecanese island chain, located about 41 kilometres north-northwest of Rhodes and its nearest land neighbors are the Datça and Bozburun peninsulas of Muğla Province in Turkey. Its interior is dotted with valleys, and its coastline alternates between rocky cliffs and beaches, and isolated coves. Its main town, located on the northeast coast, is also named Symi and consists of the town around the harbour, typically referred to as Yialos. Other inhabited localities are Pedi, Nimborio, Marathounda and Panormitis, Panormitis is the location of the islands famous monastery which is visited by people from all over the world, and many Greeks pay homage to St Michael of Panormitis each year. The island has 2,580 inhabitants, mostly engaged in tourism, fishing, in the tourist season which lasts from Easter until Panormitis Day in early November, tourists and day-trippers increase the number of people on the island to as much as 6000. In addition to its historical sites, the islands isolated beaches. The Municipality of Sými includes the offshore islets of Gialesíno, Diavátes, Kouloúndros, Marmarás, Nímos, Sesklío. Its total land area is 65.754 square kilometres, in Homers Iliad the island is mentioned as the domain of King Nireus, who fought in the Trojan War on the side of the Greeks. Little was known about the island until the 14th century, but archaeological evidence indicates that it was continuously inhabited and it was first part of the Roman Empire and then the Byzantine Empire, until its conquest by the Knights of St. John in 1309. The island was conquered from the Knights by the Ottoman Empire in 1522 but it was allowed to many of its privileges. Under the Ottomans the island was called Sömbeki, Symi was noted for its sponges which provided much of its wealth. It attained the height of its prosperity in the mid 19th century, although Symiots took part in the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1829, it was left out of the new Greek state when its borders were drawn up and so remained under Ottoman rule. The island was ceded to Italy in 1923, and on 12 October 1943 it was occupied by the Nazis. At the end of World War II, the surrender of German forces in the region took place on Symi to the British, Symi was finally rejoined with Greece in 1948
28.
Elaeus
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Elaeus, the “Olive City”, was an ancient Greek city located in Thrace, on the Thracian Chersonese. Elaeus was located at the end of the Hellespont near the southernmost point of the Thracian Chersonese in modern-day Turkey. According to the geographer Scymnus, Elaeus was founded by settlers from Ionian Teos, the most important cities of the Chersonese were Lysimachia, Pactya, Gelibolu, Alokopennesos, Sestos, Madytos and Elaeus. The peninsula was renowned for its wheat and it also profited from its strategic location on the main trade route between Europe and Asia, as well as the possibility of controlling shipping to Crimea. For these reasons, Elaeus later received colonists from Athens, who built fortifications there, the last resting place of the mythological hero Protesilaus was said to be at Elaeus, near a steep coastal cliff. According to Homer’s Iliad, Protesilaus was the first Greek to set foot on land during the Trojan War and his tomb at Elaeus lay on the European coast opposite Troy, and became a destination for pilgrimages by members of the cult of Protesilaus. Later, the temple housed votive offerings, and was surrounded by a settlement, in antiquity, the location was variously under Athenian, Persian, Spartan and later Macedonian control. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, the Persian headquarters was located at Elaeus. Under Persian occupation, the governor Artayctes desecrated the sacred grove of Protesilaus, for this, he was captured and crucified in 479 BCE by the Athenian general Xanthippos, the father of Pericles. Elaeus belonged to the Delian League, and from 375 BCE to the Second Athenian Empire, a stele dating from the year 340 BCE, at which time Elaeus was governed by Athens, contains an inscription in Ionian script. Alexander the Great is said to have visited Elaeus at the start of his Persian campaign in the spring of 334 BCE, here he made an offering, before crossing the Dardanelles, and himself becoming the first of his army to set foot in Asia. Imperial coins were struck at Elaeus in the time of the Roman emperor Commodus and they depict Protesilaus as a warrior standing on the bow of a ship, ready to be the first to spring onto the enemy shore. During the First World War, French and British troops temporarily occupied Cape Helles, French soldiers plundered the region of ancient Elaeus. The French army brought five sarcophagi, jewellery, ancient pottery and other objects to Paris, the area around Elaeus was subsequently destroyed by the intense fighting and artillery bombardments. Greek colonies in Thrace Pseudo-Scymnus, Periodos to Nicomedes, Line 707 Procopius, Ch.10, Buildings of Justinian, Lines 3 and 26,4 Herodotus, Histories,7, pp. 22–24 and 33 Arrian,11. Alexander Crosses the Hellespont and Visits Troy, The Campaigns of Alexander,1 Hansen, M. H. Nielsen, T. H. et al
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Loryma
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Loryma was an ancient town and episcopal see in the Roman province of Caria, in Asia Minor. It is now listed as a titular see and its ruins, west of Port Aplothiki, with towers, tombs and ramparts are described by William Martin Leake. Above the bay of Loryma lie the ruins of a wall surrounding the top of the hill. Constructed from large blocks of stone shaped in-situ, the remaining walls retain very precise corners, up to the 12th and 13th centuries, the Notitiæ episcopatuum mention Loryma as one of the suffragan sees of the Stauropolis, the metropolitan see of Caria. Lequien names three bishops of Loryma, George, present at the Council of Constantinople in 680 Anthimus at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 Joseph at the Council of Constantinople in 879. The wind could be heard howling outside, against the hills that enclosed our sheltered water as if it were a mountain tarn, only a fanning ripple touched the centre. The sound of the wind, inarticulate and busy like the voice, gave an illusion of safety. If it could penetrate, how many sleeping echoes would it waken, each in their turn passed through the narrow opening and felt the sudden calm
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Rhodes
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Rhodes is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of land area and also the island groups historical capital. Administratively the island forms a municipality within the Rhodes regional unit. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Rhodes, the city of Rhodes had 50,636 inhabitants in 2011. It is located northeast of Crete, southeast of Athens and just off the Anatolian coast of Turkey, Rhodes nickname is The island of the Knights, named after the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, who once conquered the land. Historically, Rhodes was famous worldwide for the Colossus of Rhodes, the Medieval Old Town of the City of Rhodes has been declared a World Heritage Site. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, the island has been known as Ρόδος in Greek throughout its history. In addition, the island has been called Rodi in Italian, Rodos in Turkish, and Rodi or Rodes in Ladino. The island of Rhodes is shaped like a spearhead,79.7 km long and 38 km wide, with an area of approximately 1,400 square kilometres. The city of Rhodes is located at the tip of the island, as well as the site of the ancient. The main air gateway is located 14 km to the southwest of the city in Paradisi, the road network radiates from the city along the east and west coasts. There are mineral-rich spring water used to give medicinal baths and the spa resorts offer various health treatments, Rhodes is situated 363 km east-south-east from the Greek mainland, and 18 km from the southern shore of Turkey. The interior of the island is mountainous, sparsely inhabited and covered with forests of pine, while the shores are rocky, the island has arable strips of land where citrus fruit, wine grapes, vegetables, olives and other crops are grown. The Rhodian population of deer was found to be genetically distinct in 2005. In Petaloudes Valley, large numbers of tiger moths gather during the summer months, mount Attavyros, at 1,216 metres, is the islands highest point of elevation. Earthquakes include the 226 BC earthquake that destroyed the Colossus of Rhodes, one on 3 May 1481 which destroyed much of the city of Rhodes, and one on 26 June 1926. On 15 July 2008, Rhodes was struck by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake causing minor damage to a few old buildings, Rhodes has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. The island was inhabited in the Neolithic period, although remains of this culture. In the 16th century BC, the Minoans came to Rhodes, later Greek mythology recalled a Rhodian race called the Telchines and associated the island of Rhodes with Danaus, it was sometimes nicknamed Telchinis
31.
Amos (ancient city)
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Amos was a settlement of ancient Caria, located near the modern town of Turunç, Turkey. Amos was located in the Rhodian Peraia in Caria on the Mediterranean coast and it was probably connected with Lindos which is supported by epigraphic finds from that city. Its connection to the poleis of Rhodes is further attested by the use of the Doric dialect in the inscriptions found at the settlement. Amos was in the 5th century incorporated in the Delian league together with the other Rhodian areas, the Loryma peninsula is the most probable candidate for this peninsula, the other members of this community are unknown. At some point during this period, Amos and the two members of the kherronēsioi formed an economic union in order to pay their tributes. The members of this synteleia must have incorporated the majority of the Loryma peninsula, the inhabitants of the Rhodian Peraia, and thus Amos as well, were full Rhodian citizens. It seems however as the amians, being of Lindian descent, the inscriptions mentioned above indicate that the city had the right to evict tenants and charge fines, showing that the polis had strong interests in the area. The remnants of ancient Amos is centered on the hill of Asarcık at Hisarburnu. The city wall is made of coursed polygonal masonry dated to the Hellenistic period, the wall on the south reach has almost disappeared due to erosion. Five towers are preserved, all of which are solid except for one, there is one gate in the northern wall, which is probably the main city gate. On the basis of the type of masonry used, the construction of the wall has been dated to the 4th century B. C. E. Of the intra muros remains, the theatre is the most apparent, of the three known Greek theatres of the Rhodian Peraia, the Amos theatre is the only one with preserved remnants of the skēnē and the orchestra. The approximate number of spectators is estimated to around 1300. G. E. Bean found in 1948 a fragmentary altar to Dionysos in the area of the orchestra, on the top of the hill, just west of the theatre, several fragments of an Hellenistic circular or semi-circular statue base is to be seen. Further to the west, close to the ramparts, are the foundations of a temple in antis with a pronaos,6.8 m wide and 13.8 m long. Inscriptions with a temple inventory found in the vicinity show that the temple was dedicated to Apollo Samnaios. The necropolis is located just outside the city proper, north of the city walls, several rock-cut tombs are visible in the terrain, together with some inscriptions and fragments of monumental architecture
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Marmaris
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Marmaris is a port town and tourist resort on the Mediterranean coast, located in Muğla Province, southwest Turkey, along the shoreline of the Turkish Riviera. Marmaris main source of income is tourism, in 2010 the towns population was 30,957, and peaks at around 300,000 to 400,000 people during the tourist season. It is also a centre for sailing and diving, possessing two major and several smaller marinas and it is a popular wintering location for hundreds of cruising boaters, being also served by the nearby Dalaman Airport. Marmaris has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate characterised by a hot dry summer, showers and rain are very unlikely between May and October. Summers are hot and dry, and temperatures are high during the heatwaves in July. October is still warm and bright, though with spells of rain, winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after November. The annual rainfall can reach to 1,232.7 milimetres, although it is not certain when Marmaris was founded, in the 6th century BC the site was known as Physkos and considered part of Caria. According to the historian Herodotus, there had been a castle on the site since 3000 BC, in 334 BC, Caria was invaded by Alexander the Great and the castle of Physkos was besieged. The 600 inhabitants of the town realised that they had no chance against the invading army, the invaders, well aware of the strategic value of the castle, repaired the destroyed sections to house a few hundred soldiers before the main army returned home. In the mid-fifteenth century, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror conquered and united the tribes and kingdoms of Anatolia and the Balkans. The Knights of St. John, based in Rhodes had fought the Ottoman Turks for many years, when sultan Suleiman the Magnificent set out for the conquest of Rhodes, Marmaris served as a base for the Ottoman Navy and Marmaris Castle was rebuilt from scratch in 1522. Lord Nelson and his entire fleet sheltered in the harbour of Marmaris in 1798, in 1958, Marmaris was almost completely destroyed by an earthquake. Only the Marmaris Castle, and the buildings surrounding the fortress were left undamaged. Since 1979, renovation work has been continuing at the castle, under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture, the castle was converted into a museum. The largest is used as a hall, the courtyard is decorated with seasonal flowers. Built at the time as the castle in the bazaar. Nimara Cave is a cave on Heaven Island near Marmaris, since ancient times, the cave was used as a place of worship. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, human presence in the cave, however, excavations carried out by the Municipality of Marmaris in 2007 extended this period to almost 12,000 years back
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Dalyan
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Dalyan is a town in Muğla Province located between the well-known districts of Marmaris and Fethiye on the south-west coast of Turkey. The town is an independent municipality, within the district of Ortaca. Dalyan achieved international fame in 1987 when developers wanted to build a hotel on the nearby İztuzu Beach. The incident created major international storm when David Bellamy championed the cause of such as June Haimoff, Peter Günther, Nergis Yazgan, Lily Venizelos. Life in Dalyan revolves around the Dalyan Çayı River which flows past the town, the boats that ply up and down the river, navigating the maze of reeds, are the preferred means of transport to all the local sites. Dalyan means fishing weir in Turkish, bass, Mullet and Sea Bream swim upstream from the sea to Köyceğiz Lake where another large town of the region, Köyceğiz, is located. The fish spawn there, and when returning to the sea they are caught in the dalyans, in addition to its attraction as a tourist destination, the region around Dalyan is a highly fertile and productive agricultural zone. Cotton used to be grown intensively, but has now largely replaced by pomegranate. In the area around Köyceğiz many other fruits and vegetables are grown, which are all on display in the market on Saturdays, above the rivers sheer cliffs are the weathered façades of Lycian tombs cut from rock, circa 400 BC. The ruins of the ancient trading city of Kaunos are a boat trip across the river. The south of Dalyan on the Mediterranean coast, lies İztuzu Beach, there are regular boat and minibus services to the beach. Visitors should be aware of the stakes in the beach to mark nesting sites. The road route is scenic, offering views of Sülüngür Lake. In 2008 İztuzu Beach was proclaimed winner in the category Best Open Space by The Times because of the exploitation of the beach. In 2011 Dalyan and İztuzu Beach were proclaimed Best Beach Destination of Europe by Dutch holiday assessment website Zoover, the beach is well known for the Caretta caretta, an endangered species that has existed for about 45 million years. International animal protection organizations monitor and protect the nesting grounds in Turkey. The beach is closed between 20.00 and 8,00 hours during the period that the lay their eggs and hatchlings go out to sea
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Kaunos
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Kaunos was a city of ancient Caria and in Anatolia, a few km west of the modern town of Dalyan, Muğla Province, Turkey. The Calbys river was the border between Caria and Lycia, initially Kaunos was a separate state, then it became a part of Caria and later still of Lycia. Kaunos was an important sea port, the history of which is supposed to date back till the 10th century BC, because of the formation of İztuzu Beach and the silting of the former Bay of Dalyan, Kaunos is now located about 8 km from the coast. The city had two ports, the port at the southeast of Küçük Kale and the inner port at its northwest. The southern port was used from the foundation of the city roughly the end of the Hellenistic era. The inner or trade port could be closed by chains, the latter was used till the late days of Kaunos, but due to the silting of the delta and the ports, Kaunos had by then long lost its important function as a trade port. After Caria had been captured by Turkish tribes and the malaria epidemic of the 15th century AD. In 1966 Prof. Baki Öğün started the excavations of ancient Kaunos and these have been continued up to the present day, and are now supervised by Prof. Cengiz Işık. The archeological research is not limited to Kaunos itself, but is carried out in locations nearby e. g. near the Sultaniye Spa where there used to be a sanctuary devoted to the goddess Leto. According to mythology Kaunos was founded by King Kaunos, son of the Carian King Miletus and Kyane, Kaunos had a twin sister by the name of Byblis who developed a deep, unsisterly love for him. When she wrote her brother a letter, telling him about her feelings. His twin sister became mad with sorrow, started looking for him, mythology says that the Calbys river emerged from her tears. The oldest find at the Kaunos archeological site is the neck of a Protogeometric amphora dating back to the 9th century BC, or even earlier. A statue found at the gate of the city walls, pieces of imported Attic ceramics. However, none of the finds at Kaunos itself dates back to earlier than the 4th century BC. Kaunos is first referred to by Herodotus in his book Histories and he narrates that the Persian general Harpagus marches against the Lycians, Carians and Kaunians during the Persian invasion of 546 BCE. Herodotus writes that the Kaunians fiercely countered Harpagus attacks but were ultimately defeated, despite the fact that the Kaunians themselves said they originated from Crete, Herodotus doubted this. He thought it was far more likely that the Kaunians were the inhabitants of the area because of the similarity between his own Carian language and that of the Kaunians
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Fethiye
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Fethiye is a city and district of Muğla Province in the Aegean region of Turkey with about 147,000 inhabitants. Modern Fethiye is located on the site of the ancient city of Telmessos, a Lycian legend explains the source of the name Telmessos as follows, The god Apollo falls in love with the youngest daughter of the King of Phoenicia, Agenor. He disguises himself as a dog and thus gains the love of the shy. After he reappears as a man, they have a son. The city became part of the Persian Empire after the invasion of the Persian general Harpagos in 547 BC, very little is known of the city during Byzantine times. Surviving buildings attest to considerable prosperity during late Antiquity, but most were abandoned in the 7th–8th centuries due to the Arab-Byzantine Wars, the city was fortified in the 8th century, and appears as Telmissos or Anastasioupolis ca. By the 10th century, the ancient name was forgotten and it known as Makre or Makri. The area fell to the Turks in the late 12th or early 13th century, Telmessos was ruled by the Anatolian beylik of Menteşe starting in 1284, under the name Beskaza. It became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1424, the town grew considerably in the 19th century, and had a large Greek population at this time. Following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, the Greeks of Makri were sent to Greece where they founded the town of Nea Makri in Greece, the town was resettled with Turks from Greece. Last significant ones date to 1957 and 1961, with 67 casualties and 3200 damaged buildings after the 25.04.1957 earthquake, the town has been rebuilt since then and now has a modern harbor and a marina. On August 3,1953, Air France Flight 152, while en route from Rome to Beirut, of the 8 crew and 34 passengers on board, four drowned. The survivors were hosted by the residents during their stay in the town, Fethiye is one of Turkeys well-known tourist centres and is especially popular during the summer. Fethiye is also home to the Tomb of Amyntas, a tomb built in 350 BC by the Lycians. Some of the historical sites worth visiting are, Kadyanda Ancient City, Kayakoy- old Greek town, Afkule, Gemiler. Most popular touristic towns of Fethiye are, Ölüdeniz, Calis Beach area, Hisaronu, the island Kızılada in the Gulf of Fethiye, which is 4 mi off the city, is a popular stopover for boat tours. The Kızılada Lighthouse on the houses a seafood restaurant and a hostel with nine rooms. Butterfly Valley is in the Fethiye district, Fethiye has a Mediterranean climate consisting of very hot, long and dry summers with an average of 34°C in the daytime, winters are cool and rainy with a daytime average of 16°C
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Stratonicea (Caria)
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According to Strabo, it was founded by the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter, who named it after his wife Stratonice. What seems certain is that the city was founded on the site of an old Carian town, Idrias, anciently called Chrysaoris, later it passed under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. According to Athens tribute assessment of 425 BC Idrias was supposed to be responsible for the payment of the sum of six talents. Like many other cities on the 425 BC assessment Idrias is never recorded actually paying any tribute to Athens and was never a member of the Delian League. In early Seleucid times, Stratonikeia was a member of the Chrysaorian League, the Stratonikeians, though not of Carian origin, were admitted into the confederacy, because they possessed certain small towns or villages, which formed part of it. The league is attested by an already in 267 BC. Near the town was the temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, at which the Leagues assembly met, under the succeeding Seleucid kings, Stratonikeia was adorned with splendid and costly buildings. At a later time in the 3rd century BC it was ceded to the Rhodians, from this point starts the citys independent coinage, which was to last until the times of the emperor Gallienus. Then came in 40 BC the siege sustained against Quintus Labienus and his Parthian troops, and the resistance it offered to him entitled it to the gratitude of Augustus. Pliny enumerates it among cities in Anatolia. Menippus, according to Cicero one of the most distinguished orators of his time, was a native of Stratonikeia, other important ruins are on the acropolis, surrounded by a wall and crowned by a small temple dedicated to the cult of the emperors, and a powerful fortress. Much worse is the state of conservation of the city walls and its agora, the Notitiae Episcopatuum mention the see up to the 13th century among the suffragans of Stauropolis. Only three of its bishops are known, by their signatures at councils, Eupeithus, at the Council of Chalcedon, Theopemptus, at the Council of Constantinople, the ancient bishopric of Stratonicea in Caria is included in the Catholic Churchs list of titular sees. No further titular bishop of this eastern see has been appointed since the Second Vatican Council, the pit is proposed to be transformed into a lake in the coming years, once the reserves there are exhausted. All the exhibits were found locally, Stratonicea from the Catholic Encyclopedia Richard Stillwell, William L. 346–47. Bodrum Pages, Stratoniceia Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, p.326 Over 180 pictures This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Caria". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
