1.
Point of sale
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The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth
2.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
3.
Commonwealth of Nations
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The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
4.
Cash register
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It is usually attached to a drawer for storing cash and other valuables. The cash register is usually attached to a printer, that can print out receipts for record keeping purposes. An early mechanical cash register was invented by James Ritty and John Birch following the American Civil War, James was the owner of a saloon in Dayton, Ohio, USA, and wanted to stop employees from pilfering his profits. The Ritty Model I was invented in 1879 after seeing a tool that counted the revolutions of the propeller on a steamship, with the help of James brother John Ritty, they patented it in 1883. It was called Rittys Incorruptible Cashier and it was invented for the purpose to stop cashiers of pilfering and eliminating employee theft or embezzlement, early mechanical registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the key was pushed, the drawer opened. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines, in 1884 Eckert sold the company to John H. The original purpose of the receipt was enhanced fraud protection, the business owner could read the receipts to ensure that cashiers charged customers the correct amount for each transaction and did not embezzle the cash drawer. It also prevents a customer from defrauding the business by falsely claiming receipt of an amount of change or a transaction that never happened in the first place. The first evidence of a cash register was used in Coalton, Ohio. In 1906, while working at the National Cash Register company, a leading designer, builder, manufacturer, seller and exporter of cash registers from the 1950s until the 1970s was London-based Gross Cash Registers Ltd. founded by brothers Sam and Henry Gross. Sweda also had decimal-ready registers where the retailer used a key on Decimal Day for the conversion. Often cash registers are attached to scales, barcode scanners, checkstands, increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose computers with POS software. Cash registers use bitmap characters for printing and these POS terminals will often also identify the cashier on the receipt, and carry additional information or offers. Currently, many cash registers are individual computers and they may be running traditionally in-house software or general purpose software such as DOS. Many of the newer ones have touch screens and they may be connected to computerized point of sale networks using any type of protocol. Such systems may be accessed remotely for the purpose of obtaining records or troubleshooting, many businesses also use tablet computers as cash registers, utilizing the sale system as downloadable app-software. Cash registers include a key labeled No Sale, abbreviated NS on many modern electronic cash registers and its function is to open the drawer, printing a receipt stating No Sale and recording in the register log that the register was opened
5.
Cash
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In economics, cash is money in the physical form of currency, such as banknotes and coins. In bookkeeping and finance, cash is current assets comprising currency or currency equivalents that can be accessed immediately or near-immediately. Cash is seen either as a reserve for payments, in case of a structural or incidental negative cash flow or as a way to avoid a downturn on financial markets, the English word cash is derived from the Kannada / Tamil / Malayalam / Telugu word kaasu meaning money. In Southern India the word kaasu/kasa is still used today to refer to money, later traders of Persian, Arab and European origins, who started trading with the Southern India princely states, used the modified version of the word. This form along with this meaning entered into Latin giving rise to such as capsa “money box” and case eventually passing into Middle French as caisse meaning “money in hand, coin. ”To cash. In a separate development, Venetian merchants started using paper bills, similar marked silver bars were in use in lands where the Venetian merchants had established representative offices. The Byzantine empire and several states in the Balkan area and Kievan Rus also used marked silver bars for large payments and its counterpart in gold was the Venetian ducat. Coin types would compete for markets, by conquering foreign markets, the issuing rulers would enjoy extra income from seigniorage. Successful coin types of high nobility would be copied by lower nobility for seigniorage, imitations were usually of a lower weight, undermining the popularity of the original. Colonial powers also sought to take market share from Spain by issuing trade coin equivalents of silver Spanish coins. In the early part of the 17th century, English East India Company coins were minted in England, in England over time the word ‘Cash’ was adopted from Sanskrit कर्ष karsa, a weight of gold or silver but akin to Old Persian
6.
Receipt
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A receipt is a written acknowledgment that a person has received money or property in payment following a sale or other transfer of goods or provision of a service. Similarly, amounts may be deducted from amounts payable, as in the case of wage withholding taxes. On the other hand, tips or other gratuities given by a customer, for example in a restaurant, in some countries, it is obligatory for a business to provide a receipt to a customer confirming the details of a transaction. In most cases the recipient of money provides the receipt, but in cases the receipt is generated by the payer. A receipt is not the same as an invoice, there is usually no set form for a receipt, such as a requirement that it be machine generated. Many point-of-sale terminals or cash registers can automatically produce receipts, receipts may also be generated by accounting systems, be manually produced or generated electronically, for example if there is not a face-to-face transaction. To reduce the cost of postage and processing, many businesses do not mail receipts to customers, unless specifically requested or required by law, others, to reduce time and paper, may endorse an invoice, account or statement as Paid. The practice of presenting an invoice is most common in restaurants where a bill is presented after a meal, the salesperson would indicate to the customer the total amount payable, and the customer would indicate the proposed method of payment of the amount. Payment in cash or by payment is regarded as payment of the amount tendered, after processing the payment, the salesperson would then generate in the one document an invoice and receipt. If payment was made by a payment card, a payment record would also be generated. The invoice and receipt are the record of the transaction. A copy of these documents would normally be handed to the customer, the document may also include messages from the retailer, warranty or return details, special offers, advertisements or coupons, but these are merely promotional and not part of the formal receipt. Receipts may also be provided for operations such as banking transactions. If linked to a customer account, some retailers point-of-sale systems also allow the salesperson to see a complete record of the customers buying history. It can also be required when company representatives buy goods, because tax deduction rules might require hand signed receipts, organizing receipts and similar financial documents is a multimillion-dollar industry in the United States. Consumers can use desktop and online software to organize electronic receipts, sometimes, the growing trend of digital receipts has led to the launch of new businesses focused on digital receipt management. Cash register Depositary receipt Document automation in supply chain management & logistics Invoice List of finance topics Point of sales Proof of purchase Return receipt Electronic receipt
7.
NCR Corporation
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They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR had been based in Dayton, Ohio, starting in 1884, NCR was founded in 1884 and acquired by AT&T in 1991. A restructuring of AT&T in 1996 led to NCRs re-establishment January 1,1997 as a separate company, NCR is the only AT&T spin-off company that has retained its original name—all the others have either been purchased or renamed following subsequent mergers. The company began as the National Manufacturing Company of Dayton, Ohio, was established to manufacture, in 1884, the company and patents were bought by John Henry Patterson and his brother Frank Jefferson Patterson, and the firm was renamed the National Cash Register Company. Patterson formed NCR into one of the first modern American companies by introducing new, aggressive sales methods and he established the first sales training school in 1893 and introduced a comprehensive social welfare program for his factory workers. Other significant figures in the history of the company were Charles F. Kettering, Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Deeds and Kettering went on to found Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company which later became Delco Products Division of General Motors, Watson eventually worked his way up to general sales manager. At an uninspiring sales meeting, Watson interrupted, saying The trouble with one of us is that we dont think enough. We dont get paid for working with our feet — we get paid for working with our heads, Watson then wrote THINK on the easel. Signs with this motto were erected in factory buildings, sales offices, THINK later became a widely known symbol of IBM. Kettering designed the first cash register powered by a motor in 1906. Within a few years he developed the Class 1000 register which was in production for 40 years, telephone Credit Authorization system for verifying credit in department stores. When John H. Patterson and his brother took over the company, cash registers were expensive, there was little demand for the expensive device, but Patterson believed the product would sell once shopkeepers understood it would drastically decrease theft by salesclerks. He created a team known as the American Selling Force which worked on commissions and followed a standard sales script. The philosophy was to sell a business rather than just a piece of machinery. Sales demonstrations were set up in hotels depicting a store interior complete with real merchandise, the sale prospect was described as the P. P. or Probable Purchaser. Once initial objections were swept aside and the P. P. admitted to internal theft losses, the deal was sealed with a 25 cent cigar. NCR expanded quickly and became multi-national in 1888, between 1893 and 1906 it acquired a number of smaller cash register companies
8.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
9.
Bar
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Some types of bars, such as pubs, may also serve food from a restaurant menu. The term bar also refers to the countertop and area where drinks are served, bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Bars that offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars, live venues, types of bars range from inexpensive dive bars to elegant places of entertainment often accompanying restaurants for dining. Many bars have a discount period, designated a happy hour to encourage off-peak-time patronage, bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum drink purchase requirement during their peak hours. Bars may have bouncers to ensure patrons are of age, to eject drunk or belligerent patrons. Such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a band, vocalist, comedian. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, depending on the size of a bar and its approach, alcohol may be served at the bar by bartenders, at tables by servers, or by a combination of the two. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. There have been different names for public drinking spaces throughout history. In the colonial era of the United States taverns were an important meeting place, during the 19th century saloons were very important to the leisure time of the working class. Today, even when an establishment uses a different name, such as tavern or saloon, the sale and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the first half of the 20th century in several countries, including Finland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States. In the United States, illegal bars during Prohibition were called speakeasies, blind pigs, laws in many jurisdictions prohibit minors from entering a bar. If those under legal drinking age are allowed to enter, as is the case with pubs that serve food, in some jurisdictions, bars cannot serve a patron who is already intoxicated. Cities and towns usually have restrictions on where bars may be located. Some bars may have a license to serve beer and wine, in some jurisdictions, patrons buying alcohol must also order food. In some jurisdictions, bar owners have a liability for the conduct of patrons who they serve. A bars owners and managers choose the name, décor, drink menu, lighting
10.
Dayton, Ohio
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Dayton is the sixth-largest city in the U. S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Montgomery County. A small portion of the city extends into Greene County, the Dayton-Springfield-Greenville Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,080,044 in 2010, making it the 43rd-largest in the United States. Dayton is within Ohios Miami Valley region, just north of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Dayton also hosts significant research and development in fields like industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering that have led to many technological innovations. Much of this innovation is due in part to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, with the decline of heavy manufacturing, Daytons businesses have diversified into a service economy that includes insurance and legal sectors as well as healthcare and government sectors. Other than defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton areas economy, hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. It is estimated that Premier Health Partners, a network, contributes more than $2 billion a year to the region through operating, employment. In 2011, Dayton was rated the No.3 city in the out of the top 50 cities in the United States by HealthGrades for excellence in health care. Many hospitals in the Dayton area are consistently ranked by Forbes, U. S. News & World Report, and HealthGrades for clinical excellence. Dayton is also noted for its association with aviation, the city is home to the National Museum of the United States Air Force and is the birthplace of Orville Wright, other well-known individuals born in the city include poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and entrepreneur John H. Patterson. Dayton is also known for its patents, inventions, and inventors that have come from the area. In 2008,2009, and 2010, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the No.1 mid-sized metropolitan area in the nation for economic development, also in 2010, Dayton was named one of the best places in the United States for college graduates to find a job. Dayton was founded on April 1,1796, by 12 settlers known as The Thompson Party and they traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among them was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valleys history, two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the city of Dayton was incorporated in 1805. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U. S, constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. Historically, Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s, according to the National Park Service, citing information from the U. S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U. S. city in 1890, the Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. Paul Laurence Dunbar – a famous African-American poet and novelist – penned his most famous works in the late 19th century, innovation led to business growth in the region
11.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
12.
Bill Bryson
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William McGuire Bill Bryson OBE HonFRS is a best-selling Anglo-American author of books on travel, the English language, science, and other non-fiction topics. Born in the United States, he has been a resident of Britain for most of his adult life and he served as the chancellor of Durham University from 2005 to 2011. Bryson came to prominence in the United Kingdom with the publication of Notes from a Small Island, an exploration of Britain and he received widespread recognition again with the publication of A Short History of Nearly Everything, a book widely acclaimed for its accessible communication of science. Bryson was born in Des Moines, Iowa, the son of Agnes Mary, I come from Des Moines, Iowa. — Bill Bryson, The Lost Continent His mother was of Irish descent and he had an older brother, Michael, and a sister, Mary Jane Elizabeth. In 2006 Bryson published The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, Bryson attended Drake University for two years before dropping out in 1972, deciding instead to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with a high-school friend, Bryson wrote about some of his experiences from this trip in his book Neither Here Nor There, Travels in Europe. Bryson first visited Britain in 1973 during his tour of Europe and decided to stay after landing a job working in a psychiatric hospital—the now-defunct Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water and he met a nurse there named Cynthia Billen, whom he married. They moved to Brysons hometown of Des Moines, Iowa in 1975 so that Bryson could complete his degree at Drake University. In 1977 they settled in Britain and he left journalism in 1987, three years after the birth of his third child. Bryson started writing independently and in 1990 their fourth child, Samuel, was born and he has moved around the UK and lived in Virginia Water, Purewell, Burton, Kirkby Malham, and the Old Rectory in Wramplingham, Norfolk. He currently lives in rural Hampshire and maintains a small flat in South Kensington, London, from 1995-2003 he lived in Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. Although able to apply for British citizenship, Bryson said in 2010 that he had declined a citizenship test, declaring himself too cowardly to take it. However, in 2014, he said that he was preparing to take it and in the prologue to his 2015 book The Road to Little Dribbling, More Notes From a Small Island he describes doing so and his citizenship award was in Winchester and he now holds dual nationality. While living in the US in the 1990s Bryson wrote a column for a British newspaper for several years and these columns were selected and adapted to become his book Im a Stranger Here Myself, alternatively titled Notes from a Big Country in Britain, Canada, and Australia. During his time in the United States, Bryson decided to walk the Appalachian Trail with his friend Stephen Katz, in the 2015 film adaptation of A Walk in the Woods, Bryson is portrayed by Academy Award winner Robert Redford and Katz is portrayed by Nick Nolte. In 2003, in conjunction with World Book Day, British voters chose Brysons book Notes from a Small Island as that which best sums up British identity, in the same year, he was appointed a Commissioner for English Heritage. In November 2006, Bryson interviewed the then British prime minister, Tony Blair, on the state of science and education
13.
Psychological pricing
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Psychological pricing is a pricing/marketing strategy based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact. Retail prices are often expressed as odd prices, a less than a round number. Theres evidence that tend to perceive “odd prices” as being significantly lower than they actually are. Thus, prices such as $1.99 are associated with spending $1 rather than $2, the theory that drives this is that lower pricing such as this institutes greater demand than if consumers were perfectly rational. Psychological pricing is one cause of price points, in the UK, before the withdrawal of the halfpenny coin in 1969, prices often ended in 11 1⁄2d. This is still today in gasoline pricing ending in 9⁄10 of the local currencys smallest denomination. In a traditional cash transaction, fractional pricing imposes tangible costs on the vendor, the cashier, the psychological pricing theory is based on one or more of the following hypotheses, The first theory that explains the rationale for odd pricing is prospect theory. This theory is based on the fact that losses mean more than gains, so based on that criterion, one would think that something only a few cents under a whole dollar would actually be beneficial to the price. This theory works so well because of how the price is established by the consumer. The reference price for something that is $19.98 would be $20 and this establishes the odd pricing as a better deal. Judgments of numerical differences are anchored on left-most digits, a phenomenon referred to as the left-digit anchoring effect. This hypothesis suggests that people perceive the difference between 1.99 and 3.00 to be closer to 2.01 than to 1.01 because their judgments are anchored on the left-most digit, consumers ignore the least significant digits rather than do the proper rounding. Even though the cents are seen and not totally ignored, they may subconsciously be partially ignored, keith Coulter, Associate Professor of Marketing at the Graduate School of Management, Clark University, suggests that this effect may be enhanced when the cents are printed smaller. Fractional prices suggest to consumers that goods are marked at the lowest possible price, when items are listed in a way that is segregated into price bands, price ending is used to keep an item in a lower band, to be seen by more potential purchasers. The theory of pricing is controversial. Results from research using modern scanner data are mixed, kaushik Basu used game theory in 1997 to argue that rational consumers value their own time and effort at calculation. Such consumers process the price from left to right and tend to replace the last two digits of the price with an estimate of the mean cent component of all goods in the marketplace. Ruffle and Shtudiners laboratory test shows considerable support for Basus 99-cent pricing equilibrium, the euro introduction in 2002, with its various exchange rates, distorted existing nominal price patterns while at the same time retaining real prices
14.
Penny
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A penny is a coin or a unit of currency in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius, it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system, presently, it is the formal name of the British penny and the informal name of one American cent as well as the informal Irish designation of 1 cent euro coin. It is the name of the cent unit of account in Canada. The name is used in reference to various historical currencies also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier. It may also be used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin. The Carolingian penny was originally a. 940-fine silver coin weighing 1/240 pound, the British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, no penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings, halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts. Penny is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English peni, a development of numerous variations including pennig, penning, and pending. The etymology of the penny is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *pan-, *pann-. Recently, it has proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic PN. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked new penny until 1982 and 1985, the regular plural pennies fell out of use in England from the 16th century, except in reference to coins considered individually. The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York, in British English, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence and of twenty pence are often written and spoken as a single word, as twopence, threepence, &c. Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, thus, a threepence would be single coin of that value whereas three pence would be its value and three pennies would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as sixpence-farthing, adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as sixpenny. The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin denarius and it followed the amount after a space. It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period, from this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as p. In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢, elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c. The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden
15.
Bookkeeping
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Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by a person or an organization/corporation. Bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper, a bookkeeper is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of a business. He or she is responsible for writing the daybooks, which contain records of purchases, sales, receipts. The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial stage, an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance. The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed from the remotest times. Babylonian records have been found dating back as far as 2600 B. C. written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, the term waste book was used in colonial America referring to bookkeeping. The purpose was to document daily transactions including receipts and expenditures and this was recorded in chronological order, and the purpose was for temporary use only. The daily transactions would then be recorded in a daybook or account ledger in order to balance the accounts, the name waste book comes from the fact that once the waste books data were transferred to the actual journal, the waste book could be discarded. The bookkeeping process primarily records the effects of transactions. The difference between a manual and any electronic accounting system results from the formers latency between the recording of a transaction and its posting in the relevant account. In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs, Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements are made to a bank account, checks are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these documents into multi-column journals. For example, all sales are recorded in the sales journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account, in the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, after a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger
16.
Charles F. Kettering
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Charles Franklin Kettering was an American inventor, engineer, businessman, and the holder of 186 patents. He was a founder of Delco, and was head of research at General Motors from 1920 to 1947, among his most widely used automotive developments were the electrical starting motor and leaded gasoline. In association with the DuPont Chemical Company, he was responsible for the invention of Freon refrigerant for refrigeration. At DuPont he also was responsible for the development of Duco lacquers and enamels, while working with the Dayton-Wright Company he developed the Bug aerial torpedo, considered the worlds first aerial missile. He led the advancement of practical, lightweight diesel engines, revolutionizing the locomotive. In 1927, he founded the Kettering Foundation, a research foundation. He was on the cover of Time Magazine on January 9,1933, Charles was born in Loudonville, Ohio, United States, the fourth of five children of Jacob Kettering and Martha Hunter Kettering. Poor eyesight gave him headaches in school, after graduation he followed his sister Emma into a teaching position at Bunker Hill School. By all accounts he was an engaging and innovative teacher and he attracted students to evening scientific demonstrations on electricity, heat, magnetism, and gravity. He took classes at The College of Wooster, before transferring to The Ohio State University and he was a member of the Delta Upsilon Fraternity. Eye problems forced him to withdraw, and he took a job as foreman of a telephone line crew, at first, the termination of his studies caused him to be depressed. Then he found ways to apply his engineering skills on the job. He also met his wife, Olive Williams. When his eye condition improved, he was able to return to his studies, Kettering was hired directly out of school to head up the research laboratory at National Cash Register. Kettering distinguished himself as a practical inventor, as he said, I didnt hang around much with other inventors and the executive fellows. I lived with the sales gang and they had some real notion of what people wanted. During his five years at NCR, from 1904 to 1909 and he attributed his success to a good amount of luck but added, I notice the harder I work, the luckier I get. Beginning in 1907, his NCR colleague Edward A, Deeds convinced Kettering to develop improvements for the young automobile
17.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
18.
Brighton
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Brighton /ˈbraɪtən/ is a seaside resort on the south coast of England. It is part of the county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex. Archaeological evidence of settlement in the dates back to the Bronze Age, Roman. The ancient settlement of Brighthelmstone was documented in the Domesday Book, Brighton began to attract more visitors following improved road transport to London and becoming a boarding point for boats travelling to France. The town also developed in popularity as a resort for sea bathing as a purported cure for illnesses. Brighton continued to grow as a centre of tourism following the arrival of the railways in 1841. Many of the attractions were built in the Victorian era, including the Grand Hotel, the West Pier. Brighton attracted 7.5 million day visitors in 2015/16 and 4.9 million overnight visitors, Brighton has also been called the UKs hippest city, and the happiest place to live in the UK. Brightons earliest name was Bristelmestune, recorded in the Domesday Book, although more than 40 variations have been documented, Brighthelmstone was the standard rendering between the 14th and 18th centuries. Brighton was originally a shortened form, first seen in 1660, it gradually supplanted the longer name. Brighthelmstone was the official name until 1810, though. The name is of Anglo-Saxon origin, most scholars believe that it derives from Beorthelm + tūn—the homestead of Beorthelm, a common Old English name associated with villages elsewhere in England. The tūn element is common in Sussex, especially on the coast, an alternative etymology taken from the Old English words for stony valley is sometimes given but has less acceptance. Brighthelm gives its name to, among other things, a church, the town was originally split in half by the Wellesbourne, a winterbourne which was culverted and buried in the 18th century. Poet Horace Smith called it The Queen of Watering Places, which is widely used. Novelist William Makepeace Thackeray referred to Doctor Brighton, calling the one of the best of Physicians. London-by-Sea is well-known, reflecting Brightons popularity with Londoners as a resort, a commuter dormitory. The Queen of Slaughtering Places, a pun on Smiths description, the mid 19th-century nickname School Town referred to the remarkable number of boarding, charity and church schools in the town at the time
19.
Decimalisation
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Decimalisation is the process of converting a currency from its previous non-decimal denominations to a decimal system. Decimal currencies have sub-units based on a factor of 10, there are most commonly 100 sub-units to the base currency unit, but currencies based on 1000 sub-units also exist, especially in Arab countries. For example,100 cents make one dollar in various countries,1,000 Tunisian millimes make one dinar. Historically, non-decimal currencies were much more common, such as the British pound sterling before decimalisation in 1971, until 1971, the pound sterling had sub-units of account of shillings and pence. Like other currencies, it also had coins with other names, there were nineteen different fractions of a pound of a whole number of pence. For example, a third, quarter, fifth and sixth of a pound were respectively 80,60,48, and 40 pence, normally written as shillings and pence, 6/8, 5/-, 4/-, there were eight additional fractions which were a whole number of farthings. Russia converted to a currency under Tsar Peter the Great in 1704, with the ruble being equal to 100 kopecks. France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, france introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it occupied during the Napoleonic period. Sweden introduced decimal currency in 1855, the currency riksdaler was divided into 100 öre. The riksdaler was renamed krona in 1873, the Austro-Hungarian Empire decimalised the Austro-Hungarian gulden in 1857, concurrent with its transition from the Conventionsthaler to the Vereinsthaler standard. Spain introduced its decimal currency unit, the peseta, in 1868, cyprus decimalised the Cypriot pound in 1955, which comprised 1,000 mils, later replaced by 100 cents. On Decimal Day,15 February 1971, the United Kingdom decimalised the pound sterling, malta decimalised the lira in 1972. The euro, which comprises 100 cents, was introduced in the eurozone, the following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins of the £sd system. The farthing, at 1⁄4 penny, was never converted, as it ceased to be legal tender a decade prior to decimalisation, in 1971, a new penny would have been worth 9.6 farthings. For example, the Spanish dollar, a currency, was accepted as official currency in the United States alongside the U. S. dollar until 1857. Decimalisation in Canada was complicated by the different jurisdictions before Confederation in 1867, in 1841, the united Province of Canadas Governor General, Lord Sydenham, argued for establishment of a bank that would issue dollar currency. Francis Hincks, who would become the Province of Canadas Prime Minister in 1851, ultimately the provincial assembly rejected the proposal. In June 1851, the Canadian legislature passed a law requiring provincial accounts to be kept decimalised as dollars, the establishment of a central bank was not touched upon in the 1851 legislation
20.
Decimal Day
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On 15 February 1971, known as Decimal Day, the United Kingdom and Ireland decimalised their currencies. Under the old currency of pounds, shillings and pence, the pound was made up of 240 pence, the United Kingdoms Parliament rejected Sir John Wrottesleys proposals to decimalise sterling in 1824, which was prompted by the introduction in 1795 of the decimal French franc. After this defeat, little progress towards decimalisation was made for over a century. A double florin or four-shilling piece was a step in that direction. It was as a result of the growing interest in decimalisation that the florin was issued, in their preliminary report, the Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage considered the benefits and problems of decimalisation but did not draw any conclusion about the adoption of any such scheme. A final report in 1859 from the two remaining commissioners, Lord Overstone and Governor of the Bank of England John Hubbard came out against the idea, claiming it had few merits. In 1862, the Select Committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights, the decimalisation movement even entered fiction. In Anthony Trollopes Palliser novels, Plantagenet Palliser is an advocate of decimalisation. Pallisers scheme would have divided the shilling into ten pennies and this would have changed the threepence into 2.5 new pence, the sixpence into fivepence and the half crown into a two shilling, five pence piece. It would also have required the withdrawal and reissuance of the copper coinage. The Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage, chaired by Lord Emmott, reported in 1920 that the only feasible scheme was to divide the pound into 1000 mills, a minority of four members disagreed, saying that the disruption would be worthwhile. A further three members recommended that the pound should be replaced by the Royal, consisting of 100 halfpennies, the adoption of the changes suggested in the report was announced on 1 March 1966. The Decimal Currency Board was created to manage the transition, although the plans were not approved by Parliament until the Decimal Currency Act in May 1969, former Greater London Council leader Bill Fiske was named as the Chairman of the Decimal Currency Board. Consideration was given to introducing a new unit of currency worth ten shillings in the old currency, suggested names included the new pound, the royal. This would have resulted in the decimal penny being worth slightly more than the old penny. But Halsbury decided, in view of the pound sterlings importance as a reserve currency, under the new system, the pound was retained but was divided into 100 new pence, denoted by the symbol p. New coinage was issued alongside the old coins, the 5p and 10p coins were introduced in April 1968 and were the same size, composition, and value as the shilling and two shillings coins in circulation with them. In October 1969 the 50p coin was introduced, with the 10s note withdrawn on 20 November 1970 and this reduced the number of new coins that had to be introduced on Decimal Day and meant that the public was already familiar with three of the six new coins
21.
Severodvinsk
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Severodvinsk is a city in the north of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located in the delta of the Northern Dvina River,35 kilometers west of Arkhangelsk, the administrative center of the oblast. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 192,353, due to the presence of important military shipyards, Severodvinsk is an access restricted town for foreign citizens. Vikings explored the territories around the North Dvina River - part of Bjarmaland - at the start of the first millennium. British and Norman ships came to these places for mining, fur and fishing before the 13th century, tradition states that Saint Euphemius, an Orthodox missionary in Karelia, founded this monastery. The abbey stood in ruins until 1471, when two sons of Marfa Boretskaya died in a storm, their bodies were recovered on the beach near the monastery twelve days later. At the urging of Boretskaya, the monastery was restored and her sons were buried there, on August 24,1553, a ship of Richard Chancellor reached the salt-mining settlement of Nyonoksa, which is still famous for its traditional wooden architecture. The British sailors visited the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery, where they were surprised to find a community of sailors in soutanes, in late 1613, during the Time of Troubles in Russia, Polish-Lithuanian vagabonds, the Lisowczycy, captured and looted Severodvinsk with the monastery. The Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery flourished after the establishment of the Muscovy Company, in August 1618 the harbour was visited by John Tradescant the elder, who conducted a survey of an island situated opposite the monastery. This island became known to the British as Rose Island, because it was there that Tradescant found a rare plant which he named Rosa moscovita. The surviving buildings of the monastery were constructed at the close of the Muscovite period, the five-domed cathedral of St. Nicholas was built between 1670 and 1674, preceded by the Assumption church, to which it is joined by a gallery. Several decades later, the walls and towers were built of timber, the Soviets transported the best-preserved of these towers to Kolomenskoye, Moscow, Severodvinsk is the second-largest city in Arkhangelsk Oblast. Its main industry remains defense-related — the construction and repair of submarines at the huge Northern Machine-building Enterprise SEVMASH, the Soviet Unions first nuclear submarine Leninsky Komsomol was built here in 1957. At the beginning of the 1980s the worlds largest submarine, a Typhoon class, was built here. The modern city of Severodvinsk developed in the Soviet period, as it began to be built it was called Sudostroy. It received town status in 1938 and until 1957 was named Molotovsk, on September 12,1957 it was renamed Severodvinsk. During World War II a significant portion of the materials delivered by the Arctic Convoys to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk for the Soviet Union were unloaded in Severodvinsk. For example, the Empire Elgar, a British heavy lift ship that arrived in Arkhangelsk with convoy PQ16, a Russian naval-base supports the sea trials of nuclear submarines from the major submarine construction- and repair-facilities located in the area. In Soviet times the 17th-century buildings of the Nikolo-Korelsky monastery, located on the territory of the shipyard, were adapted and used for shipbuilding purposes, in recent years the monastery buildings, specifically the main church, have been restored and re-consecrated
22.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
23.
Tax evasion
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Tax evasion is the illegal evasion of taxes by individuals, corporations, and trusts. Tax evasion is an activity associated with the informal economy. In contrast, tax avoidance is the use of tax laws to reduce ones tax burden. In 1968, Nobel laureate economist Gary Becker first theorized the economics of crime, allingham and A. Sandmo produced, in 1972, an economic model of tax evasion. This model deals with the evasion of tax, the main source of tax revenue in developed countries. According to the authors, the level of evasion of income tax depends on the detection probability, the literatures theoretical models are elegant in their effort to identify the variables likely to affect non-compliance. Alternative specifications, however, yield conflicting results concerning both the signs and magnitudes of variables believed to affect tax evasion, empirical work is required to resolve the theoretical ambiguities. Income tax evasion appears to be influenced by the tax rate, the unemployment rate. The U. S. Tax Reform Act of 1986 appears to have reduced tax evasion in the United States, customs duties are an important source of revenue in developing countries. Importers purport to evade customs duty by under-invoicing and misdeclaration of quantity, when there is ad valorem import duty, the tax base can be reduced through underinvoicing. Misdeclaration of quantity is more relevant for products with specific duty, production description is changed to match a H. S. Code commensurate with a lower rate of duty. Smuggling is importation or exportation of products by illegal means. Smuggling is resorted to for total evasion of customs duties, as well as for the importation of contraband, during the second half of the 20th century, value-added tax emerged as a modern form of consumption tax throughout the world, with the notable exception of the United States. Producers who collect VAT from consumers may evade tax by under-reporting the amount of sales, the US has no broad-based consumption tax at the federal level, and no state currently collects VAT, the overwhelming majority of states instead collect sales taxes. Canada uses both a VAT at the level and sales taxes at the provincial level, some provinces have a single tax combining both forms. In addition, most jurisdictions which levy a VAT or sales tax also legally require their residents to report and this is especially prevalent in federal countries like Nigeria, US and Canada where sub-national jurisdictions charge varying rates of VAT or sales tax. In Nigeria, for example, some federated states enforce VAT on each item of goods sold by traders, the price must be clearly stated and the VAT shown separately from the basic price. If the trader does not comply this is punishable as an attempt to siphon the VAT, therefore, it is not generally cost-effective to enforce tax collection on low-value goods carried in private vehicles from one jurisdiction to another with a different tax rate
24.
Weighing scale
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Weighing scales are devices to measure weight or calculate mass. Scales and balances are used in commerce, as many products are sold. Very accurate balances, called analytical balances, are used in fields such as chemistry. Although records dating to the 1700s refer to spring scales for measuring weight, the earliest design for such a device dates to 1770 and credits Richard Salter, an early scale-maker. Postal workers could work quickly with spring scales than balance scales because they could be read instantaneously. By the 1940s various electronic devices were being attached to these designs to make more accurate. A spring scale measures weight by reporting the distance that a spring deflects under a load and this contrasts to a balance, which compares the torque on the arm due to a sample weight to the torque on the arm due to a standard reference weight using a horizontal lever. Spring scales measure force, which is the force of constraint acting on an object. They are usually calibrated so that measured force translates to mass at earths gravity, the object to be weighed can be simply hung from the spring or set on a pivot and bearing platform. In a spring scale, the spring either stretches or compresses, by Hookes law, every spring has a proportionality constant that relates how hard it is pulled to how far it stretches. Rack and pinion mechanisms are used to convert the linear spring motion to a dial reading. With proper manufacturing and setup, however, spring scales can be rated as legal for commerce, to remove the temperature error, a commerce-legal spring scale must either have temperature-compensated springs or be used at a fairly constant temperature. To eliminate the effect of gravity variations, a spring scale must be calibrated where it is used. It is also common in high-capacity applications such as crane scales to use force to sense weight. The test force is applied to a piston or diaphragm and transmitted through hydraulic lines to an indicator based on a Bourdon tube or electronic sensor. A digital bathroom scale is a type of electronic weighing machine, the digital bathroom scale is a smart scale which has many functions like smartphone integration, cloud storage, fitness tracking, etc. In electronic versions of spring scales, the deflection of a beam supporting the weight is measured using a strain gauge. The capacity of such devices is only limited by the resistance of the beam to deflection and these scales are used in the modern bakery, grocery, delicatessen, seafood, meat, produce and other perishable goods departments
25.
Barcode reader
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A barcode reader is an electronic device that can read and output printed barcodes to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a source, a lens. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing the image data provided by the sensor. Barcode readers can be differentiated by technologies as follows, Pen-type readers consist of a light source, to read a bar code, the person holding the pen must move the tip of it across the bars at a relatively uniform speed. The photodiode measures the intensity of the light reflected back from the source as the tip crosses each bar. The photodiode generates a waveform that is used to measure the widths of the bars, dark bars in the bar code absorb light and white spaces reflect light so that the voltage waveform generated by the photodiode is a representation of the bar and space pattern in the bar code. This waveform is decoded by the scanner in a similar to the way Morse code dots. As with the pen type reader, a photo-diode is used to measure the intensity of the light reflected back from the bar code, CCD readers use an array of hundreds of tiny light sensors lined up in a row in the head of the reader. Each sensor measures the intensity of the light immediately in front of it, two-dimensional imaging scanners are a newer type of bar code reader. They use a camera and image processing techniques to decode the bar code, large field-of-view readers use high resolution industrial cameras to capture multiple bar codes simultaneously. Unlike the simpler single-line laser scanners, they produce a pattern of beams in varying orientations allowing them to read barcodes presented to it at different angles, most of them use a single rotating polygonal mirror and an arrangement of several fixed mirrors to generate their complex scan patterns. Omnidirectional scanners are most familiar through the scanners in supermarkets. Omnidirectional scanners are also better at reading poorly printed, wrinkled, cell phone cameras open up a number of applications for consumers, Movies, DVD/VHS movie catalogs. Music, CD catalogs – play MP3 when scanned, groceries, nutrition information, making shopping lists when the last of an item is used, etc. Personal Property inventory ode scanned into personal finance software when entering, later, scanned receipt images can then be automatically associated with the appropriate entries. Later, the bar codes can be used to weed out paper copies not required to be retained for tax or asset inventory purposes. Receipts scanned on a scanner could be identified and associated with the appropriate entries in finance. Consumer tracking from the retailer perspective, a number of enterprise applications using cell phones are appearing, Access control, inventory reporting, asset tracking
26.
Debit card
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A debit card is a plastic payment card that can be used instead of cash when making purchases. It is similar to a card, but unlike a credit card. Some cards may bear a stored value with which a payment is made, in some cases, the primary account number is assigned exclusively for use on the Internet and there is no physical card. In many countries, the use of cards has become so widespread that their volume has overtaken or entirely replaced cheques and, in some instances. The development of debit cards, unlike credit cards and charge cards, has generally been country specific resulting in a number of different systems around the world, which were often incompatible. Since the mid-2000s, a number of initiatives have allowed debit cards issued in one country to be used in countries and allowed their use for internet. Unlike credit and charge cards, payments using a card are immediately transferred from the cardholders designated bank account. Debit cards usually also allow for instant withdrawal of cash, acting as the ATM card for withdrawing cash, merchants may also offer cashback facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase. There are currently three ways that debit card transactions are processed, EFTPOS, offline debit and the Electronic Purse Card System, One physical card can include the functions of all three types, so that it can be used in a number of different circumstances. Some debit cards are branded with the logo of the national card as well as Maestro. The use of a card system allows operators to package their product more effectively while monitoring customer spending. Online debit cards require electronic authorization of every transaction and the debits are reflected in the user’s account immediately, some on-line debit systems are using the normal authentication processes of Internet banking to provide real-time on-line debit transactions. Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards or major debit cards and are used at the point of sale like a credit card. This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, transactions conducted with offline debit cards require 2–3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances. Smart-card-based electronic purse systems are in use throughout Europe since the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany, Austria, in Austria and Germany, almost all current bank cards now include electronic purses, whereas the electronic purse has been recently phased out in the Netherlands. Those prepaid debit cards that can be reloaded are also called reloadable debit cards, the primary market for prepaid debit cards has traditionally been unbanked people, that is, people who do not use banks or credit unions for their financial transactions. But prepaid cards also appeal to other users attracted by their advantages, and if a user has doubts about online security, using a prepaid debit card for online purchases protects their normal credit card from risk. If the card provider offers a website for letting you check the cards balance
27.
Credit card
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The card issuer creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the cardholder, from which the cardholder can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance. A credit card is different from a card, where it requires the balance to be repaid in full each month. In contrast, credit cards allow the consumers a continuing balance of debt, a credit card also differs from a cash card, which can be used like currency by the owner of the card. Credit cards have a printed or embossed bank card number complying with the ISO/IEC7812 numbering standard, the card numbers prefix, called the Bank Identification Number, is the sequence of digits at the beginning of the number that determine the bank to which a credit card number belongs. This is the first six digits for MasterCard and Visa cards, the next nine digits are the individual account number, and the final digit is a validity check code. Both of these standards are maintained and further developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 17/WG1, Credit cards have a magnetic stripe conforming to the ISO/IEC7813. Many modern credit cards have a chip embedded in them as a security feature. In addition to the credit card number, credit cards also carry issue and expiration dates, as well as extra codes such as issue numbers. Not all credit cards have the sets of extra codes nor do they use the same number of digits. The concept of using a card for purchases was described in 1887 by Edward Bellamy in his utopian novel Looking Backward. Bellamy used the credit card eleven times in this novel, although this referred to a card for spending a citizens dividend from the government. Charge coins and other items were used from the late 19th century to the 1930s. They came in various shapes and sizes, with materials made out of celluloid, copper, aluminum, steel, each charge coin usually had a little hole, enabling it to be put in a key ring, like a key. These charge coins were given to customers who had charge accounts in department stores, hotels. A charge coin usually had the account number along with the merchants name. The charge coin offered a simple and fast way to copy a charge account number to the sales slip and this sped the process of copying, previously done by handwriting. It also reduced the number of errors, by having a form of numbers on the sales slip. Because the customers name was not on the coin, almost anyone could use it
28.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
29.
Bitmap
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In computing, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain to bits, that is, values which are zero or one. It is also called a bit array or bitmap index, in computer graphics, when the domain is a rectangle a bitmap gives a way to store a binary image, that is, an image in which each pixel is either black or white. The more general term refers to a map of pixels. Often bitmap is used for this as well, in some contexts, the term bitmap implies one bit per pixel, while pixmap is used for images with multiple bits per pixel. A bitmap is a type of organization or image file format used to store digital images. The term bitmap comes from the computer programming terminology, meaning just a map of bits, now, along with pixmap, it commonly refers to the similar concept of a spatially mapped array of pixels. Raster images in general may be referred to as bitmaps or pixmaps, whether synthetic or photographic, besides BMP, other file formats that store literal bitmaps include InterLeaved Bitmap, Portable Bitmap, X Bitmap, and Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap. Similarly, most other file formats, such as JPEG, TIFF, PNG, and GIF, also store bitmap images. In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are stored with a color depth of 1,4,8,16,24,32,48. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. An alpha channel may be stored in a bitmap, where it is similar to a grayscale bitmap, or in a fourth channel that, for example. The bits representing the bitmap pixels may be packed or unpacked, depending on the color depth, a pixel in the picture will occupy at least n/8 bytes, where n is the bit depth. In the formula above, header size and color palette size, due to effects of row padding to align each row start to a storage unit boundary such as a word, additional bytes may be needed. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, here, device independent refers to the format, or storage arrangement, and should not be confused with device-independent color. The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, numerous other uncompressed bitmap file formats are in use, though most not widely
30.
International Article Number
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EAN barcodes are used worldwide for lookup at retail point of sale, but can also be used as numbers for other purposes such as wholesale ordering or accounting. The most commonly used EAN standard is the thirteen-digit EAN-13, a superset of the original 12-digit Universal Product Code standard developed in 1970 by George J. Laurer, an EAN-13 number includes a 3-digit GS1 prefix. A prefix with a first digit of 0 indicates a 12-digit UPC-A code follows, a prefix with the first two digits of 45 or 49 indicates a Japanese Article Number follows. The less commonly used 8-digit EAN-8 barcode was introduced for use on small packages, 2-digit EAN-2 and 5-digit EAN-5 are supplemental barcodes, placed on the right-hand side of EAN-13 or UPC. These are generally used for periodicals like magazines or books, to indicate the current years issue number, note that EAN-13 codes beginning with 0 are actually 12-digit UPC codes with prepended 0 digit. In the last few years, more products sold by retailers outside United States and Canada have been using EAN-13 codes beginning with 0, the 020-029 GS1 Prefixes are worth a special mention. GS1 defines this as being available for internal use. Some retailers use this for proprietary products, although many retailers obtain their own code for their own brands. Other retailers use at least part of this prefix for products which are packaged in store, for example, in these cases, the barcode may encode a price, quantity or weight along with a product identifier - in a retailer defined way. The product identifier may be one assigned by the Produce Electronic Identification Board or may be retailer assigned, retailers who have historically used UPC barcodes tend to use GS1 prefixes starting with 02 for store-packaged products. This is informally known as Bookland, the prefix 979 with first digit 0 is used for International Standard Music Number and the prefix 977 indicates International Standard Serial Number. The manufacturer code is a code assigned to each manufacturer by the numbering authority indicated by the GS1 Prefix. All products produced by a company will use the same manufacturer code. EAN-13 uses what is called variable-length manufacturer codes, thus if a potential manufacturer knows that it is only going to produce a few products, EAN-13 may issue it a longer manufacturer code, leaving less space for the product code. This results in efficient use of the available manufacturer and product codes. The product code is assigned by the manufacturer, the product code immediately follows manufacturer code. The total length of manufacturer code plus product code should be 9 or 10 digits depending on the length of country code, the check digit is an additional digit, used to verify that a barcode has been scanned correctly. It is computed modulo 10, where the weights in the checksum calculation alternate 3 and 1, in particular, since the weights are relatively prime to 10, the EAN-13 system will detect all single digit errors
31.
Universal Product Code
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UPC consists of 12 numeric digits, that are uniquely assigned to each trade item. Along with the related EAN barcode, the UPC is the mainly used for scanning of trade items at the point of sale. UPC data structures are a component of GTINs and follow the global GS1 specification, but some retailers do not use the GS1 system. On the other hand, some use the EAN/UPC barcode symbology. Wallace Flint proposed an automated system in 1932 using punched cards. Bernard Silver and Norman Joseph Woodland, a student from Drexel Institute of Technology, developed a bulls-eye style code. In the 1960s, railroads experimented with a barcode for tracking rail cars. Technology firms including Charegon, IBM, Litton-Zellweger, Pitney Bowes-Alpex, Plessey-Anker, RCA, singer, and Dymo Industries/Data General proposed alternative symbol representations to the council. In the end the Symbol Selection Committee chose to modify, changing the font in the human readable area. The first UPC marked item scanned at a retail checkout was at the Marsh supermarket in Troy, Ohio at 8,01 a. m. on June 26,1974. The shopper was Clyde Dawson and cashier Sharon Buchanan made the first UPC scan, the NCR cash register rang up 67 cents. The entire shopping cart also had barcoded items in it, and this item went on display at the Smithsonian Institutions National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Around late 1969, IBM at Research Triangle Park in North Carolina assigned George Laurer to determine how to make a supermarket scanner, in late 1970, Heard Baumeister provided equations to calculate characters per inch achievable by two IBM bar codes, Delta A and Delta B. In February,1971, Baumeister joined Laurer, in mid 1971, William Bill Crouse invented a new bar code called Delta C. It achieved four times the characters per inch as Delta B, Delta B compared bar widths to space width to code bits. This was extremely sensitive to ink spread where too much ink or pressure would cause both edges of a bar to spread outward and too little to them to shrink. To make it worse as bars spread spaces shrink and vice versa, Delta C achieved its higher performance by only using leading to leading or trailing to trailing edges which was unaffected by uniform ink spread. The code provided best performance when it had a character set with a fixed reference distance that spanned most or preferably all the character
32.
Database
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A database is a well organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views, a database management system is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, MariaDB, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, MemSQL and IBM DB2. Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a database, formally, a database refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information, because of the close relationship between them, the term database is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data. This article is concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a management system. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data, retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database. Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a database model. Database system refers collectively to the model, database management system. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS, Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail, hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications, DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans, databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers. Databases are used to hold information and more specialized data. A DBMS has evolved into a software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort. Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s, general-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity
33.
Sales tax
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A sales tax is a tax paid to a governing body for the sales of certain goods and services. Usually laws allow the seller to collect funds for the tax from the consumer at the point of purchase, when a tax on goods or services is paid to a governing body directly by a consumer, it is usually called a use tax. Often laws provide for the exemption of certain goods or services from sales, conventional or retail sales tax is levied on the sale of a good to its final end user and is charged every time that item is sold retail. Sales to businesses that later resell the goods are not charged the tax, the tax is otherwise charged on each item sold to purchasers without such a certificate and who are under the jurisdiction of the taxing authority. Other types of taxes, or similar taxes, include the following, Manufacturers sales tax. Wholesale sales tax, a tax on sales of wholesale of tangible personal property when in a packaged and labeled ready for shipment or delivery to final users and consumers. Retail sales tax, a tax on sales of retail of tangible personal property to final consumers, gross receipts taxes, levied on all sales of a business. They have been criticized for their cascading or pyramiding effect, in which an item is taxed more than once as it makes its way from production to final retail sale. Excise taxes, applied to a range of products, such as gasoline or alcohol. Use taxes are imposed by states with a sales tax but are usually enforced only for large items such as automobiles. Securities turnover excise tax, a tax on the trade of securities, value added tax, in which tax is charged on all sales, thus avoiding the need for a system of resale certificates. Tax cascading is avoided by applying the tax only to the difference between the price paid by the first purchaser and the price paid by each subsequent purchaser of the same item, fairTax, a proposed federal sales tax, intended to replace the US federal income tax. Turnover tax, similar to a tax, but applied to intermediate. Most countries in the world have sales taxes or value-added taxes at all or several of the national, state, county, countries in Western Europe, especially in Scandinavia, have some of the worlds highest valued-added taxes. Norway, Denmark and Sweden have higher VATs at 25%, Hungary has the highest at 27% although reduced rates are used in cases, as for groceries, art, books. In some jurisdictions of the United States, there are levels of government which each impose a sales tax. For example, sales tax in Chicago, IL is 10. 25%, consisting of 6. 25% state,1. 25% city,1. 75% county, Chicago also has the Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority tax on food and beverage of 1%. For Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the tax is 10%, which is 5% each of state & local, in L. A. it is only 8. 75%, which is 7. 25% state and 1. 5% county
34.
Value-added tax
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VATs raise about a fifth of total tax revenues both worldwide and among the members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. As of 2014,160 of the worlds approximately 193 countries employ a VAT, there are two main methods of calculating VAT, the credit-invoice or invoice-based method and the subtraction or accounts-based method. The credit-invoice method is the most widely employed method, used by all national VATs except for Japan. The subtraction method VAT is currently used by Japan, although subtraction method VATs. With both methods, there are exceptions in the method for certain goods and transactions, created for either pragmatic collection reasons or to counter tax fraud. Initially directed at businesses, it was extended over time to include all business sectors. In France, it is the most important source of state finance, in this way, the total tax levied at each stage in the economic chain of supply is a constant fraction of the value added by a business. The standard way to implement a value-added tax involves assuming a business owes some fraction on the price of the product minus all taxes paid on the good. By the method of collection, VAT can be accounts-based or invoice-based, under the invoice method of collection, each seller charges VAT rate on his output and passes the buyer a special invoice that indicates the amount of tax charged. Buyers who are subject to VAT on their own sales, consider the tax on the purchase invoices as input tax, the difference between output tax and input tax is paid to the government. Under the accounts based method, no such specific invoices are used, instead, the tax is calculated on the value added, measured as a difference between revenues and allowable purchases. Most countries today use the method, the only exception being Japan. By the timing of collection, VAT can be either accrual or cash based, cash basis accounting is a very simple form of accounting. When a payment is received for the sale of goods or services, a deposit is made, cheques are written when funds are available to pay bills, and the expense is recorded as of the cheque date—regardless of when the expense had been incurred. The primary focus is on the amount of cash in the bank, little effort is made to match revenues to the time period in which they are earned, or to match expenses to the time period in which they are incurred. Accrual basis accounting matches revenues to the period in which they are earned. While it is more complex than cash basis accounting, it provides more information about your business. The accrual basis allows you to track receivables and payables, the accrual basis allows you to match revenues to the expenses incurred in earning them, giving you more meaningful financial reports
35.
DOS
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None of these systems were officially named DOS, and indeed DOS is a general term for disk operating system. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, and Microsoft Windows, still ran on top of it until about 2001, dozens of other operating systems also use the acronym DOS, including DOS/360 from 1966. Others are Apple DOS, Apple ProDOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, TRSDOS, see List of DOS operating systems § Other operating systems. IBM PC DOS and its predecessor, 86-DOS, resembled Digital Researchs CP/M—the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080, DOS instead ran on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. Starting with MS-DOS1.28 and PC DOS2.0 the operating system incorporated various features inspired by Xenix, when IBM introduced the IBM PC, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates, IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down, Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license. Digital Research founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew, Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, the system was initially named QDOS, before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000 and this became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies, Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC, Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM, and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement, they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the operating system for PCs. Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers, one major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the specific device driver code and the DOS kernel. Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system, by the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling MS-DOS in retail with MS-DOS5.0. In the mid-1980s Microsoft developed a version of DOS
36.
Tablet computer
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Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, a microphone, and an accelerometer so images on screens are always displayed upright. The touchscreen display uses the recognition of finger or stylus gestures to replace the mouse, trackpad, tablets are typically larger than smartphones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches or larger, measured diagonally. However much of a tablets functionality resembles that of a modern smartphone, tablets can be classified according to the presence and physical appearance of keyboards. Slates and booklets do not have a keyboard, and usually accept text. Hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s do have physical keyboards, yet they also make use of virtual keyboards. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like a full laptop, most tablets can use separate keyboards connected using Bluetooth. The format was conceptualized in the century and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In April 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity, thereafter in the 2010s, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and became a large product category used for both personal and workplace applications. The tablet computer and its operating system began with the development of pen computing. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, a device more powerful than todays tablets appeared briefly in Jerry Pournelle and Larry Nivens The Mote in Gods Eye. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the audience was children. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad, the ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST Platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivjis company Momentus demonstrated in the time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own GUI. In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke, Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the NewsPad, the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating, all three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced and shipped to developers the 2521 ThinkPad, also based on PenPoint was AT&Ts EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&Ts own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993 and it utilised Apples own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, in 1996, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball CPU
37.
Surrey, British Columbia
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Surrey is a city in the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is a municipality of the Metro Vancouver regional district. Mainly a suburban city, Surrey is the third largest city by area, after Abbotsford and Prince George. The six town centres the City of Surrey comprises are, Fleetwood, Whalley/City Centre, Guildford, Newton, Cloverdale, Surrey became incorporated in 1879, and encompasses land formerly occupied by a number of Halqemeylem-speaking aboriginal groups. When Englishman H. J. Brewer looked across the Fraser River from New Westminster and saw a land reminiscent of his native County of Surrey in England, the area then comprised forests of douglas-fir, fir, red cedar, hemlock, blackberry bushes, and cranberry bogs. A portion of present-day Whalley was used as a ground by the Kwantlen Nation. Settlers arrived first in Cloverdale and parts of South Surrey, mostly to farm, fish, harvest oysters, once the Pattullo Bridge was erected in 1937, the way was open for Surrey to expand. In the post-war 1950s, North Surreys neighbourhoods filled with family homes and Surrey became a bedroom community. In the 1980s and 1990s, Surrey witnessed unprecedented growth, as people from different parts of Canada, Surrey is projected to surpass the city of Vancouver as the most populous city in BC by 2020 -2030. Surrey is governed by a city council. The current mayor of Surrey is Linda Hepner, who took office on December 8,2014, the last elections were held in November 2014. Following the 2015 federal election, the Liberal Party of Canada holds three of Surreys four seats in the Canadian House of Commons, as of 2006, the population of Surrey was 394,976, a 13. 6% increase from 2001. The non-minorities population is 211,445, or 53. 9% of the citys population, the foreign-born population is 150,235, constituting 30. 3% of the citys population. Visible minorities number 181,005, or 46. 1% of the population, the City of Surrey estimated that 508,040 residents lived within its municipality in 2014. As of 2011, the makeup in Surrey is as follows. The next most common language was Punjabi, spoken by 20. 17% of the population, as of 2010, Surrey had the highest median family income of CDN$78,283, while BC provincial median was $71,660, and nationals median was $74,540. The average family income was $85,765, South Surrey area had the highest average household income of all six town centres in Surrey, with an average of $86,824 as of 2010. Median household income was high at $62,960
38.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
39.
Key (lock)
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A key is a device that is used to operate a lock. A key is usually intended to one specific lock or a small number of locks that are keyed alike. The key serves as a security token for access to the area, only persons having the correct key can open the lock. Keys provide an inexpensive, though imperfect, method of control for access to physical properties like buildings, vehicles. As such, keys are a feature of modern living. It is common for people to carry the set of keys they need for their activities around with them, often linked by a keyring. The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out drilled holes within the bolt, when the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock, the first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodore of Samos in the 6th century BC, affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits, It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. The lever tumbler lock, which uses a set of levers to prevent the bolt from moving in the lock, was perfected by Robert Barron in 1778. His double acting lever lock required the lever to be lifted to a height by having a slot cut in the lever. This type of lock is currently used today. The lever tumbler lock was improved by Jeremiah Chubb in 1818. A burglary in Portsmouth Dockyard prompted the British Government to announce a competition to produce a lock that could be opened only with its own key, Chubb was awarded £100 after a trained lock-picker failed to break the lock after 3 months. In 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, the Chubb brothers also received a patent for the first burglar-resisting safe and began production in 1835. The designs of Barron and Chubb were based on the use of levers, but Joseph Bramah
40.
Theft
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In common usage, a theft is the illegal taking of another persons property or services without that persons permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it. The word is used as an informal shorthand term for some crimes against property, such as burglary, embezzlement, larceny, looting, robbery, shoplifting, library theft. In some jurisdictions, theft is considered to be synonymous with larceny, in others, someone who carries out an act of or makes a career of theft is known as a thief. The act of theft is known by other terms such as stealing, thieving. Theft is the name of an offence in California, Canada, England and Wales, Hong Kong, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland. But if she realises the mistake when she gets home and could return the scarf to Y, note that there may be civil liability for the torts of trespass to chattels or conversion in either eventuality. Section 322 of the Criminal Code provides the definition for theft in Canada,322. Because of this, confidential information cannot be the subject of theft and it cannot be converted, not because it is an intangible, but because, save in very exceptional far‑fetched circumstances, the owner would never be deprived of it. However, the theft of trade secrets in certain circumstances does constitute part of the offence of economic espionage, which can be prosecuted under s.19 of the Security of Information Act. Where a motor vehicle is stolen, Section 333.1 provides for a punishment of 10 years for an indictable offence. Theft is a crime with related articles in the Wetboek van Strafrecht, Article 310 prohibits theft, which is defined as taking away any object that belongs to someone else, with the intention to appropriate it illegally. Maximum imprisonment is 4 years or a fine of the fifth category, Article 311 consists of the following, Part 1. Punishable with maximum imprisonment of 6 years or a fine of the category is,1. Theft during certain occasions,3. Theft during night in a residence by someone who is there without knowledge or permission of the owner,4, Theft by 2 or more organized people,5. Theft, where the thief got access by means of violence, climbing in, when theft if committed as in 3 with the situation of 4 and 5, the punishment is a maximum imprisonment of 9 nears or a fine of the fifth category. Article 312 consists of the following, Part 1 prohibits robbery, maximum imprisonment is 9 years or a fine with the fifth category Part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth category when,1. Robbery was committed during night, in a residence, on the road or moving train,2
41.
Inventory
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Inventory or stock means to the goods and materials that a business holds for the ultimate goals to have a purpose of resale. Inventory management is a discipline and primarily about specifying the shape and it is required at different locations within a facility or within many locations of a supply network to precede the regular and planned course of production and stock of materials. In the context of services, inventory refers to all work done prior to sale, balancing these competing requirements leads to optimal inventory levels, which is an ongoing process as the business needs shift and react to the wider environment. Inventory management involves a retailer seeking to acquire and maintain a proper merchandise assortment while ordering, shipping, handling and this would include the monitoring of material moved into and out of stockroom locations and the reconciling of the inventory balances. It also may include ABC analysis, lot tracking, cycle counting support, however, in practice, inventory is to be maintained for consumption during variations in lead time. Lead time itself can be addressed by ordering that many days in advance, seasonal Demand, demands varies periodically, but producers capacity is fixed. This can lead to stock accumulation, consider for example how goods consumed only in holidays can lead to accumulation of large stocks on the anticipation of future consumption, uncertainty - Inventories are maintained as buffers to meet uncertainties in demand, supply and movements of goods. Economies of scale - Ideal condition of one unit at a time at a place where a user needs it, so bulk buying, movement and storing brings in economies of scale, thus inventory. Appreciation in Value - In some situations, some stock gains the value when it is kept for some time to allow it reach the desired standard for consumption. Capital Investment Space Usage Complicated Inventory Control Systems, higher number of inventory items complicates the control, stock Keeping Unit SKUs are clear, internal identification numbers assigned to each of the products and their variants. SKUs can be any combination of letters and numbers chosen, just as long as the system is consistent, stockout means running out of the inventory of an SKU. New old stock is a used in business to refer to merchandise being offered for sale that was manufactured long ago. Such merchandise may not be produced anymore, and the new old stock may represent the only source of a particular item at the present time. Manufacturers, distributors, and wholesalers inventory tends to cluster in warehouses, retailers inventory may exist in a warehouse or in a shop or store accessible to customers. Inventories not intended for sale to customers or to clients may be held in any premises an organization uses, stock ties up cash and, if uncontrolled, it will be impossible to know the actual level of stocks and therefore impossible to control them. Work in process, WIP - materials and components that have begun their transformation to finished goods, finished goods - goods ready for sale to customers. Goods for resale - returned goods that are salable, the firms work in process includes those materials from the time of release to the work floor until they become complete and ready for sale to wholesale or retail customers. This may be vats of prepared food, filled cans not yet labeled or sub-assemblies of food components and it may also include finished cans that are not yet packaged into cartons or pallets
42.
QWERTY
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QWERTY is a keyboard layout for Latin script. The name comes from the order of the first six keys on the top left letter row of the keyboard, the QWERTY design is based on a layout created for the Sholes and Glidden typewriter and sold to Remington in 1873. It became popular with the success of the Remington No, the QWERTY layout was devised and created in the early 1870s by Christopher Latham Sholes, a newspaper editor and printer who lived in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In October 1867, Sholes filed a patent application for his writing machine he developed with the assistance of his friends Carlos Glidden. Firstly, characters were mounted on arms or typebars, which would clash. Secondly, its point was located beneath the paper carriage, invisible to the operator. Consequently, jams were especially serious, because the typist could only discover the mishap by raising the carriage to inspect what had been typed, the solution was to place commonly used letter-pairs so that their typebars were not neighboring, avoiding jams. Sholes struggled for the five years to perfect his invention. The study of bigram frequency by educator Amos Densmore, brother of the financial backer James Densmore, is believed to have influenced the arrangement of letters, others suggest instead that the letter arrangement evolved from telegraph operators feedback. In November 1868 he changed the arrangement of the half of the alphabet, O to Z. These adjustments included placing the R key in the previously allotted to the period key. Apocryphal claims that change was made to let salesmen impress customers by pecking out the brand name TYPE WRITER QUOTE from one keyboard row are not formally substantiated. Vestiges of the original layout remained in the home row sequence DFGHJKL. The modern layout is, The QWERTY layout became popular with the success of the Remington No.2 of 1878, the first typewriter to include both upper and lower case letters, using a shift key. 0 and 1 were omitted to simplify the design and reduce the manufacturing and maintenance costs, they were chosen specifically because they were redundant and could be recreated using other keys. Typists who learned on these machines learned the habit of using the uppercase letter I for the one. In early designs, some characters were produced by printing two symbols with the carriage in the same position. For instance, the point, which shares a key with the numeral 1 on modern keyboards, could be reproduced by using a three-stroke combination of an apostrophe, a backspace
