1.
Good Shepherd
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The Good Shepherd is an image used in the pericope of John 10, 1-21, in which Jesus Christ is depicted as the Good Shepherd who lays down his life for the sheep. Similar imagery is used in Psalm 23, in the Gospel of John, Jesus states I am the good shepherd in two verses, John 10,11 and 10,14. From John 10, 11-18, I am the good shepherd, the good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. He who is a hand, and not a shepherd, who doesnt own the sheep, sees the wolf coming, leaves the sheep. The wolf snatches the sheep, and scatters them, the hired hand flees because he is a hired hand, and doesnt care for the sheep. I know my own, and Im known by my own, even as the Father knows me, I lay down my life for the sheep. I have other sheep, which are not of this fold, I must bring them also, and they will hear my voice. They will become one flock with one shepherd, therefore the Father loves me, because I lay down my life, that I may take it again. No one takes it away from me, but I lay it down by myself, I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it again. I received this commandment from my Father and this passage is one of several sections of Johns Gospel which generate division among the Jews, There was a division again among the Jews because of these sayings. Many of them said, He has a demon and is mad, why do you listen to Him. Others said, These are not the words of one who has a demon, several authors such as Barbara Reid, Arland Hultgren or Donald Griggs comment that parables are noticeably absent from the Gospel of John. These sources all suggest that the passage is described as a metaphor than a parable. The image of the Good Shepherd is the most common of the representations of Christ found in Early Christian art in the Catacombs of Rome. The image continued to be used in the centuries after Christianity was legalized in 313, images of the Good Shepherd often include a sheep on his shoulders, as in the Lukan version of the Parable of the Lost Sheep. Online IMAGE Collection of the Good Shepherd
2.
Catacombs of Rome
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The Catacombs of Rome are ancient catacombs, underground burial places under Rome, Italy, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. The Etruscans, like many other European peoples, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection at the Second Coming. The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish culture at this period, a number of dubious relics of catacomb saints were promoted after the rediscovery of the catacombs. The Etruscans, like many other European people, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection. The first large-scale catacombs in the vicinity of Rome were excavated from the 2nd century onwards and they were carved through tufo, a soft volcanic rock, outside the walls of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. The pagan custom was to incinerate corpses, while early Christians, since most Christians and Jews at that time belonged to the lower classes or were slaves, they usually lacked the resources to buy land for burial purposes. Instead, networks of tunnels were dug in the layers of tufo which occurred naturally on the outskirts of Rome. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome and they were built outside the walls along main Roman roads, like the Via Appia, the Via Ostiense, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Names of the catacombs – like St Calixtus and St Sebastian, about 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions. Excavators, no slaves, built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–19 metres below the surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres, narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre, burial niches were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres high and 120–150 centimetres long, bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age, the catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi, another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosolia. In 380, Christianity became a state religion, at first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside the martyrs
3.
Catechism
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Catechisms are doctrinal manuals - often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised - a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. The term catechumen refers to the recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism, traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith and General Intercessions. Today, they are characteristic of Western Christianity but are present in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Before the Protestant Reformation, Christian catechesis took the form of instruction in and memorisation of the Apostles Creed, Lords Prayer, the word catechism for a manual for this instruction appeared in the Late Middle Ages. The use of a question and answer format was popularized by Martin Luther in his 1529 Small Catechism, the format calls upon two parties to participate, a master and a student, or a parent and a child. The Westminster Shorter Catechism is an example, Q, what is the chief end of man. To glorify God and enjoy Him forever, what rule hath God given to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy Him. The word of God which is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments is the rule to direct us how we may glorify. The catechisms question-and-answer format, with a view toward the instruction of children, was a form adopted by the various Protestant confessions almost from the beginning of the Reformation. Among the first projects of the Reformation was the production of catechisms self-consciously modelled after the older traditions of Cyril of Jerusalem, Luthers Large Catechism typifies the emphasis which the churches of the Augsburg Confession placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of the articles of the Christian faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is meant to be memorized and then repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. The catechism, Luther wrote, should consist of instruction in the rule of conduct, which always accuses us because we fail to keep it, the rule of faith, the rule of prayer, and the sacraments. Luthers Small Catechism, in contrast, is written to accommodate the understanding of a child or an uneducated person and it begins, The First Commandment You shall have no other gods. We should fear, love, and trust in God above all things, Catechists not intent on this end, besides fatally injuring the Church, by sowing the materials of dissension in religion, also introduce an impious profanation of baptism. For where can any longer be the utility of baptism unless this remain as its foundation — that we all agree in one faith, the scandal of diverse instruction is that it produces diverse baptisms and diverse communions, and diverse faith. However, forms may vary without introducing substantial differences, according to the Reformed view of doctrine, John Calvin produced a catechism while at Geneva, which underwent two major revisions
4.
Pope John Paul II
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Pope Saint John Paul II, born Karol Józef Wojtyła, was Pope from 1978 to 2005. He is called by some Catholics Saint John Paul the Great and he was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1978, which was called after Pope John Paul I, who had been elected in August after the death of Pope Paul VI, died after thirty-three days. Cardinal Wojtyła was elected on the day of the conclave. John Paul II is recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland, John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Churchs relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Churchs teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women and he was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the worlds bishops, a key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was to place his Church at the heart of a new alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims. He was the second longest-serving pope in history after Pope Pius IX. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, John Paul IIs cause for canonisation commenced in 2005 one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. A second miracle attributed to John Paul IIs intercession was approved on 2 July 2013, John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014, together with Pope John XXIII. On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added John Paul IIs optional memorial feast day to the worldwide General Roman Calendar of saints, in response to worldwide requests. It is traditional to celebrate saints feast days on the anniversary of their deaths, Karol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice. He was the youngest of three born to Karol Wojtyła, an ethnic Pole, and Emilia Kaczorowska, whose mothers maiden surname was Scholz. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died in childbirth in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old and his elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmunds work as a physician led to his death from scarlet fever. As a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing football as goalkeeper, during his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with Wadowices large Jewish community. School football games were organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. I remember that at least a third of my classmates at school in Wadowice were Jews
5.
Catholic theology
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The theology of the Catholic Church is based on natural law, canonical scripture, divine revelation, and sacred tradition, as interpreted authoritatively by the magisterium of the Catholic Church. The teachings of the Catholic Church are summarized in various creeds, especially the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed, Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified by major councils of the Church, convened by popes at important points throughout history. The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem, was convened by the Apostles c, the most recent was the Second Vatican Council, which was held from 1962 to 1965. The Catholic Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit, according to the Church, the Holy Spirit reveals Gods truth through sacred scripture and sacred tradition. Sacred tradition consists of those handed down through the church since the time of the Apostles. Sacred scripture and sacred tradition are known as the deposit of faith. This is in turn interpreted by the magisterium, the authority of the Church. The first person to distinguish Catholic theology from secularism was the Italian Protestant Alberico Gentili, formal Catholic worship is ordered by means of the liturgy, which is regulated by church authority. The celebration of the Eucharist, one of seven sacraments, is held at the center of Catholic worship, there are numerous additional forms of personal prayer and devotion including the Rosary, Stations of the Cross, and Eucharistic adoration. The Church community consists of the clergy, the laity. According to the Catechism, Christ instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church and these are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, the Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Matrimony. They are vehicles through which Gods grace is said to flow into all those who receive them with the proper disposition, the Church encourages individuals to engage in adequate preparation before receiving certain sacraments. The Catholic Church teaches that The desire for God is written in the heart, because man is created by God and for God. While man may turn away from God, God never stops calling man back to him, because man is created in the image and likeness of God, man can know with certainty of Gods existence from his own human reason. In summary, the Church teaches that Man is by nature, coming from God, going toward God, man lives a fully human life only if he freely lives by his bond with God. The Church teaches that God revealed himself gradually, beginning in the Old Testament and this revelation started with Adam and Eve, and was not broken off by their original sin, rather, God promised to send a redeemer. God further revealed himself through covenants between Noah and Abraham, God delivered the law to Moses on Mount Sinai, and spoke through the Old Testament prophets. The fullness of Gods revelation was made manifest through the coming of the Son of God, creeds are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs
6.
Catholicism
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
7.
Second Vatican Council
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The Second Vatican Council, fully the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council and informally known as Vatican II, addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, many of these changes remain divisive among the Catholic faithful. At the same time, the worlds bishops faced challenges driven by political, social, economic, some of these bishops sought new ways of addressing those challenges. The First Vatican Council had been nearly a century before but had been cut short when the Italian Army entered the city of Rome at the end of Italian unification. Pope John XXIII, however, gave notice of his intention to convene the Council on 25 January 1959 and this sudden announcement, which caught the Curia by surprise, caused little initial official comment from Church insiders. In various discussions before the Council actually convened, John XXIII often said that it was time to open the windows and he invited other Christians outside the Catholic Church to send observers to the Council. Acceptances came from both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Protestant denominations as internal observers, but these observers did not cast votes in the approbation of the conciliar documents. Pope John XXIIIs announcement on 25 January 1959 of his intention to call a general council came as an even to the cardinals present. The Pontiff pre-announced the council under a full moon when the faithful with their candlelights gathered in St. Peters square, after which, he instructed the people to go back home and give their children a kiss of goodnight, from the Pope himself. He had tested the idea only ten days before one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini. Although the Pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in the idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani, who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pope Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. These groups, composed mostly of members of the Roman Curia, produced 987 proposed constituting sessions, attendance varied in later sessions from 2,100 to over 2,300. In addition, a number of periti were available for theological consultation—a group that turned out to have a major influence as the council went forward. Seventeen Orthodox Churches and Protestant denominations sent observers, more than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly 100 by the end of the 4th Council Sessions. Pope John XXIII opened the Council on 11 October 1962 in a public session, what is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching is one thing, roncalli, Angelo Giuseppe, Opening address, Council, Rome, IT.13 October 1962 marked the initial working session of the Council. That days agenda included the election for members of the ten conciliar commissions, each would have sixteen elected and eight appointed members, and were expected to do most of the work of the Council
8.
Theology
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
9.
Catechesis
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Catechesis is basic Christian religious education of children and adults. It started as education of converts to Christianity, but as the religion became institutionalized, in the Catholic Church, catechist is a term used of anyone engaged in religious formation and education, from the bishop to lay ecclesial ministers and clergy to volunteers at the local level. The primary catechists for children are their parents or communities, protestant churches typically have Sunday School classes for educating children in religion, as well as adult classes for continuing education. In the early church, new converts, referred to as catechumens, were instructed in the elements of the faith such as the Apostles Creed, Lords Prayer. During the fourth and fifth centuries, baptism had become a several-week-long rite leading up to the baptism on Easter. During this time, catechumens attended several meetings of intensive catechetical preaching, often by the bishop himself, and often accompanied by prayers, exorcisms. Catechumens recited the Apostles Creed on Holy Saturday to show one had completed catechetical instruction. By the sixth century, most of those presented for baptism were infants, the decline of preaching and education in general following the barbarian invasions also affected the decline of catechesis. Later, instructors would teach Christians who had baptized as children, to prepare for practicing the religion as thinking persons. The word catechism, used for a manual for this instruction, during this time the instruction was also expanded to include memorization of the Lords Prayer and Apostles Creed. Some clergy probably provided expositions of this material in addition to the Ten Commandments, the main function of catechesis during this period was preparation for confession by enabling the Christian to identify their sins. Jean Gersons LABC des simples gens was an important catechetical work published at the advent of the printing press, along with Gersons other catechetical works, it addressed the unique problems of teaching the faith to children. Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg was another popular preacher who followed the tradition of Gerson by preaching on the basics of the faith and they wanted individuals to be able to fully understand the prayers. The use of a question and answer format was popularized by reformer Martin Luther in his 1529 Small Catechism, religious education continued to develop among both Catholics and Protestants. The Christians ABC, Catechisms and Catechizing in England c. 1530-1740, oxford, Clarendon Press – via Questia. Luther, Martin, Theodore G. Tappert Ed, the Book of Concord the confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. The life of the community and its diverse individuals now are seen as both the curriculum and the primary catechist. The Shaping of the Reformed Baptismal Rite in the Sixteenth Century, course Catechism of the Catholic Doctrine
10.
Georges Cottier
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Georges Marie Martin Cottier O. P. was a Swiss Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, Archbishop, Dominican, Theologian emeritus of the Pontifical Household. Cottier was born in Carouge, Switzerland, joined the Dominican Order in 1945, while at the Angelicum he was ordained a priest in 1951. He was a professor at the Universities of Geneva and Fribourg and he became secretary of the International Theological Commission in 1989. He was nominated Pro-Theologian of the Pontifical Household in 1990 and he was appointed Titular Archbishop of Tullia in 2003 and consecrated on 20 October 2003. Having served 10 years as a cardinal-deacon, he was promoted to cardinal-priest by Pope Francis on June 12,2014, thomas Aquinas and early Christian tradition about framing laws in a pluralistic society. Cottier reacted to John Paul IIs encyclical Ecclesia de Eucharistia by saying that the Catholic Church rejects the concept of open communion, Cottier defended the Churchs view that the embryo is fully a human being. He came out in defense of Pope Pius XII against those who continue to criticize his legacy, then, saying that everybody is already of Christ, whether they know it or not, can make the mission futile. Cottier said that the use of condoms may be morally licit in the context of fighting AIDS. org
11.
Santi Domenico e Sisto
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The Church of Santi Domenico e Sisto is one of the titular churches in Rome, Italy in the care of the Roman Catholic Order of Preachers, better known as the Dominicans. It is located at no.1 Largo Angelicum on the Quirinal Hill on the campus of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, cottier studied theology and philosophy at the Angelicum obtaining a baccalaurate in philosophy and completing his licentiate in theology in 1952. The first church at the site, Santa Maria a Magnanapoli, was sometime before the year 1000. The present church was built at the order of Dominican Pope Pius V, construction on the church began in 1569 and on a convent for Dominican nuns in 1575. The original plan was the work of Giacomo della Porta though during the construction period that stretched until 1663 several other architects were involved. The lower part of the church was designed by Nicola Torriani, della Greca constructed the Baroque travertine façade in 1646, with his brother Felice. The two lower statues representing St. Thomas Aquinas and Saint Peter of Verona are by Carlo Maderno, the two upper statues representing Saint Dominic and Saint Pope Sixtus II are by Marcantonio Canini. The exterior double staircase built in 1654 is the design of architect Orazio Torriani, in 1649 Gian Lorenzo Bernini made designs for this church including the high altar and the first chapel on the right upon entering. The altar of this chapel and the sculpture group Noli me tangere were executed by Berninis pupil Antonio Raggi on the designs by Bernini, the ceiling painting of the Apotheosis of St Dominic was produced in 1674 by Domenico Maria Canuti, with trompe loeil framing by Enrico Haffner. The altarpiece in the chapel on the south side, by Pier Francesco Mola. In the second chapel on the side is Francesco Allegrinis 1532 The Mystical Marriage of St Catherine. In the third chapel on the side is the 1460 Madonna and Child by Benozzo Gozzoli. The church has functioned as the university church for the Pontifical University of St, the church is used to celebrate the solemn inauguration of each academic year, the feast of St. Thomas Aquinas and the official closing of the academic year. It closes during the summer break except for the feast of St. Dominic on 7 August. Other than during public functions, visits need to be arranged by prior appointment, the church has been the subject of or appeared in numerous works of art. In 1906, American painter John Singer Sargent completed an oil painting of the exterior staircase, Sargent described the ensemble as a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand façade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm. Sargent used the architectural features from this later in a portrait of Charles William Eliot. Sargent also made several preliminary sketches of the balustrade and staircase
12.
Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas
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The Angelicum is coeducational and offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees in Theology, Philosophy, Canon Law, and Social Sciences, as well as certificates and diplomas in related areas. Courses are offered in Italian and for programs in English. The Angelicum is staffed by members of both the clergy and the laity and serves both religious and lay students from around the world, see also the List of people associated with the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas. The Angelicum has its roots in the mission of the Dominican Order to study and this mission is reflected in the Orders motto, Veritas. Pope Honorius III approved the Order of Preachers in December 1216, by 1219 Pope Honorius III had invited Dominic and companions to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220. In May 1220 at Bologna the Orders first General Chapter mandated each convent of the Order maintain a studium, St. Hyacinth of Poland and companions Bl. Ceslaus, Herman of Germany, and Henry of Moravia were among the first to study at the studium of Santa Sabina where sacred studies flourished, from its beginning the Santa Sabina studium played the special role of frequently providing papal theologians from among its members. The office of Master of the Sacred Palace has always been entrusted to a Friar of the Order of Preachers since its institution with Saint Dominic by Pope Honorius III in 1218. In 1246 Pope Innocent IV appointed Annibaldo degli Annibaldi third Master of the Sacred Palace after Saint Dominic, Annibaldi had completed his initial studies at the Santa Sabina studium conventuale and was later sent to the studium generale at Paris. Aquinas dedicated to Annibaldi the Catena aurea, written a decade later during his regency at the Santa Sabina studium and those who showed capacity were sent on to a studium generale to complete this course becoming lector, magister studentium, baccalaureus, and magister theologiae. The new formation program outlined at Valenciennes featured the study of philosophy as an innovation, in the early days there was no need to study philosophy or the arts in the Order, young men entered already trained in the humanities at the university. St. Albert received his arts training at Padua, St. Thomas at Naples, in February 1265 newly elected Pope Clement IV summoned Aquinas to Rome as papal theologian. This studium was a school between the studium conventuale and the studium generale. But the new studium at Santa Sabina was to be a school for the province, at Santa Sabina Thomas composed the entire Prima Pars circulating it in Italy before departing for his second regency at Paris. Jacob later was lector at Santa Sabina and served in the Roman Curia being made bishop in 1286, nicholas Brunacci was among Aquinas students at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale and later at Paris. In November 1268 he accompanied Aquinas and his associate and secretary Reginald of Piperno from Viterbo to Paris to begin the academic year, Albert the Great, Brunaccis teacher at Cologne after 1272, called him the second Thomas Aquinas. Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium and later served in the papal curia and he was a correspondent by letter with Dante Alighieri during the latters exile from Florence. After the departure of Aquinas for Paris in 1268 other lectors at the Santa Sabina studium include Hugh Aycelin, eventually some of the pedagogical activities of the Santa Sabina studium were transferred to a new convent of the Order more centrally located at the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva
13.
Assumption of Mary
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The Catholic Church teaches as dogma that the Virgin Mary having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory. This doctrine was defined by Pope Pius XII on 1 November 1950. In the churches that observe it, the Assumption is a major feast day, in many countries, the feast is also marked as a Holy Day of Obligation in the Roman Catholic Church and as a festival in the Anglican Communion. The Catholic Church itself interprets chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation as referring to it, the earliest known narrative is the so-called Liber Requiei Mariae, which survives intact only in an Ethiopic translation. Probably composed by the 4th century, this Christian apocryphal narrative may be as early as the 3rd century, also quite early are the very different traditions of the Six Books Dormition narratives. The earliest versions of this apocryphon are preserved by several Syriac manuscripts of the 5th and 6th centuries, although the text itself probably belongs to the 4th century. The story also appears in De Transitu Virginis, a late 5th century work ascribed to St. Melito of Sardis that presents a theologically redacted summary of the traditions in the Liber Requiei Mariae. The Transitus Mariae tells the story of the apostles being transported by white clouds to the deathbed of Mary, the Decretum Gelasianum in the 490s declared some transitus Mariae literature apocryphal. An Armenian letter attributed to Dionysus the Areopagite also mentioned the supposed event, john of Damascus, from this period, is the first church authority to advocate the doctrine under his own name. His contemporaries, Gregory of Tours and Modestus of Jerusalem, helped promote the concept to the wider church. In some versions of the story, the event is said to have taken place in Ephesus, in the House of the Virgin Mary, although this is a more recent. The earliest traditions locate the end of Marys life in Jerusalem, in a later tradition, Mary drops her girdle down to the apostle from heaven as testament to the event. This incident is depicted in later paintings of the Assumption. It was celebrated in the West under Pope Sergius I in the 8th century, theological debate about the Assumption continued, following the Reformation, climaxing in 1950 when Pope Pius XII defined it as dogma for the Catholic Church. Catholic theologian Ludwig Ott stated, The idea of the assumption of Mary is first expressed in certain transitus-narratives of the fifth and sixth centuries. The first Church author to speak of the assumption of Mary. The Catholic writer Eamon Duffy states that there is, clearly, however, the Catholic Church has never asserted nor denied that its teaching is based on the apocryphal accounts. The Church documents are silent on this matter and instead rely upon other sources, Pope Pius XII deliberately left open the question of whether Mary died before her Assumption
14.
Ecclesiastical Latin
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Ecclesiastical Latin is the form of the Latin language used in the Roman Rite of the Latin Church of the Catholic Church for liturgical and other purposes. It is distinguished from Classical Latin by some variations, a simplified syntax. Ecclesiastical Latin is the language of the Holy See and the only surviving sociolect of spoken Latin. During the Late Republic and Early Empire periods, educated Roman citizens were generally fluent in Greek, the Holy See has no obligation to use Latin as its official language and, in theory, could change its practice. As Latin is no longer in use, the meaning of words is less likely to change radically from century to century. Since Latin is spoken as a language by no modern community. Especially since the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, the Church no longer uses Latin as the language of the Roman and Ambrosian liturgies of the Latin rites of the Catholic Church. As early as 1913, the Catholic Encyclopedia commented that Latin was starting to be replaced by vernacular languages, however, the Church still produces its official liturgical texts in Latin, which provide a single clear point of reference for translations into all other languages. For example, the writers of the Catechism of the Catholic Church drafted it in French, but five years later, when the Latin text appeared in 1997, the French text underwent correction to stay in line with the Latin version. The Latin language department of the Vatican Secretariat of State is charged with the preparation in Latin of papal and curial documents. Occasionally, the texts are published in a modern language, including such well-known texts as the motu proprio Tra le sollecitudini by Pope Pius X. The written Latin of today, as used for Church purposes, does not differ radically from classical Latin, Study of the language of Cicero and Virgil suffices adequately for understanding Church Latin. AE and OE coalesce with E, and before these letters and the letter I, TI followed by a vowel is generally pronounced /tsi/. Such speakers pronounce consonantal V as in English, and double consonants are pronounced as such, the distinction in Classical Latin between long and short vowels is abandoned, and instead of the macron, a horizontal line marking the long vowel, an acute accent is used for stress. The first syllable of words is stressed, in longer words. Ecclesiastics in some countries follow different traditions. The complete text of the Bible in Latin appears at Nova Vulgata - Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, another site gives the entire Bible, in the Douay version, verse by verse, accompanied by the Vulgate Latin of each verse. In 1976 the Latinitas Foundation was established by Pope Paul VI to promote the study and its headquarters are in Vatican City
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Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
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Evangelium vitae
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Evangelium vitae is a papal encyclical promulgated on 25 March 1995 by Pope John Paul II. It deals with issues pertaining to the sanctity of life, including murder, abortion, euthanasia. Man is called to a fullness of life far exceeds the dimensions of his earthly existence. Beginning with an overview of threats to life both past and present, the encyclical gives a brief history of the many Biblical prohibitions against killing. The encyclical then addresses specific actions in light of these passages, including abortion, euthanasia, the encyclical also deals with the proper uses of sex and the implementation of knowledge on adolescent teens of these behaviors. Among all the crimes which can be committed against life, procured abortion has characteristics making it particularly serious, the Second Vatican Council defines abortion, together with infanticide, as an unspeakable crime. The texts of Sacred Scripture never address the question of deliberate abortion, but they show such great respect for the human being in the mothers womb that they require as a logical consequence that Gods commandment You shall not kill be extended to the unborn child as well. Given such unanimity in the doctrinal and disciplinary tradition of the Church, Paul VI was able to declare that this tradition is unchanged and unchangeable. This doctrine is based upon the law and upon the written Word of God, is transmitted by the Churchs Tradition and taught by the ordinary. This doctrine is based upon the law and upon the written word of God, is transmitted by the Churchs Tradition and taught by the ordinary. Finally, Evangelium vitae states that execution is only appropriate in cases of absolute necessity, however, in todays society, with the improvement of the penal system these cases are very rare. The purpose of punishment is to redress the disorder caused by the offense, according to these theologians, these four teachings are not examples of papal infallibility, but are examples of the infallibility of the ordinary and universal Magisterium. To make this clear, the pope concluded each of these passages in Evangelium vitae with a reference to the ordinary and universal magisterium. Culture of Life Humanae vitae Catholicism and abortion Complete text from the Vatican Sullivan, the Doctrinal Weight of Evangelium Vitae
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Youcat
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Youcat, short for Youth Catechism of the Catholic Church, also styled as YOUCAT, is a 2011 publication that aims to be an aid for youth to better understand the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The book, drafted in the form of a conversation, is intended for use by Catholic youths around the world and is available in 25 languages, including Arabic, Youcat is based on the Catechism of the Catholic Church and the Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The catechism has 304 pages and consists of four chapters with 527 questions, the foreword was written by Pope Benedict XVI. Approximately 700,000 copies of Youcat were distributed in thirteen different languages on behalf of the Pope during World Youth Day 2011 in Madrid, the first edition was published in German on 25 March 2011. It was then published in fourteen languages, English, French, Danish, Italian, Croatian, Dutch, Polish, Spanish, Slovak, Slovenian, Armenian, Ukrainian, Russian, Indonesian. Chinese, Arabic, Malayalam and Latin editions are planned, overall, the Youth Catechism was slated to have been published in 30 languages by the end of 2012. Over 2 million copies have been sold, the international YOUCAT book series also includes, A prayerbook, Georg von Lengerke / Dörte Schrömges, YOUCAT Youth Prayer Book, Munich 2011. The Vatican has announced that these mistakes will be corrected in future editions
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Apostles' Creed
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The Apostles Creed, sometimes entitled Symbol of the Apostles, is an early statement of Christian belief—a creed or symbol. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists and Congregationalists, the Apostles Creed is Trinitarian in structure with sections affirming belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ His Son and the Holy Spirit. The Apostles Creed was based on Christian theological understanding of the Canonical gospels and its basis appears to be the old Roman Creed known also as the Old Roman Symbol. Because of the origin of its original form, it does not address some Christological issues defined in the Nicene. It thus says nothing explicitly about the divinity of either Jesus or the Holy Spirit and this makes it acceptable to many Arians and Unitarians. Nor does it address many other questions which became objects of dispute centuries later. The earlier text evolved from simpler texts based on Matthew 28,19, part of the Great Commission, pirminius, written between 710 and 714. Bettenson and Maunder state that it is first from Dicta Abbatis Pirminii de singulis libris canonicis scarapsus and this longer Creed seems to have arisen in what is now France and Spain. Charlemagne imposed it throughout his dominions, and it was accepted in Rome. It has been argued nonetheless that it dates from the half of the 5th century. Some have suggested that the Apostles Creed was spliced together with phrases from the New Testament, for instance, the phrase descendit ad inferos echoes Ephesians 4,9, κατέβη εἰς τὰ κατώτερα μέρη τῆς γῆς. It is of interest that this phrase first appeared in one of the two versions of Rufinus in A. D.390 and then did not appear again in any version of the creed until A. D.650. This phrase and that on the communion of saints are found in the Apostles Creed. Musical settings of the Symbolum Apostolorum as a motet are rare, the French composer Le Brung published one Latin setting in 1540, the Spanish composer Fernando de las Infantas published two in 1578. More recently, in 1979 John Michael Talbot, a Third Order Franciscan, composed and recorded Creed on his album, in 1986 Graham Kendrick published the popular We believe in God the Father, closely based on the Apostles Creed. Rich Mullins and Beaker also composed a musical setting titled Creed, released on Mullins‘1993 album A Liturgy, the song Creed on Petra’s 1990 album Beyond Belief is loosely based on the Apostles Creed. In 1991, GIA Publications published a hymn text directly based on the Apostles’ Creed, called I Believe in God Almighty and it has been sung to hymn tunes from Wales, the Netherlands, and Ireland. In 2014 Hillsong released a version of the Apostles Creed under the title This I Believe on their album No Other Name, in 2016 Keith Getty and Kristyn Getty released an expression of the Apostles Creed under the title We Believe on their album Facing a Task Unfinished
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Ten Commandments in Catholic theology
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The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral imperatives that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions, including Catholicism. As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and Deuteronomy, the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the slavery of sin. A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of Penance. The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings, the Catechism states that they have occupied a predominant place in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of Hippo. The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers, afterward, the first Church-wide catechism in 1566 provided thorough discussions of each commandment, but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments. The most recent Catechism devotes a section to interpret each of the commandments. Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments, in the New Testament, Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further, demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees. Summarized by Jesus into two Great Commandments that teach love of God and love of neighbor, they instruct individuals on their relationships with both, the first three commandments demand respect for Gods name, observation of the Lords Day and prohibit the worship of other gods. The others deal with the relationships between individuals, such as that between parent and child, they include prohibitions against lying, stealing, murdering, adultery and covetousness. The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments, even there are more than ten imperative sentences in the two relevant texts, Exodus 20, 1–17 and Deuteronomy 5, 6–21. The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments, the division traditionally used by the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of Hippo in his book Questions on Exodus. Other Christian communities, such as the Orthodox Church and many Protestant churches, the two forms have slightly different numbering, but maintain exactly the same substance despite some Protestant claims to the contrary. The Ten Commandments are recognized as a foundation by Judaism, Christianity. They first appear in the Book of Exodus, according to which Moses, acting under the orders of God, According to Church teaching, God offered a covenant—which included the Ten Commandments—to also free them from the spiritual slavery of sin. Some historians have described this as the event in the history of ancient Israel. The coming of Jesus is seen by the Catholic Church as the fulfillment of the destiny of the Jews, who were chosen, according to Peter Kreeft, to show the true God to the world. Jesus acknowledged the Commandments and instructed his followers to go further, requiring, in Kreefts words, more, not less, explaining Church teaching, Kreeft states, The Commandments are to the moral order what the creation story in Genesis 1 is to the natural order. They are Gods order conquering chaos and they are not mans ideas about God, but Gods ideas about man
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Lord's Prayer
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The Lords Prayer is a venerated Christian prayer that, according to the New Testament, Jesus taught as the way to pray. The context of the prayer in Matthew is a discourse deploring people who pray ostentatiously, the original text of the prayer uniquely contains the word epiousios, which does not appear in any other extant classical or Koine Greek literature, and is also the only adjective in the prayer. While controversial, the most common English language translation of word is daily. The prayer concludes with deliver us from evil in Matthew, the first three of the seven petitions in Matthew address God, the other four are related to human needs and concerns. Some Christians, particularly Protestants, conclude the prayer with a doxology, underscoring the scope and foundational importance of the Lords Prayer, initial words on the topic from the Catechism of the Catholic Church teach that it is truly the summary of the whole gospel. The prayer is used by most Christian churches in their worship, with exceptions, the form is the Matthean. There are several different English translations of the Lords Prayer from Greek or Latin, the Anglican Book of Common Prayer adds it in some services but not in all. It is absent in the oldest manuscripts and is not considered to be part of the text of Matthew 6. For more information on this doxology, see Doxology, below, later scholarship demonstrated that the manuscript was actually a late addition based on Eastern liturgical tradition. Other English translations are also used, though Matthew 6,12 uses the term debts, the older English versions of the Lords Prayer uses the term trespasses, while ecumenical versions often use the term sins. The latter choice may be due to Luke 11,4, which uses the word sins, while the former may be due to Matthew 6,14, as early as the third century, Origen of Alexandria used the word trespasses in the prayer. Though the Latin form that was used in Western Europe has debita, most English-speaking Christians. The dialect of Syriac in which it is written is not the dialect that would have been spoken by Jesus of Nazareth or his followers, however, the dialects are quite similar. Thy kingdom come, This petition has its parallel in the Jewish prayer, May he establish his Kingdom during your life and during your days. In the gospels Jesus speaks frequently of Gods kingdom, but never defines the concept, when malkuth is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. This petition looks to the establishment of Gods rule in the world in the future. This idea is frequently challenged by groups who believe that the Kingdom will come by the hands of faithful who work for a better world. These believe that Jesus commands to feed the hungry and clothe the needy are the kingdom to which he was referring, graef notes that the operative Greek word, basileia, means both kingdom and kingship, but that the English word kingdom loses this double meaning
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Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
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Church Fathers
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The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are ancient and generally influential Christian theologians, some of whom were eminent teachers and great bishops. The era of these scholars who set the theological and scholarly foundations of Christianity largely ended by 700 AD, the earliest Church Fathers, are usually called the Apostolic Fathers since tradition describes them as having been taught by the twelve. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna and his epistle,1 Clement, was copied and widely read in the Early Church. Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order and it is the earliest Christian epistle aside from the New Testament. Ignatius of Antioch was the bishop or Patriarch of Antioch. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved, important topics addressed in these letters include ecclesiology, the sacraments, the role of bishops, and the Incarnation of Christ. He is the second after Clement to mention Pauls epistles, Polycarp of Smyrna was a Christian bishop of Smyrna. It is recorded that he had been a disciple of John, the options for this John are John, the son of Zebedee, traditionally viewed as the author of the Gospel of John, or John the Presbyter. Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the connection of Polycarp was with John the Evangelist, and that he was the author of the Gospel of John. Polycarp tried and failed to persuade Pope Anicetus to have the West celebrate Passover on 14 Nisan, around 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarps execution as a Christian, and he died a martyr. Polycarp is recognized as a saint in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, very little is known of Papias apart from what can be inferred from his own writings. He is described as an ancient man who was a hearer of John, Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch. In this office Papias was presumably succeeded by Abercius of Hierapolis, the name Papias was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area. The work of Papias is dated by most modern scholars to about 95–120. Despite indications that the work of Papias was still extant in the late Middle Ages, extracts, however, appear in a number of other writings, some of which cite a book number Those who wrote in Greek are called the Greek Fathers. Justin Martyr is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of the Logos in the 2nd century, Irenaeus was bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, which is now Lyon, France. His writings were formative in the development of Christian theology. He was a notable early Christian apologist and he was also a disciple of Polycarp. His best-known book, Against Heresies enumerated heresies and attacked them, Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils
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Ecumenical council
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The word ecumenical derives from a Greek term which literally means the inhabited world, but which was also applied more narrowly in antiquity to refer to the Roman Empire. Starting with the ecumenical council, noteworthy schisms led to non-participation by some members of what had previously been considered a single Christian Church. Thus, some parts of Christianity did not attend later councils, or attended, Bishops belonging to what became known as the Church of the East only participated in the first two councils. Bishops belonging to what became known as Oriental Orthodoxy participated in the first four councils, acceptance of councils as ecumenical and authoritative varies between different Christian denominations. Disputes over christological and other questions have led certain branches to reject some councils that others accept, the Church of the East accepts as ecumenical only the first two councils. Oriental Orthodox Churches accept the first three, both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church recognise as ecumenical the first seven councils, held from the 4th to the 9th century. In all, the Roman Catholic Church recognises twenty-one councils as ecumenical, anglicans and confessional Protestants accept either the first seven or the first four as ecumenical councils. Such decrees are often labeled as Canons and they often have an attached anathema, the doctrine does not claim that every aspect of every ecumenical council is infallible. Both the Eastern Orthodox and the Roman Catholic churches uphold versions of this doctrine, protestant churches would generally view ecumenical councils as fallible human institutions that have no more than a derived authority to the extent that they correctly expound Scripture. Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises, written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed. A large part of what is known about the beliefs of heresies comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, most councils dealt not only with doctrinal but also with disciplinary matters, which were decided in canons. Study of the canons of councils is the foundation of the development of canon law. Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures – most Church councils, of the seven councils recognised in whole or in part by both the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church as ecumenical, all were called by a Roman Emperor. The emperor gave them legal status within the entire Roman Empire, all were held in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. The bishop of Rome did not attend, although he sent legates to some of them, Church councils were traditional and the ecumenical councils were a continuation of earlier councils held in the Empire before Christianity was made legal. The first seven councils recognised in both East and West as ecumenical and several others to such recognition is refused were called by the Byzantine emperors. This too ceased to be considered an ecumenical council, of the twenty-one ecumenical councils recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, some gained recognition as ecumenical only later. Thus the Eastern First Council of Constantinople became ecumenical only when its decrees were accepted in the West also
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New Covenant
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The New Covenant is a biblical interpretation originally derived from a phrase in the Book of Jeremiah, in the Hebrew Bible. It is often thought of as an eschatological Messianic Age or world to come and is related to the concept of the Kingdom of God. Generally, Christians believe that the promised New Covenant was instituted at the Last Supper as part of the Eucharist, based on the Bible teaching that, For where a testament is, there must also of necessity be the death of the testator. The commentary to the Roman Catholic New American Bible also affirms that Christ is the testator whose death puts his will into effect. Christians thus believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant, there are several Christian eschatologies that further define the New Covenant. 7 For if that first covenant had been faultless, there would have no occasion to look for a second. For they did not continue in my covenant, and so I showed no concern for them, declares the Lord. 11 And they shall not teach, each one his neighbor and each one his brother, saying, Know the Lord, for they all know me. 12 For I will be merciful toward their iniquities, and I will remember their sins no more,13 In speaking of a new covenant, he makes the first one obsolete. And what is becoming obsolete and growing old is ready to vanish away. 33 For this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, declares the Lord, I will put my law within them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people. 34 And no longer shall each one teach his neighbor and each his brother, saying, ‘Know the Lord, ’ for they all know me, from the least of them to the greatest. For I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more, some Christians claim that there are many other passages that speak about the same New Covenant without using this exact wording. The occurrence of the new covenant varies in English translations of the Greek New Testament. Six forms of the text have been identified, for example, the Daniel 9,27 commentary found in the 1599 Geneva Bible connects the verse with the NKJV translation of Matthew 26,28. 29 In those days they shall say no more, The fathers have eaten a sour grape,30 But every one shall die for his own iniquity, every man that eateth the sour grape, his teeth shall be set on edge. See types of Supersessionism for details, the Apostle Paul says that it is not the children of the flesh who are the children of God, but the children of the promise. 6 Not as though the word of God hath taken none effect, for they are not all Israel, which are of Israel,7 Neither, because they are the seed of Abraham, are they all children, but, In Isaac shall thy seed be called
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Cardinal (Catholicism)
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A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
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Pope Benedict XVI
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Pope Benedict XVI reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 2005 to 2013. He was elected pope on 19 April 2005, was inaugurated on 24 April 2005, Benedicts election occurred in a papal conclave following the death of Pope John Paul II. Ordained as a priest in 1951 in his native Bavaria, Ratzinger established himself as a highly regarded university theologian by the late 1950s and was appointed a professor in 1958. In 1981, he was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, from 2002 until his election as Pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals. He was originally a liberal theologian, but adopted conservative views after 1968 and his prolific writings defend traditional Catholic doctrine and values. During his papacy, Benedict XVI advocated a return to fundamental Christian values to counter the increased secularisation of many Western countries and he views relativisms denial of objective truth, and the denial of moral truths in particular, as the central problem of the 21st century. He taught the importance of both the Catholic Church and an understanding of Gods redemptive love, Pope Benedict also revived a number of traditions, including elevating the Tridentine Mass to a more prominent position. He strengthened the relationship between the Catholic Church and art, promoted the use of Latin, and reintroduced traditional papal garments and he has been described as the main intellectual force in the Church since the mid-1980s. On 11 February 2013, Benedict announced his resignation in a speech in Latin before the cardinals, citing a lack of strength of mind and his resignation became effective on 28 February 2013. He is the first pope to resign since Pope Gregory XII in 1415, as pope emeritus, Benedict retains the style of His Holiness, and the title of Pope, and continues to dress in the papal colour of white. He was succeeded by Pope Francis on 13 March 2013, in his retirement, Benedict XVI has made occasional public appearances alongside Pope Francis. Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born on 16 April, Holy Saturday,1927, at Schulstraße 11, at 8,30 in the morning in his parents home in Marktl, Bavaria and he was baptised the same day. He was the third and youngest child of Joseph Ratzinger, Sr. a police officer and his mothers family was originally from South Tyrol. Pope Benedict XVIs brother, Georg Ratzinger, a priest and former director of the Regensburger Domspatzen choir, is still alive and his sister, Maria Ratzinger, who never married, managed Cardinal Ratzingers household until her death in 1991. Their grand-uncle was the German politician Georg Ratzinger, at the age of five, Ratzinger was in a group of children who welcomed the visiting Cardinal Archbishop of Munich with flowers. Struck by the distinctive garb, he later announced the very same day that he wanted to be a cardinal. He attended the school in Aschau am Inn, which was renamed in his honour in 2009. Ratzingers family, especially his father, bitterly resented the Nazis, in 1941, one of Ratzingers cousins, a 14-year-old boy with Down syndrome, was taken away by the Nazi regime and murdered during the Action T4 campaign of Nazi eugenics
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Ulf Ekman
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Ulf Ekman is a former charismatic pastor and the founder of the charismatic Livets Ord organization in Sweden, which brought the Word of Faith movement to that country. Ekman is married to Birgitta Ekman and has 4 sons, Aron, Jonathan, Samuel, in his youth, Ekman was a member of a Swedish Communist party KFML before becoming a Christian, graduating from high school in 1970. He studied ethnography, history and theology at Uppsala University and in January 1979 was ordained in the Church of Sweden and he studied for a year at Rhema Bible Training Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States and upon his return to Uppsala in 1983 founded Livets Ord. He remained pastor of the church until passing on the pastorship to Robert Ekh in 2002 to focus on international work and he also founded Livets Ord University and Word of Life Bible School. Through his church he has sent missionaries to Bangladesh, Russia, Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Albania, Israel, Word of Life is also the host for the annual Christian event Europe Conference. In the former USSR he started to preach in pentecostal churches, in Riga, Latvia he worked closely with Aleksej Ledyaev and the New Generation Church where he is a pastor. In almost every big city of the former USSR a Word of Life Church, the number of people reached with the Gospel can be estimated to be between 250, 000–500,000 people. Cooperation with New Generation Church ended in March 2004 in doctrinal disagreement, in the charismatic world, Ulf Ekman is considered to be a mentor, a spiritual father, and a pastor of pastors. Rev. Kong Hee has claimed Ulf Ekman to be his spiritual coach, on 9 March 2014, Ekman announced his and his wifes leaving Livets Ord with the intent of joining the Catholic Church. Many critics claim that Word of Lifes teachings about health and economic abundance created a survival of the fittest attitude, in opposition to the Christian ascetic ideal of being poor and humble. Ekman and Word of Life always responded to criticism by saying that they strongly believed in Gods promises in the Bible. Ekmans theology, along with representatives of the Word of Faith movement, was criticized for having gnostic elements. A thesis written by Kent Gunnarsson at Umeå University, published in 2004, had this claim, the opponent at the dissertation, Professor Alexander Radler, criticized Gunnarsson for a too-wide definition of Gnosticism. Radler appreciated Gunnarssons thesis for its information about modern Gnosticism. Ekmans own attitude against Gnosticism is negative, later on, Ekman rarely preached the typical Word of Faith teachings. Ekman seems to have broadened his horizons with studies in patristic. He has now an ecumenical approach to other congregations, in 2006 the bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Stockholm, Anders Arborelius, was invited to World of Life church in Uppsala for a public discussion. This magazine had articles from different Christian traditions and excerpts from patristic writings, but a critical analysis of the Word of Faith movements own teachings hasn’t been published to this day
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Livets Ord
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Livets Ord, literally Word of Life, is a megachurch in Uppsala, within the Swedish Word of Faith movement. The congregation was founded in Uppsala by Ulf Ekman on May 24,1983, Ekman passed on the local pastorship in Uppsala to Robert Ekh that year and instead began working on expanding the churchs international work. In 2013 Joakim Lundqvist, become the senior pastor, aside from church, the movement also runs academic schools for all ages and Bible Schools. It sends missionaries to Russia, Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Israel, in 2007, Livets Ord is a megachurch with an attendance of 3,000 persons. In 2016, the attendance is 4,000 persons, in conjunction with the Christian Zionists in the United States, the Livets Ord operate a fund to supply money to Russian Jews who want to move to Israel. The fund, named Operation Jabotinsky, is named after Russian Vladimir Jabotinsky, the congregation had its own institution of tertiary education, Livets Ord Theological Seminary, between 1994 and 2014. In February 2014, Livets Ord announced its decision to close the seminary, since then the movement has consolidated, and its views have emerged as somewhat more acceptable to Swedish free churches. In an article published in Cultic Studies Journal in 1992, forty-three former students of Livets Ord Bible School were interviewed, nearly 50 percent of the forty-three students had experienced psychosis-like symptoms, and 25 percent had attempted suicide. Also common were anxiety, feelings of guilt, and emotional disorders, there has also been criticism, published in the Swedish paper Dagens Nyheter, against donations given to Israelis which have promoted settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories. Ekman countered the statement, saying that the donations never have been to occupied territories, a parody of the congregation exists in Berts bekymmer, where Klimpen returns to Öreskoga, now as a member of the congregation Lennarts ord. The congregation runs a school in Motala, and is led by a person named Lennart. – Critical website by an ex-member, last retrieved on June 15,2007
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United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
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The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops is the episcopal conference of the Catholic Church in the United States. S. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the bishops in the six dioceses form their own episcopal conference, the USCCB adopted its current name in July 2001. The organization is a corporation based in Washington, D. C. The current President is Houstons archbishop, Cardinal Daniel DiNardo, the current Vice President is Los Angeless archbishop, Archbishop Jose Gomez. The first national organization of Catholic bishops in the United States was founded in 1917 as the National Catholic War Council, catholics to contribute funds for the spiritual care of Catholic servicemen during World War I. In 1919 Pope Benedict XV urged the college of bishops around the world to assist him in promoting the reforms first articulated by Pope Leo XIII in Rerum novarum. Catholic episcopate organized the National Catholic Welfare Council in 1919 and they also created the first Administrative Committee of seven members to manage daily affairs between plenary meetings, with archbishop Edward Joseph Hanna of San Francisco as the first chairman. Headquarters were established in Washington, D. C, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops had appointed James T. McHugh during April 1967 to lead the early formation of what was later to become the National Right to Life Committee. These NRLC affiliate groups were forming in response to efforts to change abortion laws based on legislation proposed by the American Law Institute. New Jersey attorney Juan Ryan served as the organizations first president, NRLC held a nationwide meeting of pro-life leaders in Chicago in 1970 at Barat College. The following year, NRLC held its first convention at Macalestar College in St. Paul, Episcopal conferences were first established as formal bodies by the Second Vatican Council, and implemented by Pope Paul VIs 1966 motu proprio Ecclesiae sanctae. As separate organizations with distinct responsibilities, the NCCB focused on internal ecclesiastical concerns while the USCC carried forward work in society at large. The NCCB enabled the bishops to deliberate and respond collectively on a range of issues, with work being carried out through various secretariats, standing committees. On July 1,2001, the NCCB and the USCC were combined to form the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, the merger resulted in the continuation of all of the work formerly done by the NCCB and the USCC, with the same staff. The operation, authority, and responsibilities of episcopal conferences are currently governed by the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the nature of episcopal conferences, and their magisterial authority in particular, was subsequently clarified by Pope John Paul IIs 1998 motu proprio, Apostolos suos. The structure of the consists of 16 standing committees and the departments, secretariats. The leaders of departments, secretariats, and offices report to the general secretariat of the conference. The bishops of the latter four U. S. overseas dependencies belong to other episcopal conferences, in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the bishops in the six dioceses form their own episcopal conference, the Puerto Rican Episcopal Conference
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Baltimore Catechism
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The first such catechism written for Catholics in North America, it was the standard Catholic school text in the country from 1885 to the late 1960s. In response to a personal copyright taken out by Bishop John Lancaster Spalding, while the approved text had to remain the same in the catechisms, by adding maps, glossaries or definitions publishers could copyright and sell their own version of the catechism. The Baltimore Catechism remained in use in nearly all Catholic schools until many moved away from catechism-based education, in the nineteenth century, repeated efforts had been made in the United States towards an arrangement by which a uniform textbook of Christian doctrine might be used by all Catholics. The clause recommending Bellarmines catechism as a model was added at the special request of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, Bellarmines Small Catechism, Italian text with English translation, was published in Boston in 1853. The wish of the bishops was not carried out and the First, at last, in 1885, was issued A Catechism of Christian Doctrine, Prepared and Enjoined by Order of the Third Council of Baltimore. The council had desired a catechism perfect in every respect, as was true of nearly all new catechisms of the 19th century there was some initial criticisms, but the overwhelming preponderance of reviews were positive. Nearly every US bishop gave the new national catechism his official approbation and soon schools in diocese after diocese adopted the Baltimore Catechism as their religious education textbook, the Baltimore Catechism became the standard text for Catholic education in the United States for the next four generations. Since the 1960s, many Catholic churches and schools have moved away from catechism-based education, the standard edition was created by Fr. Januarius De Concilio during the Council and published on April 6,1885, then for no known reason Bishop John Lancaster Spalding deleted many of the questions, reordering some, to make an abridged version containing 208 questions. This shorter catechism he identified as number 1, however, the questions retained their original numbering, so, for example, in Lesson First the reader finds Q1, Q2, Q3, Q6, Q9. In September 1885 Bishop Spalding registered a separate copyright under his own name for what became known as Baltimore Catechism Number 1. Since the standard text was larger, people and publishers came to refer to it as Baltimore Catechism Number 2, later in the twentieth century the United States bishops decided to update the Baltimore Catechism. During the process they were determined to address the handful of criticisms that scholars had raised against the original, for example, the 1885 version was primarily written by one man, Fr. So the revised edition involved hundreds of theologians, scholars and teachers, the original was primarily written in ten days while the revised versions took years, in a long process of review and editing. De Concilio crafted one text which he intended for use by all schoolchildren, the revised text resulted not in one catechism, but a series of texts for different ages and grades. Volume 1 The 33 lessons contained in Baltimore Catechism No.1 present the basics of the Catholic faith in a suitable for first communicants through fifth graders. Volume 2 The 37 lessons contained in Baltimore Catechism No.2 present the fundamentals of the Catholic Faith in a suitable for sixth through ninth graders. Volume 3 The lessons contained in Baltimore Catechism No.3 are intended for students who have received their Confirmation and/or high schoolers and it includes additional questions, definitions, examples, and applications that build upon the content of the original Baltimore Catechism
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Catholic Catechist
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The role of a Catholic catechist is to catechize the Faith of the Catholic Church by both word and example. To catechize means to teach, more specifically, to teach by word of mouth, prior to the Second Vatican Council, the chief catechists at the parish level were priests, religious brothers or nuns. Since the late 20th century, particularly in Europe and the Americas, in addition to activities in the parish, catechizing also takes place in Catholic schools through more formal classes as part of the curriculum. Catechists are often deployed to teach candidates who are preparing for the sacraments of Reconciliation, First Holy Communion, Confirmation, various age-appropriate religious education texts and materials are used for instruction in addition to the Catechism of the Catholic Church. In the priests absence, the parish catechist takes on the role of being the teacher of the faith in that parish. As such they are afforded a place of honor within their parish community. In this regard the West has less experience than younger centers of the Church in the selection, formation, oversight, the General Instruction of the Roman Missal allows for institution of catechists should a particular Bishops Conference feel that it is required. This document was intended only for catechists at work in the missionary territories of the Church. It also made a specific distinction between the catechists working in these areas and catechists at work in older Churches such as in the West. The Year of Faith began on 11 October 2012, the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council and it was scheduled to end on 24 November 2013, the Solemnity of our Lord Jesus Christ, Universal King. This Note made the following recommendations in relation to catechsists,2 and it would be desirable that each Diocese in the world organize a study day on the Catechism of the Catholic Church, particularly for its priests, consecrated persons and catechists. General Directory for Catechesis Commentary on the General Directory for Catechesis The Marian Catechist Apostolate
32.
Catholic Directory
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Catholic Directories are various publications and reference works about or produced for the Catholic Church. The earliest English attempt at anything of the sort seems to have been a little Catholic Almanac and this was a mere calendar of feasts. The Irish Catholic Directory and Almanac seems to have existed under various names since 1837 or earlier and it was first called A Complete Catholic Directory, and then, in 1846, Battersbys Registry, from the name of the publisher. Catholic Directories also exist for the Australian and Canadian provinces, and occasionally for separate dioceses, e. g. the Diocese of Birmingham, England, in attendance upon the papal court. The first of these, called since 1872 La Gerarchia Cattolica e la Famiglia Pontificia, was first published in 1716 and was familiarly known as Cracas from the name of the publisher. Officially, the numbers were simply called Notizie per lAnno 1716. The other work, similar in character but somewhat more ample in its information, the Directorium Chori, a work originally compiled by Guidetti in 1582, possessed a quasi-official character and was often reprinted. It was intended for the use of the hebdomadarius and cantors in collegiate churches, such publications began in the United States with an Ordo Divini Officii Recitandi, published at Baltimore, in 1801, by John Hayes. It had none of the directory or almanac features, the Catholic Laitys Directory to the Church Service with an Almanac for the year, an imitation of the English enterprise, was the next, in 1817. It was published in New York with the permission of the Right Rev. Bishop Connolly by Mathew Field and his son, Joseph M. Field, was six years old when he arrived in New York, and became a prolific writer, dying at Mobile in 1856. Josephs daughter, Kate Field, was later the well-known author, though both were baptized, neither was a professed Catholic. It made up a small 32mo book of sixty-eight pages, among other things, it promised the preparation of a Catholic magazine which, however, was never started. Only one issue of this almanac was made, the next effort in the same direction, and on practically the same lines, was also at New York, in 1822, by W. H. Creagh. It was edited by the Rev. Dr. John Power, rector of St. Peters church, S. and obituaries of priests who had died from 1814 to 1821. This was the number of this almanac. In 1834 Fielding Lucas of Baltimore took up the idea and brought out The Metropolitan Catholic Calendar and Laitys Directory for that year, to be published annually. He said in it that he had intended to present it in 1832 and it prints a list of the hierarchy and the priests of the several dioceses, with their stations. In this publication and its various successors the title Directory is used in its purely secular meaning, a list of the clergy in England and Ireland was added in the volume for 1850
