1.
Species
–
In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
Species
–
John Ray
Species
–
Carl Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species.
2.
Brassica oleracea
–
Brassica oleracea is a plant species that includes many common foods as cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, savoy, kohlrabi, and gai lan. In its uncultivated form, it is called wild cabbage, and is native to southern and western Europe. Wild B. oleracea is a biennial plant that forms a stout rosette of large leaves in the first year. The leaves are fleshier and thicker than other Brassica species—an adaptation that helps it store water, in its second year, it uses the stored nutrients to produce a flower spike 1 to 2 metres tall with numerous yellow flowers. B. oleracea has become established as an important human food crop plant, used because of its large food reserves and it is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C. A diet rich in vegetables is linked to a reduced risk of several human cancers. Theophrastus mentions three kinds of rhaphanos, a curly-leaved, a smooth-leaved, and a wild-type and he reports the antipathy of the cabbage and the grape vine, for the ancients believed cabbages grown near grapes would impart their flavour to the wine. The historical genus of Crucifera, meaning cross-bearing, may be the only unifying feature beyond taste, according to the Triangle of U theory, B. oleracea is very closely related to five other species of the genus Brassica. These tree cabbages yield fresh leaves throughout the year, are perennial and their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks. With the advent of agriculture and the domestication of wild crop plants, through artificial selection for various phenotype traits the emergence of variations of the plant with drastic differences in looks took only a few thousand years. Preference for leaves, terminal bud, lateral bud, stem, the preference for the eating of the leaves led to the selection of plants with larger leaves being harvested and their seeds planted for the next growth. Around the fifth century BC, the formation of what we now know as kale had developed, preference led to further artificial selection of kale plants with more tightly bunched leaves, or terminal bud. Somewhere around the first century AD emerged the phenotype variation of Brassica oleracea that we know as cabbage, phenotype selection preferences in Germany led kale down another evolutionary pathway. By selecting for fatter stems the variant plant known as kohlrabi emerged around the first century AD, further selection in Belgium in lateral bud led to the Brussels sprout in the 18th century. European preference emerged for eating immature buds, selection for inflorescence, by the 15th century AD, cauliflower had developed leading also to the emergence of broccoli in Italy about 100 years later. PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea PROTAbase on Brassica oleracea Video Overview of Brassica oleracea, from Untamed Science
Brassica oleracea
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Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea
–
Several cultivars of Brassica oleracea, including kale, Brussels sprouts, savoy, and Chinese kale
Brassica oleracea
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Jersey cabbage can be cultivated to grow quite large, especially in frost- free climates.
Brassica oleracea
–
Growing head of B. oleracea at Hooghly near
Bandel in
West Bengal, India
3.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
New Jersey
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The New Jersey Botanical Garden at Skylands in
Ringwood State Park,
Passaic and
Bergen Counties
New Jersey
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Flag
New Jersey
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Washington Crossing the Delaware during the
New York and New Jersey campaign, winter 1777
New Jersey
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George Washington rallying his troops at the
Battle of Princeton
4.
Brassica
–
Brassica is a genus of plants in the mustard family, the. The members of the genus are known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, the genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops and includes a number of weeds, both of wild taxa and escapees from cultivation. Brassica species and varieties used for food include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, choy sum, rutabaga, turnip and some seeds used in the production of canola oil. Over 30 wild species and hybrids are in cultivation, plus numerous cultivars, most are seasonal plants, but some are small shrubs. Brassica plants have been the subject of scientific interest for their agricultural importance. Six particular species evolved by the combining of chromosomes from three species, as described by the Triangle of U theory. The genus is native to Western Europe, the Mediterranean and temperate regions of Asia, many wild species grow as weeds, especially in North America, South America, and Australia. Almost all parts of species or other have been developed for food, including the root, stems, leaves, flowers, buds. Some forms with white or purple foliage or flowerheads are also grown for ornament. Brassica species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species—see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Brassica. Brassica vegetables are highly regarded for their nutritional value and they provide high amounts of vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain nutrients with anticancer properties,3, 3-diindolylmethane, sulforaphane and selenium. Boiling reduces the level of anticancer compounds, but steaming, microwaving, steaming these vegetable for three to four minutes is recommended to maximize sulforaphane. Brassica vegetables are rich in indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells in vitro and they are also a good source of carotenoids, with broccoli having especially high levels. However, it also is an antiandrogen but is known to be only in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cells. These vegetables also contain goitrogens, some of which suppress thyroid function, goitrogens can induce hypothyroidism and goiter in the absence of normal iodine intake. There is some disagreement among botanists on the classification and status of Brassica species and subspecies, the following is an abbreviated list, with an emphasis on economically important species. The B. rapa genome was sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project in 2011 and this also represents the A genome component of the amphidiploid crop species B. napus and B. juncea
Brassica
–
Brassica
5.
Brassicaceae
–
Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. The name Brassicaceae is derived from the included genus Brassica, the alternative older name, Cruciferae, meaning cross-bearing, describes the four petals of mustard flowers, which resemble a cross. Cruciferae is one of eight plant family names without the suffix -aceae that are authorized alternative names, the family contains 372 genera and 4060 accepted species. The largest genera are Draba, Erysimum, Lepidium, Cardamine, pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. The family is included in the Brassicales according to the APG system, older systems placed them into the Capparales, a now-defunct order that had a similar definition. This family comprises about 375 genera and 2500 species all over the world,94 species of 38 genera are found in Nepal, a close relationship has long been acknowledged between the Brassicaceae and the caper family, Capparaceae, in part because members of both groups produce glucosinolate compounds. The APG II system, therefore, has merged the two families under the name Brassicaceae, the APG III system has recently adopted this last solution, but this may change as a consensus arises on this point. This article deals with Brassicaceae sensu stricto, i. e. treating the Cleomaceae and Capparaceae as segregated families, the family consists mostly of herbaceous plants with annual, biennial, or perennial lifespans. The leaves are alternate, sometimes organized in basal rosettes, in rare shrubby crucifers of Mediterranean their leaves are mostly in terminal rosettes and they are very often pinnately incised and do not have stipules. The structure of the flowers is extremely uniform throughout the family and they have four free saccate sepals and four clawed free petals, staggered. They can be disymmetric or slightly zygomorphic, with a typical cross-like arrangement and they have six stamens, four of which are longer and are arranged in a cross like the petals and the other two are shorter. The pistil is made up of two fused carpels and the style is short, with two lobes. The flowers form ebracteate racemose inflorescences, often apically corymb-like, pollination occurs by entomogamy, nectar is produced at the base of the stamens and stored on the sepals. The fruit is a kind of capsule named siliqua. It opens by two valves, which are the modified carpels, leaving the attached to a framework made up of the placenta. Often, an indehiscent beak occurs at the top of the style, where a siliqua is less than three times as long as it is broad, it is usually termed a silicula. The siliqua may break apart at constrictions occurring between the segments of the seeds, thus forming a sort of loment, it may eject the seeds explosively or may be evolved in a sort of samara. The fruit is often the most important diagnostic character for plants in this family, most members share a suite of glucosinolate compounds that have a typical pungent odour usually associated with cole crops
Brassicaceae
–
Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae
–
Aubrieta deltoidea (commonly known as purple rock cress) is a perennial wild flower that is used in gardening for its ornamental large inflorescence.
Brassicaceae
–
Siliquae of
Cardamine impatiens
Brassicaceae
–
Lunaria annua with ripe seed pods
6.
Annual plant
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An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seed, within one year, and then dies. Summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same year, winter annuals germinate during the autumn and mature during the spring or summer of the following calendar year. One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, oilseed rapa can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps. This style of growing is used in classrooms for education. Many desert annuals are therophytes, because their life cycle is only weeks. In cultivation, many plants are, or are grown as, annuals. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals, ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens, wax begonia, snapdragon, Pelargonium, coleus and petunia. Examples of true annuals include corn, wheat, rice, lettuce, peas, watermelon, beans, zinnia, summer annuals sprout, flower, produce seed, and die, during the warmer months of the year. The lawn weed crabgrass is a summer annual, winter annuals germinate in autumn or winter, live through the winter, then bloom in winter or spring. The plants grow and bloom during the season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate. Winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed, the seeds germinate in the autumn or winter when the soil temperature is cool. Winter annuals typically grow low to the ground, where they are sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover. Some common winter annuals include henbit, deadnettle, chickweed, ironically, the property that they prevent the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture. In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to the conversion into a perennial plant, researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, which control flowering time. This switch established phenotypes common in plants, such as wood formation
Annual plant
–
Peas are an annual plant.
7.
Cheese curd
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They are sometimes referred to as squeaky cheese. Cheese curds start off with fresh milk, the milk is pasteurized, much like in the process of creating cheese. During this process, rennet is added to clot the milk, after the milk has been pasteurized, the result is a mixture of whey and the early stages of the curd. Next, it is pressed to release the whey from the curd and their flavor is mild, but can differ in taste depending on the process in which it was made. It has about the firmness and density as cheese. Fresh curds squeak against the teeth when bitten into, a defining characteristic due to air trapped inside the porous material and this squeak has been described by the New York Times as sounding like balloons trying to neck. After 12 hours, even under refrigeration, cheese curds lose much of their fresh characteristic, keeping them at room temperature can preserve the squeakiness. The curds have a flavor and are sometimes somewhat salty. Most varieties, as in Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Vermont, the American variety is usually yellow or orange, like most American Cheddar cheese, but it does not require the artificial coloring. Fresh cheese curds are eaten as a snack, finger food or an appetizer. They may be served alone, dressed with a flavor, or with another food, such as a small smoked sausage or piece of cured pork. In the Midwestern United States fried cheese curds are a local delicacy and they are also available at A&W and some Dairy Queen locations. In many areas where fried cheese curds are common, the cheese curds refers to the fried variety. In some areas, deep-fried cheese curds are also known as cheeseballs, Cheese curds are a main ingredient in poutine, a dish consisting of french fries topped with fresh cheese curds, covered with brown gravy and sometimes additional ingredients. The dish originated in rural Quebec, Canada, in the late 1950s, several Québécois communities claim to be the birthplace of poutine. In the Indian subcontinent, fresh cheese curd is also known as cottage cheese and it is made by boiling milk and then adding an acid to curdle it. Once the milk is curdled, the portion is discarded. It is then put into a mold and made into a rectangular or oval shape
Cheese curd
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Deep-fried cheese curds served at a community festival in Minnesota
Cheese curd
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Cheese curds
Cheese curd
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A classic
poutine, such as this one from
La Banquise, is made with
french fries, cheese curds, and
gravy.
Cheese curd
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Cubes of paneer in a salad served in an Indian restaurant in Mumbai
8.
Inflorescence
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An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed. Inflorescence can also be defined as the portion of a plant that bears a cluster of flowers in a specific pattern. The stem holding the whole inflorescence is called a peduncle and the major axis holding the flowers or more branches within the inflorescence is called the rachis, the stalk of each single flower is called a pedicel. A flower that is not part of an inflorescence is called a solitary flower, any flower in an inflorescence may be referred to as a floret, especially when the individual flowers are particularly small and borne in a tight cluster, such as in a pseudanthium. The fruiting stage of an inflorescence is known as an infructescence, inflorescences may be simple or complex. The rachis may be one of several types, including Single, Composite, Umbel and these terms are general representations as plants in nature can have a combination of types. Inflorescences usually have modified shoots foliage different from the part of the plant. Considering the broadest meaning of the term, any leaf associated with an inflorescence is called a bract. A bract is usually located at the node where the stem of the inflorescence forms, joined to the main stem of the plant. They serve a variety of functions which include attracting pollinators and protecting young flowers, according to the presence or absence of bracts and their characteristics we can distinguish, Ebracteate inflorescences, No bracts in the inflorescence. Bracteate inflorescences, The bracts in the inflorescence are very specialised, sometimes reduced to small scales and this use is not technically correct, as, despite their normal appearance, these leaves are considered, in fact, bracts, so that leafy inflorescence is preferable. Leafy-bracted inflorescences, Intermediate between bracteate and leafy inflorescence, if many bracts are present and they are strictly connected to the stem, like in the family Asteraceae, the bracts might collectively be called an involucre. If the inflorescence has a unit of bracts further up the stem. Plant organs can grow according to two different schemes, namely monopodial or racemose and sympodial or cymose, the terminal bud keeps growing and forming lateral flowers. A terminal flower is never formed, the terminal bud forms a terminal flower and then dies out. Other flowers then grow from lateral buds, indeterminate and determinate inflorescences are sometimes referred to as open and closed inflorescences respectively. In an indeterminate inflorescence there is no true terminal flower and the stem usually has a rudimentary end, in many cases the last true flower formed by the terminal bud straightens up, appearing to be a terminal flower
Inflorescence
–
Aloe hereroensis, showing inflorescence with branched
peduncle
Inflorescence
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Ebracteate of
Wisteria sinensis
Inflorescence
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Bracteate inflorescence of
Pedicularis verticillata.
Inflorescence
–
Leafy-bracted inflorescence of
Rhinanthus angustifolius.
9.
Meristem
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A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells, found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to organs of the plant and keep the plant growing. The shoot apical meristem gives rise to organs like the leaves and flowers, SAM and RAM cells divide rapidly and are considered indeterminate, in that they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals. The term meristem was first used in 1858 by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli in his book Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik and it is derived from the Greek word merizein, meaning to divide, in recognition of its inherent function. In general, differentiated plant cells cannot divide or produce cells of a different type, therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new cells for expansion and differentiation of tissues and initiation of new organs, providing the basic structure of the plant body. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division, furthermore, the cells are small and protoplasm fills the cell completely. The cytoplasm does not contain differentiated plastids, although they are present in rudimentary form, meristematic cells are packed closely together without intercellular cavities. The cell wall is a thin primary cell wall. Maintenance of the cells requires a balance between two processes, organ initiation and stem cell population renewal. Apical meristems are the completely undifferentiated meristems in a plant and these differentiate into three kinds of primary meristems. The primary meristems in turn produce the two secondary meristem types and these secondary meristems are also known as lateral meristems because they are involved in lateral growth. At the meristem summit, there is a group of slowly dividing cells. Cells of this zone have a stem cell function and are essential for meristem maintenance, the proliferation and growth rates at the meristem summit usually differ considerably from those at the periphery. Meristems also are induced in the roots of such as soybean, Lotus japonicus, pea. Cells of the inner or outer cortex in the window of nodulation just behind the developing root tip are induced to divide. The critical signal substance is the lipo-oligosaccharide Nod-factor, decorated with groups to allow specificity of interaction. The Nod factor receptor proteins NFR1 and NFR5 were cloned from several legumes including Lotus japonicus, Medicago truncatula, regulation of nodule meristems utilizes long distance regulation commonly called Autoregulation of Nodulation
Meristem
–
Note the long spur of the above flower. Spurs attract pollinators and confer pollinator specificity. (Flower:Linaria dalmatica)
Meristem
–
Tunica-Corpus model of the apical meristem (growing tip). The epidermal (L1) and subepidermal (L2) layers form the outer layers called the
tunica. The inner L3 layer is called the corpus. Cells in the L1 and L2 layers divide in a sideways fashion, which keeps these layers distinct, whereas the L3 layer divides in a more random fashion.
Meristem
–
Complex leaves of
C. hirsuta are a result of KNOX gene expression
10.
Broccoli
–
Broccoli is an edible green plant in the cabbage family whose large flowering head is eaten as a vegetable. The word broccoli comes from the Italian plural of broccolo, which means the flowering crest of a cabbage, Broccoli is often boiled or steamed but may be eaten raw. Broccoli is classified in the Italica cultivar group of the species Brassica oleracea, Broccoli has large flower heads, usually green in color, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick, edible stalk. The mass of heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli resembles cauliflower, which is a different cultivar group of the same species, Broccoli is a result of careful breeding of cultivated Brassica crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the 6th century BC. Since the time of the Roman Empire, broccoli has been considered a valuable food among Italians. Broccoli was brought to England from Antwerp in the century by Peter Scheemakers. Broccoli was first introduced to the United States by Southern Italian immigrants, there are three commonly grown types of broccoli. The most familiar is Calabrese broccoli, often referred to simply as broccoli and it has large green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool season annual crop, sprouting broccoli has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks. Purple cauliflower is a type of broccoli sold in southern Italy, Spain, and it has a head shaped like cauliflower, but consisting of tiny flower buds. It sometimes, but not always, has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds, other cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea include cabbage, cauliflower and Romanesco broccoli, kale and collard greens, kohlrabi, Brussels sprouts, and kai-lan. Rapini, sometimes called broccoli raab among other names, forms similar but smaller heads, broccolini or Tenderstem broccoli is a cross between broccoli and Chinese broccoli. Beneforté is a variety of broccoli containing 2–3 times more glucoraphanin that was produced by crossing broccoli with a wild Brassica variety, in 2013, global production of broccoli was 22.3 million tonnes, with China and India together accounting for 76% of the total. Secondary producers, each having about 0.5 million tonnes annually, were Spain, Mexico, Broccoli is a cool-weather crop that does poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to a daily temperature between 18 and 23 °C. When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a head of broccoli, appear in the center of the plant, garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about an inch from the tip. Broccoli should be harvested before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow, spraying of bacillus thuringiensis can control caterpillar attacks, while a citronella vase may ward off whiteflies
Broccoli
–
Broccoli
Broccoli
–
Broccoli plants in a nursery
Broccoli
Broccoli
11.
Brussels sprout
–
The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera Group of cabbages, grown for its edible buds. The leafy green vegetables are typically 2. 5–4 cm in diameter, the Brussels sprout has long been popular in Brussels, Belgium, and may have originated and gained its name there. Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were likely cultivated in Ancient Rome, Brussels sprouts as they are now known were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in what is now Belgium. The first written reference dates to 1587, during the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in the Southern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe. Brussels sprouts grow in temperature ranges of 7–24 °C, with highest yields at 15–18 °C, fields are ready for harvest 90 to 180 days after planting. The edible sprouts grow like buds in helical patterns along the side of long, thick stalks of about 60 to 120 cm in height, each stalk can produce 1.1 to 1.4 kg, although the commercial yield is about 900 g per stalk. Harvest season in temperate zones of the northern latitudes is September to March, in the home garden, harvest can be delayed as quality does not suffer from freezing. Sprouts are considered to be sweetest after a frost, Brussels sprouts are a cultivar group of the same species as cabbage, in the same family as collard greens, broccoli, kale, and kohlrabi, they are cruciferous. Many cultivars are available, some being purple in colour, such as Ruby Crunch or Red Bull, in Continental Europe, the largest producers are the Netherlands, at 82,000 metric tons, and Germany, at 10,000 tons. The United Kingdom has production comparable to that of the Netherlands, production of Brussels sprouts in the United States began in the 18th century, when French settlers brought them to Louisiana. The first plantings in Californias Central Coast began in the 1920s, the harvest season lasts from June through January. Total American production is approximately 32,000 tons, with a value of $27 million, about 80% to 85% of US production is for the frozen food market, with the remainder for fresh consumption. Once harvested, sprouts last three to five weeks under ideal near-freezing conditions before wilting and discolouring, and about half as long at refrigerator temperature, American varieties are generally 2. 5–5 cm in diameter. Brussels sprouts, as with broccoli and other brassicas, contain sulforaphane, although boiling reduces the level of sulforaphane, steaming and stir frying do not result in significant loss. Consuming Brussels sprouts in excess may not be suitable for patients taking anticoagulants such as warfarin since they contain vitamin K, in one reported incident, eating too many Brussels sprouts precipitated hospitalization for an individual on blood-thinning therapy. The most common method of preparing Brussels sprouts for cooking begins with cutting the buds off the stalk, any surplus stem is cut away, and any loose surface leaves are peeled and discarded. Once cut and cleaned, the buds are typically cooked by boiling, steaming, stir frying, grilling, to ensure even cooking throughout, buds of a similar size are usually chosen. Some cooks will make a cut or a cross in the center of the stem to aid the penetration of heat
Brussels sprout
–
Brussels sprouts (
cultivar unknown)
Brussels sprout
–
A field of Brussels sprouts after harvest
Brussels sprout
–
Brussels sprouts on the stalk
Brussels sprout
–
Brussels sprouts on stalks
12.
Cabbage
–
Cabbage or headed cabbage is a leafy green or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the cabbage, B. oleracea var. oleracea. Cabbage heads generally range from 0.5 to 4 kilograms, smooth-leafed firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed red and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely. Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high latitudes in summer. Some records are discussed at the end of the history section and it is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage, but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, although savoys were not developed until the 16th century. By the Middle Ages, it had become a prominent part of European cuisine, cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that production of cabbage. Almost half of these crops were grown in China, where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable, cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating. They can be pickled, fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut, steamed, stewed, sautéed, braised, cabbage is a good source of vitamin K, vitamin C and dietary fiber. Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of illness in humans. Cabbage is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, several other cruciferous vegetables are considered cultivars of B. oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, the varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for having a head. B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of names throughout the world. Cabbage was originally used to refer to forms of B. oleracea. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage and it is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia, the original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage, many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning head. The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche and this in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce
Cabbage
–
A white cabbage and its cross section
Cabbage
–
The cabbage
inflorescence, which appears in the plant's second year of growth, features white or yellow flowers, each with four perpendicularly arranged petals.
Cabbage
–
Harvesting cabbage,
Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.
Cabbage
–
A cabbage field
13.
Collard greens
–
Collard greens describes certain loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables, including cabbage and broccoli. Collard greens are part of the Acephala Group of the species and they are in the same cultivar group owing to their genetic similarity. The name collard is a form of the word colewort. The cultivar group name Acephala refers to the fact that this variety of B. oleracea does not have the core of leaves like cabbage does. The plant is a biennial where winter frost occurs, and a perennial in colder regions and it is also moderately sensitive to salinity. It has a stalk, often growing up to two feet tall. The plant is similar to kale. Popular cultivars of collard greens include Georgia Southern, Morris Heading, Butter Collard, the plant is commercially cultivated for its thick, slightly bitter, edible leaves. They are available year-round, but are tastier and more nutritious in the cold months, for best texture, the leaves are picked before they reach their maximum size, at which stage they are thicker and are cooked differently from the new leaves. Flavor and texture also depend on the cultivar, the couve manteiga and couve tronchuda are especially appreciated in Brazil, fresh collard leaves can be stored for up to 10 days if refrigerated to just above freezing at high humidity. In domestic refrigerators, fresh leaves can be stored for about three days. Once cooked, they can be frozen and stored for greater lengths of time, like kale, collard greens are very high in vitamin K. They are excellent sources of vitamin A, vitamin C, and manganese, a 100 g serving of cooked collard greens provides 33 calories, is 90% water, 3% protein, 6% carbohydrates and less than 1% fat. Collard greens have been eaten for at least 2000 years, with evidence showing that the ancient Greeks cultivated several types of collard greens, Collard greens is a staple vegetable in Southern U. S. cuisine. They are often prepared with similar green leaf vegetables, such as kale, turnip greens, spinach. Typical seasonings when cooking collards are smoked and salted meats, diced onions, vinegar, salt, and black pepper, white pepper, or crushed red pepper, and some cooks add a small amount of sugar. Traditionally, collards are eaten on New Years Day, along with black-eyed peas or field peas and cornbread, cornbread is used to soak up the pot liquor, a nutrient-rich collard broth. Collard greens may also be sliced and fermented to make a collard sauerkraut that is often cooked with flat dumplings
Collard greens
–
A bundle of collard greens
Collard greens
–
Young collard plants growing in a container
Collard greens
–
A collard green field in Pennsylvania
Collard greens
–
Caldo verde is a popular Portuguese soup made with collard greens.
14.
Kale
–
KALE is a radio station broadcasting a classic hits format. Licensed to Richland, Washington, United States, the serves the Tri-Cities. The station is owned by James Ingstad of Fargo, North Dakota, KALE began broadcasting in 1950 on AM900 kHz and was owned by Yakima Broadcasting Corp. KALE had a Top-40 radio format until the early 1980s when it switched to an adult contemporary format. The stations first Program Director was Dave Dorris and he was also their first Chief Engineer. Mike Purdy, News reporters include Mike Conklin, Patricia Robbins, Kirk Williamson, Dave Dorris, Bill Glenn and Chuck Bryson were among the engineers employed at the station over the years. KALE reached its zenith as an AM station during the early to mid-1970s under the direction of manager Rod Loudon, the station was consistently at or near the top of the age 18-to-49 ratings block and frequently led the market in sales billings. The news department won numerous regional and statewide Society of Professional Journalists awards, KALEs ratings dominance waned as listeners began migrating from AM to FM during the latter 1970s and early 1980s, Conklin said. In the 1970s the station was owned by Sterling Recreation Organization and later was owned by Revitalization Partners, in December 2010, Townsquare Media announced it was acquiring 12 stations owned by New Northwest Broadcasters. Since they were owners of 11 stations in the Yakima. Ingstad Radio Washington agreed to purchase — at a discount — more than $16 million in debt owed by Seattle-based New Northwest Broadcasters from a creditor, the discounted price for Ingstad is about $6.7 million for all 12 stations. KALEs broadcast studios were initially at the site at Road 68 in Pasco. The studios then moved to 218 W. Kennewick Ave. Kennewick, in 1978 the studios moved again to 310 W. Kennewick Ave. when KALEs FM station, KIOK, FM94.9, was licensed and began broadcasting. The site at 310 W. Kennewick Ave. was the site of the historic Benton Theatre which. After broadcasting from North Columbia Center Blvd. in Kennewick for several years, KALE moved to its current home at 4304 S. 24th Ave in Kennewick, on February 24,2016 KALE changed their format to adult contemporary, branded as 106.1 More FM. On September 19,2016 KALE changed their format from contemporary to classic hits, branded as Classic Hits 106.1
Kale
15.
Cruciferous vegetables
–
The family takes its alternate name from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross. Numerous other genera and species in the family are also edible, cruciferous vegetables are one of the dominant food crops worldwide. They are high in vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain multiple nutrients, extensive selective breeding has produced a large variety of cultivars, especially within the genus Brassica. One description of factors involved in the breeding of Brassica species is the Triangle of U. Cruciferous vegetables contain glucosinolates which are under research for their potential properties of affecting some types of cancer. Glucosinolates are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates by the action of myrosinase, ITCs, possibly a bioactive component in cruciferous vegetables, are being investigated for their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects. As one example in research, ITCs such as phenethyl isothiocyanate reduced levels of the oncoprotein MCL1. Other in vitro research indicates ITCs may affect levels of the BCR-ABL fusion protein, chemicals contained in cruciferous vegetables induce the expression of the liver enzyme CYP1A2. Furthermore, some such as haloperidol and theophylline are metabolized by CYP1A2. Consequently, consumption of vegetables may decrease bioavailability and half-life of these drugs. Brassicaceae contain a number of compounds under preliminary research for their potential hepato-protective properties, high consumption of cruciferous vegetables has potential risk from allergies, interference with drugs like warfarin and genotoxicity. People who can taste phenylthiocarbamide, which is either bitter or tasteless, are likely to eat cruciferous vegetables. Cruciferous vegetables can potentially be goitrogenic and they contain enzymes that interfere with the formation of thyroid hormone in people with iodine deficiency. Cooking for 30 minutes significantly reduces the amount of goitrogens and nitriles, at high intake of crucifers, the goitrogens inhibit the incorporation of iodine into thyroid hormone and also the transfer of iodine into milk by the mammary gland. Brassica species may cause baby colic in breast-feeding, although the evidence for this is not strong
Cruciferous vegetables
–
Cabbage plants
16.
Pliny the Elder
–
In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
Pliny the Elder
–
One of the
Xanten Horse-Phalerae located in the
British Museum, measuring 10.5 cm (4.1 in). It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: PLINIO PRAEF EQ; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.
Pliny the Elder
–
Pliny the Elder, as imagined by a 19th-century artist. No contemporary depiction of Pliny is known to survive.
Pliny the Elder
–
City and Lake of
Como, painted by
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, 1834.
Pliny the Elder
–
The temple of
Castor and Pollux in Rome
17.
Natural History (Pliny)
–
The Natural History is an early encyclopedia in Latin by Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and naval commander who died in 79 AD. It is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day, the works subject area is thus not limited to what is today understood by natural history, Pliny himself defines his scope as the natural world, or life. The work is divided into 37 books, organised into ten volumes, the Natural History became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter, its referencing of original authors, and its index. The work is dedicated to the emperor Titus, son of Plinys close friend and it is the only work by Pliny to have survived and the last that he published. He began it in 77, and had not made a revision at the time of his death during the AD79 eruption of Vesuvius. Plinys Natural History was written alongside other substantial works, Pliny combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor Vespasian. Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have such a work, in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother, Hail to thee, Nature. And do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, the Natural History is encyclopaedic in scope, but its format is unlike a modern encyclopaedia. However, it does have structure, Pliny uses Aristotles division of nature to recreate the world in literary form. The work is unified but varied, My subject is the world of nature, or in other words, life, he tells Titus. Nature for Pliny was divine, a concept inspired by the Stoic philosophy which underlies much of his thought. But the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race, nature, that is life is human life in a natural landscape. After an initial survey of cosmology and geography, Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race and this teleological view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the Natural History. The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves, Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants, with a focus on their medicinal value, the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in architecture, sculpture, painting and jewellery. Plinys premise is distinct from modern ecological theories, reflecting the sentiment of his time. Pliny repeated Aristotles maxim that Africa was always producing something new, natures variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite, When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible. This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world and these monstrous races – the Cynocephali or Dog-Heads, the Sciapodae, whose single foot could act as a sunshade, the mouthless Astomi, who lived on scents – were not strictly new. They had been mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC, Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – shaped like an umbrella pine, according to his nephew – rising from the mountain
Natural History (Pliny)
–
Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page. The title at the top reads: "Volume I of the Natural History of Gaius Plinius Secundus"; the ending -ae is a genitive ("of...").
Natural History (Pliny)
–
Naturalis Historia, work printed by Johannes Alvisius in 1499 in
Venice, Italy
Natural History (Pliny)
–
A
cynocephalus, or dog-head, as described by Pliny in his Natural History. From the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493).
Natural History (Pliny)
–
A
sciapod, described by Pliny in his Natural History. From the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493).
18.
Ibn al-Baitar
–
Ḍiyāʾ Al-Dīn Abū Muḥammad ʿAbdllāh Ibn Aḥmad al-Mālaqī, commonly known as Ibn al-Bayṭār son of the veterinarian was a pharmacist, botanist, physician and scientist. Such an approach was adopted by Ibn al-Bayṭār. In 1219, Ibn al-Bayṭār left Málaga, travelling to coast of North Africa and as far as Anatolia, the major stations he visited include Bugia, Constantinople, Tunis, Tripoli, Barqa and Antalya. After 1224, he entered the service of the Ayyubid Sultan al-Kāmil and was appointed chief herbalist, in 1227 al-Kāmil extended his domination to Damascus, and Ibn al-Bayṭār accompanied him there, which provided him an opportunity to collect plants in Syria. His botanical researches extended over a vast area including Arabia and Palestine and he died in Damascus in 1248. Ibn al-Bayṭār used the name snow of China to describe saltpetre while writing about gunpowder, Ibn al-Bayṭār’s largest and most widely read book is his Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods. It is a pharmacopoeia listing 1400 plants, foods, and drugs and it is organized alphabetically by the name of the useful plant or plant component or other substance—a small minority of the items covered are not botanicals. For each item, Ibn al-Bayṭār makes one or two brief remarks himself and gives brief extracts from a handful of different earlier authors about the item, the bulk of the information is compiled from the earlier authors. The book contains references to 150 previous Arabic authors, as well as 20 previous Greek authors, one of the sources he quotes most frequently is the Materia Medica of Dioscorides, having also written an Arabic commentary on the work. Another book often cited by him is Book Two of the Canon of Medicine of Ibn Sīnā, in modern printed edition, the book is more than 900 pages long. As well as in Arabic, it was published in full in translation in German, Ibn al-Bayṭār provides detailed chemical information on the Rosewater and Orangewater production. He mentions, The scented Shurub was often extracted from flowers and rare leaves, by means of using hot oils and fat, the oils used were also extracted from sesame and olives. Essential oil was produced by joining various retorts, the steam from these retorts condensed, combined and its scented droplets were used as perfume, maqāla fī al-Laymūn, Treatise on the Lemon, translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago as Ebn Bitar de malis limonis. Tafsīr Kitāb Diyāsqūrīdūs, a commentary on the first four books of Dioscorides Materia Medica, Islamic science Islamic medicine Islamic scholars Saad, Bashar, Said, Omar. West Sussex, England, John Wiley & Sons, vernet, J. Ibn Al-Bayṭār Al-Mālaqī, Ḍiyāʾ Al-Dīn Abū Muḥammad ʿAbdllāh Ibn Aḥmad
Ibn al-Baitar
–
Al-Baitar
19.
Olivier de Serres
–
Olivier de Serres was a French author and soil scientist whose Théâtre dAgriculture was the textbook of French agriculture in the 17th century. Serres was born at Villeneuve-de-Berg, Ardèche and his brother, Jean de Serres, was a well-known French humanist and translated the complete works of Plato. His book was notable for its recommendation to wine growers that they plant 5-6 varieties in their vineyards to balance the risk of a failing. Le théâtre de lagriculture recommends Métayage as cash tenants took all the risks so would demand lower rent while hired labour was expensive to manage, sharecroppers administer themselves and risks are divided with the landlord. Olivier only thought large landowners should take the risk of hiring labourers, sugar beet#History Le Théâtre dAgriculture, third edition,1605 at Gallica
Olivier de Serres
–
Olivier de Serres
Olivier de Serres
–
Le theatre d'agriculture, 1608
20.
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV of France
–
1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
21.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
22.
Flower
–
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
Flower
–
A poster with flowers or clusters of flowers produced by twelve species of flowering plants from different families
Flower
–
Main parts of a mature flower (
Ranunculus glaberrimus)
Flower
–
Reproductive parts of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal
Flower
–
Left: A normal zygomorphic Streptocarpus flower. Right: An aberrant peloric Streptocarpus flower. Both of these flowers appeared on the Streptocarpus hybrid 'Anderson's Crows' Wings'.
23.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
Phosphorus
–
waxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
P 4 molecule
Phosphorus
–
White phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
Crystal structure of red phosphorus
24.
Browning (food process)
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Browning is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical reactions that take place within. The process of food browning is one of the most important reactions that take place in chemistry and represents an interesting research topic regarding health, nutrition. Though there are different ways food chemically changes over time, browning in particular falls into main 2 categories. The browning process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, browning has many important implications on the food industry relating to nutrition, technology, and economic cost. Researchers are especially interested in studying the control of browning and the different methods that can be employed to maximize this inhibition, enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood. These processes affect the taste, color, and value of such foods, generally, it is a chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and benzoquinone from natural phenols. Enzymatic browning requires exposure to oxygen and it begins with the oxidation of Phenols by Polyphenol oxidase into Quinones, whose strong electrophilic state causes high susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins. These Quinones are then polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in the formation of brown pigments on the surface of the food, the rate of enzymatic browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol oxidases present in the food. Hence most research investigating methods to inhibit enzymatic browning has focused on hindering polyphenol oxidase activity, however, not all browning of food produces negative effects. Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning, Developing color and flavor in Coffee, Cocoa beans, Developing color and flavor in dried fruit such as figs and raisins. Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning, Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas, polyphenols oxidases is the major reaction in the formation of Melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp. A variety of methods are used to prevent or slow down enzymatic browning of foods, the control of enzymatic browning has always been a challenge for the food industry. In addition, the use of chemicals to inhibit browning, such as sulfite have been reconsidered due to the hazards it causes along with its activity. Much research has been conducted regarding the types of control mechanisms that take place when confronted with these enzymatic process. The different types of enzymatic browning control can be classified different groups, low temperatures can also prevent enzymatic browning by reducing rate of reaction. Use of ascorbic acid in certain pHs to control browning of apples under certain conditions by changing their phenolase activity, different pH values affect phenolase activity of apples differently. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a process involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for the desired nutty flavor, as the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor
Browning (food process)
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Caramelization in sucrose: the brown color in the photograph is entirely a result of caramelization, as sucrose is normally colorless
Browning (food process)
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An example of enzymatic browning in the skin of a banana
Browning (food process)
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The crust of
brioche bread, which is golden-brown due to the Maillard reaction
Browning (food process)
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Aged
white wine with brown color.
25.
Aphid
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Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies, or whiteflies, are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Many species are green but other commonly occurring species may be white and wooly, brown, Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions. They are capable of rapid increase in numbers by asexual reproduction. The damage they do to plants has made enemies of farmers and gardeners around the world. From a zoological standpoint they are a successful group of organisms. About 4,400 species are known, all included in the family Aphididae, around 250 species are serious pests for agriculture and forestry as well as an annoyance for gardeners. They vary in length from 1 to 10 millimetres, Aphids are distributed worldwide, but are most common in temperate zones. In contrast to many taxa, aphid species diversity is lower in the tropics than in the temperate zones. They can migrate great distances, mainly through passive dispersal by riding on winds, for example, the currant-lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri, is believed to have spread from New Zealand to Tasmania in this way. Aphids have also spread by human transportation of infested plant materials. Aphids are in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the Sternorrhyncha division of the order Hemiptera, early 21st-century reclassifications substantially rearranged the families within Aphidoidea, some old families were reduced to subfamily rank, and many old subfamilies were elevated to family rank. The most recent authoritative classifications place all extant taxa into a large family Aphididae. Aphids, adelgids, and phylloxerids are very related, and are all within the suborder Sternorrhyncha. They are either placed in the insect superfamily Aphidoidea or into the superfamily Phylloxeroidea which contains the family Adelgidae, like aphids, phylloxera feed on the roots, leaves, and shoots of grape plants, but unlike aphids, do not produce honeydew or cornicle secretions. Phylloxera are insects which caused the great French wine blight that devastated European viticulture in the 19th century, similarly, adelgids also feed on plant phloem. Adelgids are sometimes described as aphids, but are properly classified as aphid-like insects. Most aphids have soft bodies, which may be green, black, brown, pink, Aphids have antennae with as many as six segments. They feed themselves through sucking mouthparts called stylets, enclosed in a called a rostrum
Aphid
Aphid
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The life stages of the green apple aphid (Aphis pomi)
Aphid
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Ant tending aphids
Aphid
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Ant extracting honeydew from an aphid
26.
Root maggot
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The genus Delia is part of the fly family Anthomyiidae. The genus Delia contains approximately 300–340 species worldwide, at present about 170 species are recorded from the Palaearctic region, and 162 species from the Nearctic region,44 of which are Holarctic. Afrotropical fauna includes 20 Delia species, several important agricultural pests are Delia species, including D. radicum, the cabbage maggot, D. floralis, the turnip maggot, and D. antiqua, the onion maggot. The larvae of flies, which tunnel into roots and stems of host plants. Although most members of this genus have larvae that feed on stems, flowers, and fruits of plants, the cabbage maggot has been successfully reared in colonies for research purposes. Delia platura on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website
Root maggot
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Delia
27.
Cutworm
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Cutworms are moth larvae that hide under litter or soil during the day, coming out in the dark to feed on plants. A larva typically attacks the first part of the plant it encounters, namely the stem, often of a seedling, cutworms are not worms, biologically speaking, but caterpillars. Cutworms accordingly are serious pests to gardeners in general, but to vegetable, for example, it has been suggested that in South Africa for one, Agrotis segetum is the second worst pest of maize. Note that the mode of feeding is only one version of a strategy of avoiding predators. Many other caterpillars, including Noctuidae and some kinds of caterpillars, come out at night to feed. Some, for example Klugeana philoxalis attack low-growing forbs such as Oxalis in the dark, others will climb trees such as species of Acacia nightly, leaving trails of silk, but they leave individual trails, not common trails like processionary caterpillars. The larvae of the Turnip moth, are well-known Noctuids whose larvae are very damaging cutworms, cutworms are notorious agricultural and garden pests. They are voracious leaf, bud, and stem feeders and can destroy entire plants and they get their name from their habit of cutting off a seedling at ground level by chewing through the stem. Some species are subterranean and eat roots, cutworms are usually green, brown, grey, or yellow soft-bodied caterpillars, often with longitudinal stripes, up to 1 inch in length. There are many variations among the genera, there also are variations in their biology and control, so the following extension material must be applied only as appropriate to the region. In many climates, cutworms will winter under the soil, either as final instar larvae or as pupae and this affords farmers an opportunity for control. Winter ploughing will kill many of the pests, and expose many more to predators, in suitable areas this is a powerful means of control, for example in grain fields. Starvation also can be effective when it is practical to keep weeds down before the growing season, the mash should be too crumbly and too thinly scattered to leave any lumps on the ground that domestic animals or desirable wild animals might otherwise pick up. Because cutworms attack the first part of the plant they find at night, plant collars made of aluminum, or even cardboard barriers, alternatively, a gallon planter with both ends removed may be used. Cutworms are hosts for parasitoid wasps and flies, including species of Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Tachinidae and Eulophidae
Cutworm
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The cutworm larva of the
Large Yellow Underwing (Noctua pronuba)
28.
Moth
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Moths comprise a group of insects related to butterflies, belonging to the order Lepidoptera. Most lepidopterans are moths, and there are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, most species of moth are nocturnal, but there are also crepuscular and diurnal species. While the butterflies form a group, the moths, comprising the rest of the Lepidoptera. Moth antennae can be varied in appearance, but in particular lack the club end. The divisions are named by this principle, club-antennae or varied-antennae, the modern English word moth comes from Old English moððe from Common Germanic. Moth larvae, or caterpillars, make cocoons from which emerge as fully grown moths with wings. Some moth caterpillars dig holes in the ground, where they live until they are ready to turn into adult moths, moths evolved long before butterflies, fossils having been found that may be 190 million years old. Both types of lepidoptera are thought to have evolved along with flowering plants, mainly because most modern species feed on flowering plants, one of the earliest species thought to be a moth-ancestor is Archaeolepis mane, whose fossil fragments show scaled wings similar to caddisflies in their veining. Some moths, particularly their caterpillars, can be agricultural pests in many parts of the world. Examples include corn borers and bollworms, the caterpillar of the gypsy moth causes severe damage to forests in the northeastern United States, where it is an invasive species. In temperate climates, the codling moth causes extensive damage, especially to fruit farms, in tropical and subtropical climates, the diamondback moth is perhaps the most serious pest of brassicaceous crops. Several moths in the family Tineidae are commonly regarded as pests because their larvae eat fabric such as clothes and they are less likely to eat mixed materials containing some artificial fibers. There are some reports that they may be repelled by the scent of wood from juniper and cedar, by lavender, or by natural oils, however. Naphthalene is considered effective, but there are concerns over its effects on human health. Moth larvae may be killed by freezing the items which they infest for several days at a temperature below −8 °C, despite being notorious for eating clothing, most moth adults do not eat at all. Many, like the Luna, Polyphemus, Atlas, Promethea, cecropia, among those adult moths that do eat, they will drink nectar. Some moths are farmed for their economic value, the most notable of these is the silkworm, the larva of the domesticated moth Bombyx mori. It is farmed for the silk with which it builds its cocoon, as of 2002, the silk industry produces more than 130 million kilograms of raw silk, worth about 250 million U. S. dollars, each year
Moth
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Moth
Moth
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Poplar hawk-moth caterpillar
Laothoe populi.
Moth
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An adult male pine processionary moth (
Thaumetopoea pityocampa). This species is a serious forest pest when in larval state. Notice the bristle springing from the underside of the hindwing (
frenulum) and running forward to be held in a small catch of the forewing, whose function is to link the wings together.
Moth
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Tomato Hornworm parasitized by
braconid wasps
29.
Flea beetle
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Flea beetle is a general name applied to the small, jumping beetles of the leaf beetle family. They make up the tribe Alticini, which is a part of the subfamily Galerucinae, though most tribes of the Galerucinae are suspect of rampant paraphyly in the present delimitation, the Alticini seem to form a good clade at least for the most part. The adults are small to moderately sized Chrysomelidae. They are similar to other beetles, but characteristically have the hindleg femora greatly enlarged. These enlarged femora allow for the action of these insects when disturbed. Flea beetles can also walk normally and fly, many flea beetles are attractively colored, dark, shiny and often metallic colors predominate. Adult flea beetles feed externally on plants, eating the surface of the leaves, stems, under heavy feeding the small round holes caused by an individual flea beetles feeding may coalesce into larger areas of damage. Some flea beetle larvae are root feeders, in adverse weather conditions some flea beetles seek shelter in the soil. Some species, such as Phyllotreta cruciferae and P. striolata, prefer to leave their hideouts only during warm, the German name Erdflöhe refers to their jumping ability and this behavior of hiding in the soil. Flea beetles may be beneficial or may be pests, depending on the species, many major agricultural crops are attacked by flea beetles, including various cruciferous plants such as mustard and rapeseed. Numerous garden plants are subject to flea beetle feeding, such as flowers of Gardenia and Rothmannia by Altica species. Flea beetles execute their most severe attacks during dry weather and are most active on sunny days, the larvae are known to chew roots. Flea beetles can be deterred by a number of different companion plants, since the root isnt harmed by the beetles, they remain useful, themselves. A number of predators can be employed to keep flea beetles in check. In both cases, the larval stage feeds on the beetle, while the adults feed on nectar and pollen. Other flea beetle species are beneficial, feeding on weeds and similar nuisance plants, a few species have even been introduced to various locations as biological control agents against some weeds. One important example is in the control of Leafy Spurge, a weed in the United States. It has a toxic latex and is avoided by herbivores
Flea beetle
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Flea beetles
Flea beetle
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Altica lythri. Note thick hindleg femora.
Flea beetle
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Apteropeda orbiculata
Flea beetle
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Argopistes coccinelliformis amid feeding damage on
Osmanthus × fortunei
People's Republic of China
India
United States
Spain
Mexico
Italy
. PMID 24987290. doi:10.1270/jsbbs.64.48.
