1.
Chicory
–
Common chicory, Cichorium intybus, is a somewhat woody, perennial herbaceous plant of the dandelion family Asteraceae, usually with bright blue flowers, rarely white or pink. Many varieties are cultivated for salad leaves, chicons, or roots, which are baked, ground and it is also grown as a forage crop for livestock. It lives as a plant on roadsides in its native Europe, and is now common in North America, China, and Australia. Chicory is also the name in the United States for curly endive. Common names for varieties of var. foliosum include endive, radicchio, radichetta, Belgian endive, French endive, red endive, sugarloaf, when flowering, chicory has a tough, grooved, and more or less hairy stem, from 30 to 100 cm tall. The leaves are stalked, lanceolate and unlobed, the flower heads are 2 to 4 cm wide, and usually bright blue, rarely white or pink. Of the two rows of bracts, the inner is longer and erect, the outer is shorter. It flowers from July until October, the achenes have no pappus, but do have toothed scales on top. Wild chicory leaves usually have a bitter taste and their bitterness is appreciated in certain cuisines, such as in the Ligurian and Apulian regions of Italy and also in southern part of India along with coffee, in Catalonia, Greece, and Turkey. In Albania, the leaves are used as a substitute, mainly served simmered and marinated in olive oil. By cooking and discarding the water, the bitterness is reduced, after which the leaves may be sautéed with garlic, anchovies. In this form, the resulting greens might be combined with pasta or accompany meat dishes, Chicory may be cultivated for its leaves, usually eaten raw as salad leaves. Cultivated chicory is generally divided into three types, of which there are many varieties, Radicchio usually has variegated red or red, some only refer to the white-veined red-leaved type as radicchio, also known as red endive and red chicory. It has a bitter and spicy taste, which mellows when it is grilled or roasted and it can also be used to add color and zest to salads. It is largely used in Italy in different varieties, the most famous being the ones from Treviso, from Verona, and Chioggia and it is also common in Greece. Sugarloaf looks rather like cos lettuce, with tightly packed leaves and it has a small head of cream-coloured, bitter leaves. It is grown completely underground or indoors in the absence of sunlight to prevent the leaves from turning green, the plant has to be kept just below the soil surface as it grows, only showing the very tip of the leaves. It is often wrapped in blue paper to protect it from light, so to preserve its pale colour
2.
Cornflowers (painting)
–
Cornflowers is a painting by the Russian artist Sergei Ivanovich Osipov, executed in 1976 and related to his most famous works in the genre of still life. Still life «Cornflowers» is a composition of the three items easily located on the surface of a table. This allowed the artist to effectively determine their shape, texture, in this work, Osipov certainly reaches a new quality of his painting. Polished surface of the table from which the artist took off the cloth, discovers interesting new features, the traditional for the Osipov art theme of «spiritual sources» disclosed in painting with a special grace and taste. One of the first in the Russian Soviet Painting of 1960-1980 Sergei Osipov was able to raise a great theme in the genre of still life and make it close and understandable to every viewer. In this picture fully revealed high artistic culture that distinguishes his work, with a kind of deeply honest, clean person deep relationship to the means of expression». For the first time the painting was exhibited in 1980 year in Leningrad at the largest Regional Art Show in the Manezh City Exhibition Hall, then in 1983 still-life has been shown in Moscow at the Osipov one man exhibition and reproduced in the exhibition catalog. The article wrote the art critics Alexander Lyakhovitsky and Svetlana Makhlina. After Osipov death the painting was shown on his solo exhibition in 1991 at the Exhibition Halls of the Leningrad Union of Artists, in 1997 the painting was exhibited at the «The Still-life painting of 1940-1990s. The Leningrad School» Art Show in Saint Petersburg in the Nikolai Nekrasov Memorial Museum, the painting was reproduced and described in the Art Show official catalog and poster. In 2007 the «Cornflowers» was reproduced and described among 350 art works by Leningrad artists in the book «Unknown Socialist Realism, the Leningrad School», published in Russian and English. In 2011 the painting «Cornflowers» was described in article devoted to the 20th Anniversary of Sergei Osipov one man exhibition of 1991, artist Sergei Osipov House with Arch Leningrad School of Painting Artists Arseny N. Semionov, Sergei I. Regional Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists of 1980, directory of members of the Leningrad branch of Union of Artists of Russian Federation. — Saint Petersburg, Nikolai Nekrasov Memorial museum,1997, dictionary of 20th Century Russian and Soviet Painters 1900-1980s. The Leningrad School. - Saint Petersburg, NP-Print Edition,2007, Artists of the Leningrad Union of Soviet artists, who were killed during the Great Patriotic War and the Siege of Leningrad. Размышления о выставке Сергея Осипова. //Петербургские искусствоведческие тетради,60 Лет кафедре общей живописи Санкт-Петербургской государственной художественно-промышленной академии имени А. Тихая жизнь за ленинградским столом // Петербургские искусствоведческие тетради, Painting «Cornflowers» on the site «Unknown Socialist Realism. Painting «Cornflowers» in the Book «Unknown Socialist Realism, a Still life at the Leningrad table Sergei V. Ivanov
3.
Cornflower blue
–
Cornflower blue is a shade of medium-to-light blue containing relatively little green compared to blue. This hue was one of the favorites of the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer, the most valuable blue sapphires are called cornflower blue, having a medium-dark violet-blue tone. Robert Boyle reported a blue dye produced from the cornflower and this was also called Boyles Blue and Cyan Blue. This dye color however, was not widely commercialized, cornflower blue is a defined color in the X Window color scheme. As such, it is a color available as a color for webpages. CornFlowerBlue is an HTML color name, its code is #6495ED. Cornflower blue is a Crayola color and it was originally introduced in 1958, in the box of 48 crayons. Cornflower blue is the clear color used in the XNA framework. Chuck Palahniuk mentions the color at least once in one of his novels. The color also appears in the adaptation of Palahniuks Fight Club. He was wearing his cornflower-blue tie, in a separate scene the Narrators supervisor asks, Can I get the icon in cornflower-blue. In Sara Gruens novel Water for Elephants Jacob Jankowski dreams about his standing in the yard in a cornflower blue dress hanging laundry. In season 8, episode 1 of How I Met Your Mother, Barney Stinson refers to a blue tie. On page 62 of Raymond Chandlers novel The Long Goodbye Phillip Marlowe describes Eileen Wade with cornflower blue eyes, in episode 6x09 of TV show NCIS, Los Angeles Deeks tells Kensi that her favourite color is cornflower blue. In Agatha Christies murder mystery After The Funeral, Mrs. Helen Leo is described as having eyes that had once been likened to cornflowers
4.
Malala Yousafzai
–
Malala Yousafzai is a Pakistani activist for female education and the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate. Her advocacy has since grown into an international movement, Yousafzai was born in Swat District, Pakistan. Her family came to run a chain of schools in the region, in early 2009, when she was 11–12, she wrote a blog under a pseudonym for the BBC Urdu detailing her life during the Taliban occupation of Swat. The following summer, journalist Adam B, ellick made a New York Times documentary about her life as the Pakistani military intervened in the region. She rose in prominence, giving interviews in print and on television, on the afternoon of 9 October 2012, Yousafzai was injured after a Taliban gunman attempted to murder her. The murder attempt sparked a national and international outpouring of support for Yousafzai, deutsche Welle wrote in January 2013 that she may have become the most famous teenager in the world. Weeks after her attempt, a group of fifty leading Muslim clerics in Pakistan issued a fatwā against those who tried to kill her. Since recovering, Yousafzai became a prominent education activist, based out of Birmingham, she founded the Malala Fund, a non-profit and in 2013 co-authored a I am Malala, an international bestseller. In 2015, Yousafzai was a subject of the Oscar-shortlisted documentary He Named Me Malala, the 2013,2014 and 2015 issues of Time magazine featured her as one of the most Influential people globally. In 2012, she was the recipient of Pakistans first National Youth Peace Prize, aged 17 at the time, she became the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate. Since March 2013, she has been a pupil at the all-girls Edgbaston High School in Birmingham, Yousafzai was born on 12 July,1997 in the Swat District of Pakistans northwestern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province to Ziauddin Yousafzai and Tor Pekai Yousafzai. Her family is a Sunni Muslim family of Pashtun ethnicity and she was given her first name Malala after Malalai of Maiwand, a famous Pashtun poet and warrior woman from southern Afghanistan. Her last name, Yousafzai, is that of a large Pashtun tribal confederation that is predominant in Pakistans Swat Valley, where she grew up. At her house in Mingora, she lived with her two brothers, Khushal and Atal, her parents, Ziauddin and Tor Pekai. She once stated to an interviewer that she would like to become a doctor, Ziauddin referred to his daughter as something entirely special, allowing her to stay up at night and talk about politics after her two brothers had been sent to bed. Yousafzai started speaking about education rights as early as September 2008, how dare the Taliban take away my basic right to education. Yousafzai asked her audience in a covered by newspapers and television channels throughout the region. In late 2008, Aamer Ahmed Khan of the BBC Urdu website and they decided to ask a schoolgirl to blog anonymously about her life there
5.
Peshastin, Washington
–
Peshastin is a small unincorporated community in Chelan County, Washington, United States. The communitys roots are found in the Peshastin Ditch dug by pioneers beginning in 1889 and this ditch was an important part of the overall irrigation system in the area, delivering water to the orchards on the slopes above Cashmere. The town was first platted in the early 1890s by two brothers, J. Q. Gilbert and A. C and it is also noted on an 1895 map of the area, indicating it was in existence by then. Today, Peshastin is still a community with one elementary school
6.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
7.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
8.
Flowering plant
–
The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
9.
Eudicots
–
The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
10.
Asterids
–
In the APG IV system for the classification of flowering plants, the name asterids denotes a clade. Most of the taxa belonging to this clade had been referred to the Asteridae in the Cronquist system, the name asterids resembles the earlier botanical name but is intended to be the name of a clade rather than a formal ranked name, in the sense of the ICBN. The phylogenetic tree presented hereafter has been proposed by the APG IV project, genetic analysis carried out after APG II maintains that the sister to all other asterids are the Cornales. A second order that split from the base of the asterids are the Ericales, the remaining orders cluster into two clades, the lamiids and the campanulids. The structure of both of these clades has changed in APG III, in APG III system, the following clades were renamed, euasterids I → lamiids euasterids II → campanulids Asterids in Stevens, P. F. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
11.
Asterales
–
The order is a cosmopolite, and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees and shrubs are also present. Asterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common ancestor, Asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels. Synapomorphies include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin, a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch, under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, Asteraceae was the only family in the group, but newer systems have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Asterales were in the superorder Asteriflorae, the order Asterales currently includes 11 families, the largest of which are the Asteraceae, with about 25,000 species, and the Campanulaceae, with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species, the phylogenetic tree according to APG III for the Campanulid clade is as below. The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae, APA clade, MGCA clade, other Asterales are Rousseaceae, Campanulaceae and Pentaphragmataceae. All Asterales families are represented in the Southern Hemisphere, however, Asteraceae and Campanulaceae are cosmopolitan, less can be said about the Asterales themselves with certainty, although since several families in Asterales contain trees, the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub. Because all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere, Asterales are angiosperms, flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago. Asterales contain about 14% of eudicot diversity, however few fossils have been found, of the Menyanthaceae-Asteraceae clade in the Oligocene, about 29 Mya. Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs, an Oligocene pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and Miocene are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively. The Asterales, by dint of being a super-set of the family Asteraceae, include some species grown for food, including the sunflower, lettuce, many are also used as spices and traditional medicines. Asterales are common plants and have many known uses, for example, pyrethrum is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact. Wormwood, derived from a genus that includes the sagebrush, is used as a source of flavoring for absinthe, despite the large number of species in order Asterales, they do not compare in economic benefit for mankind to the Poales or to the Fabaceae. The Asteraceae include many plant species in North America. W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, plant Systematics, A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. In, Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Asterales - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Dictionary and Thesaurus - Merriam-Webster Online
12.
Asteraceae
–
Asteraceae or Compositae is a very large and widespread family of flowering plants. The family currently has 32,913 accepted species names, in 1,911 genera and 13 subfamilies, in terms of numbers of species, the Asteraceae are rivaled only by the Orchidaceae. Many members have composite flowers in the form of flower heads surrounded by involucral bracts, when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may have the appearance of being a single flower. The name Asteraceae comes from the type genus Aster, from the Greek ἀστήρ, meaning star, Compositae is an older but still valid name which refers to the fact that the family is one of the few angiosperm ones to have composite flowers. Most members of Asteraceae are herbaceous, but a significant number are also shrubs, vines, the family has a worldwide distribution, from the polar regions to the tropics, colonizing a wide variety of habitats. It is most common in the arid and semiarid regions of subtropical, the Asteraceae may represent as much as 10% of autochthonous flora in many regions of the world. Asteraceae is an important family, providing products such as cooking oils, lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes. Several genera are of importance, including pot marigold, Calendula officinalis, Echinacea, various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias. Asteraceae are important in medicine, including Grindelia, yarrow. A number of species are considered invasive, including, most notably in North America, dandelion, the name Asteraceae comes to international scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from Aster, the type genus, + -aceae, a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word aster, star, Compositae, an older but still valid name, means composite and refers to the characteristic inflorescence, a special type of pseudanthium found in only a few other angiosperm families. The study of family is known as synantherology. The vernacular name daisy, widely applied to members of family, is derived from its Old English name, dægesege, from dæges eage. This is because the open at dawn and close at dusk. Composite flowers have a distribution, and are found everywhere except Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions, Compositae were first described in 1792 by the German botanist Paul Dietrich Giseke. Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised, Asteroideae and Cichorioideae, the latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands. The phylogenetic tree presented below is based on Panero & Funk updated in 2014, the diamond denotes a very poorly supported node, the dot a poorly supported node
13.
Cynareae
–
The Cynareae are a tribe of flowering plants in the daisy family. Most of them are known as thistles, four of the best known genera are Carduus, Cynara, Cirsium. They are annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, many species are thorny on leaves, stems, or involucre, and some have laticifers or resin conduits. Almost 80 genera with 2500 species are assigned to this tribe, native of tempered regions of Europe and Asia, some of Australia and tropical Africa, cardueae is a synonym for Cynareae, but the name Cynareae was published almost a decade earlier, so has precedence. Some authors have divided the traditionally held to be in this tribe into three tribes, Cynareae in the narrow sense, Carlineae, and Echinopeae. However, other authors have retained the traditional broader classification
14.
Centaurea
–
For the race horse, see Australasian Oaks or Storm Queen Stakes. Basket flower and spelling variants redirect here, in Australia, this usually means the unrelated plant Adenanthos obovatus. Centaurea is a genus of between 350 and 600 species of herbaceous flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous bluets, the Plectocephalus group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. Cornflowers is used for a few species, but that more often specifically means C. cyanus. The common name centaury is sometimes used, although this refers to the unrelated plant genus Centaurium. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants lower part. The flowers are diverse in colour, ranging from blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these. Often, the flowers are much darker or lighter than the ray flowers. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly bracts, many species, in particular those inhabiting more arid regions, have a long and strong taproot. Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, the common knapweed for example is plentiful in the mesotrophic grasslands of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by cocks-foot as well as either of crested dogs-tail and false oat-grass. It is also found in mesotrophic grassland on rendzinas and similar calcareous soils in association with glaucous sedge, sheeps fescue. In these grasslands, greater knapweed is found more rarely by comparison, often in association with red fescue in addition to cocks-foot. Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many Centaurea species can become invasive weeds in regions where they are not native, in parts of North America, diffuse knapweed, spotted knapweed and yellow starthistle cause severe problems in agriculture due to their uncontrolled spread. The seeds are transported by human traffic, in particular the tires of all-terrain vehicles. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly allelopathic, producing powerful toxins in their roots that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this
15.
Binomial nomenclature
–
Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
16.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
17.
Weed
–
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, a plant in the wrong place. Examples commonly are plants unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as fields, gardens, lawns. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are grown in gardens and other cultivated settings. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, certain classes of weeds share adaptations to ruderal environments. The nature of the habitat and its disturbances will affect or even determine which types of weed communities become dominant. In contrast, perennial weeds often have underground stems that spread under the surface or, like ground ivy, have creeping stems that root. In locations where predation and mutually competitive relationships are absent, weeds have increased resources available for growth and these chemicals may limit the growth of established plants or the germination and growth of seeds and seedlings. A number of native or non-native plants are unwanted in a location for a number of reasons. An important one is that they interfere with food and fiber production in agriculture, other important reasons are that they interfere with other cosmetic, decorative, or recreational goals, such as in lawns, landscape architecture, playing fields, and golf courses. Similarly, they can be of concern for environmental reasons whereby introduced species out-compete for resources or space with desired endemic plants, in weed ecology some authorities speak of the relationship between the three Ps, plant, place, perception. These have been variously defined, but the weed traits listed by H. G. Baker are widely cited. Weeds have long been a concern, perhaps as long as humans have cultivated plants, and the Bible, Cursed is the ground because of you, through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, While the term weed generally has a negative connotation, many plants known as weeds can have beneficial properties. A number of weeds, such as the dandelion and lambs quarter, are edible, burdock is common over much of the world, and is sometimes used to make soup and medicine in East Asia. Some weeds attract beneficial insects, which in turn can protect crops from harmful pests, Weeds can also prevent pest insects from finding a crop, because their presence disrupts the incidence of positive cues which pests use to locate their food. Weeds may also act as a mulch, providing ground cover that reduces moisture loss
18.
Grain
–
Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
19.
Endangered species
–
An endangered species is a species which has been categorized as likely to become extinct. In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3079 animal and 2655 plant species as endangered worldwide, the figures for 1998 were, respectively,1102 and 1197. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species, for example, population numbers, trends and species conservation status can be found in the lists of organisms by population. The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Over 40% of the species are estimated to be at risk of extinction. Internationally,199 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered, in the United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans. Those species of Near Threatened and Least Concern status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. The IUCN categories, with examples of animals classified by them, include, Extinct Extinct in the wild Captive individuals survive, critically endangered Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Endangered Faces a high risk of extinction in the near future, vulnerable Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. Near-threatened May be considered threatened in the near future, Least concern No immediate threat to species survival. A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on any of to under A1. E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, there is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, species may be listed as endangered or threatened, the Salt Creek tiger beetle is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. Some endangered species laws are controversial, also lobbying from hunters and various industries like the petroleum industry, construction industry, and logging, has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws. The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult an expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the Obama administration, this policy has been reinstated, being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers. This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species. Another problem with the species is its effect of inciting the use of the shoot, shovel
20.
Agriculture
–
Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
21.
Herbicide
–
Herbicide, also commonly known as weedkillers, are chemical substances used to control unwanted plants. Apart from selective/non-selective, other important distinctions include persistence, means of uptake, Herbicides have also been used in warfare and conflict. Modern herbicides are often mimics of natural plant hormones which interfere with growth of the target plants. The term organic herbicide has come to mean herbicides intended for organic farming, due to herbicide resistance - a major concern in agriculture - a number of products also combine herbicides with different means of action. In the US in 2007, about 83% of all herbicide usage, in 2007, world pesticide expenditures totaled about $39.4 billion, herbicides were about 40% of those sales and constituted the biggest portion, followed by insecticides, fungicides, and other types. Smaller quantities are used in forestry, pasture systems, and management of areas set aside as wildlife habitat, prior to the widespread use of chemical herbicides, cultural controls, such as altering soil pH, salinity, or fertility levels, were used to control weeds. Mechanical control was used to control weeds. The first modern herbicide,2, 4-D, was first discovered and synthesized by W. G. Templeman at Imperial Chemical Industries, in 1940, he showed that Growth substances applied appropriately would kill certain broad-leaved weeds in cereals without harming the crops. By 1941, his team succeeded in synthesizing the chemical, in the same year, Pokorny in the US achieved this as well. Independently, a team under Juda Hirsch Quastel, working at the Rothamsted Experimental Station made the same discovery, Quastel was tasked by the Agricultural Research Council to discover methods for improving crop yield. By analyzing soil as a system, rather than an inert substance. Quastel was able to quantify the influence of plant hormones, inhibitors and other chemicals on the activity of microorganisms in the soil. While the full work of the unit remained secret, certain discoveries were developed for use after the war, including the 2. When it was released in 1946, it triggered a worldwide revolution in agricultural output. It allowed for greatly enhanced weed control in wheat, maize, rice, and similar cereal crops, because it kills dicots. The low cost of 2, 4-D has led to continued usage today, like other acid herbicides, current formulations use either an amine salt or one of many esters of the parent compound. These are easier to handle than the acid, atrazine does not break down readily after being applied to soils of above neutral pH. Under alkaline soil conditions, atrazine may be carried into the profile as far as the water table by soil water following rainfall causing the aforementioned contamination
22.
Ornamental plant
–
Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decorative purposes in gardens and landscape design projects, as houseplants, for cut flowers and specimen display. The cultivation of these, called floriculture, forms a branch of horticulture. Commonly, ornamental plants are grown for the display of aesthetic features including, leaves, scent, overall foliage texture, fruit, stem and bark, and aesthetic form. In some cases, unusual features may be considered to be of interest, such as the prominent thorns of Rosa sericea, in all cases, their purpose is for the enjoyment of gardeners, visitors, and the public institutions. Similarly certain trees may be called ornamental trees and this term is used when they are used as part of a garden, park, or landscape setting, for instance for their flowers, their texture, form, size and shape, and other aesthetic characteristics. In some countries trees in utilitarian landscape use such as screening, for plants to be considered to be ornamental, they may require specific work and activity by a gardener. Ornamental plants and trees are distinguished from utilitarian and crop plants, such as used for agriculture and vegetable crops. This does not preclude any type of plant being grown both for ornamental qualities in the garden, and for utilitarian purposes in other settings. Thus lavender is typically grown as a plant in gardens. The term ornamental plant is used here in the sense that it is generally used in the horticultural trades. The term largely corresponds to garden plant, though the latter is less precise. Ornamental plants are plants which are grown for display purposes, rather than functional ones, Ornamental plants are the keystone of ornamental gardening, and they come in a range of shapes, sizes and colors suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. Some ornamental plants are grown for showy foliage and their foliage may be deciduous, turning bright orange, red, and yellow before dropping off in the fall, or evergreen, in which case it stays green year-round. Other ornamental plants are cultivated for their blooms, flowering ornamentals are a key aspect of many gardens, with many flower gardeners preferring to plant a variety of flowers so that the garden is continuously in flower through the spring and summer. Media related to Ornamental plants at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Annual plant
–
An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seed, within one year, and then dies. Summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same year, winter annuals germinate during the autumn and mature during the spring or summer of the following calendar year. One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, oilseed rapa can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps. This style of growing is used in classrooms for education. Many desert annuals are therophytes, because their life cycle is only weeks. In cultivation, many plants are, or are grown as, annuals. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals, ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens, wax begonia, snapdragon, Pelargonium, coleus and petunia. Examples of true annuals include corn, wheat, rice, lettuce, peas, watermelon, beans, zinnia, summer annuals sprout, flower, produce seed, and die, during the warmer months of the year. The lawn weed crabgrass is a summer annual, winter annuals germinate in autumn or winter, live through the winter, then bloom in winter or spring. The plants grow and bloom during the season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate. Winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed, the seeds germinate in the autumn or winter when the soil temperature is cool. Winter annuals typically grow low to the ground, where they are sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover. Some common winter annuals include henbit, deadnettle, chickweed, ironically, the property that they prevent the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture. In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to the conversion into a perennial plant, researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, which control flowering time. This switch established phenotypes common in plants, such as wood formation
24.
Inflorescence
–
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed. Inflorescence can also be defined as the portion of a plant that bears a cluster of flowers in a specific pattern. The stem holding the whole inflorescence is called a peduncle and the major axis holding the flowers or more branches within the inflorescence is called the rachis, the stalk of each single flower is called a pedicel. A flower that is not part of an inflorescence is called a solitary flower, any flower in an inflorescence may be referred to as a floret, especially when the individual flowers are particularly small and borne in a tight cluster, such as in a pseudanthium. The fruiting stage of an inflorescence is known as an infructescence, inflorescences may be simple or complex. The rachis may be one of several types, including Single, Composite, Umbel and these terms are general representations as plants in nature can have a combination of types. Inflorescences usually have modified shoots foliage different from the part of the plant. Considering the broadest meaning of the term, any leaf associated with an inflorescence is called a bract. A bract is usually located at the node where the stem of the inflorescence forms, joined to the main stem of the plant. They serve a variety of functions which include attracting pollinators and protecting young flowers, according to the presence or absence of bracts and their characteristics we can distinguish, Ebracteate inflorescences, No bracts in the inflorescence. Bracteate inflorescences, The bracts in the inflorescence are very specialised, sometimes reduced to small scales and this use is not technically correct, as, despite their normal appearance, these leaves are considered, in fact, bracts, so that leafy inflorescence is preferable. Leafy-bracted inflorescences, Intermediate between bracteate and leafy inflorescence, if many bracts are present and they are strictly connected to the stem, like in the family Asteraceae, the bracts might collectively be called an involucre. If the inflorescence has a unit of bracts further up the stem. Plant organs can grow according to two different schemes, namely monopodial or racemose and sympodial or cymose, the terminal bud keeps growing and forming lateral flowers. A terminal flower is never formed, the terminal bud forms a terminal flower and then dies out. Other flowers then grow from lateral buds, indeterminate and determinate inflorescences are sometimes referred to as open and closed inflorescences respectively. In an indeterminate inflorescence there is no true terminal flower and the stem usually has a rudimentary end, in many cases the last true flower formed by the terminal bud straightens up, appearing to be a terminal flower
25.
Floret
–
This glossary is incomplete, you can help by expanding it, you can also help by adding illustrations that assist an understanding of the terms. Ab- A prefix meaning from, away from, or outside of, abaxial The surface of an organ facing away from the axis, e. g. the lower surface of a lateral organ such as a leaf or petal. Abort To abandon development of a structure or organ, abscission shedding of an organ that is mature or aged, e. g. a ripe fruit or an old leaf. Abscission zone a specialised layer of tissue formed, for example, acaulescent An adjective descriptive of a plant that has no apparent stem, or at least none visible above ground. Examples include some species of Agave, Oxalis and Attalea, accrescent Increasing in size with age, such as a calyx that continues to grow after the corolla has fallen, for example in Physalis peruviana. -aceae The suffix added to the stem of a name to form the name of a family. Achene A dry 1-seeded indehiscent fruit, e. g. in the genus Ranunculus, acropetal Moving from roots to leaves, e. g. of molecular signals in plants. Acrophyll The regular leaves of a plant, produced above the base. Acrostichoid covering the entire surface of the frond, usually densely so. Actino- A prefix that indicates a radial form, actinodromous palmate or radially arranged venation with three or more primary veins arising from at or near the base of the leaf, the primary veins reaching the margin or not. Actinomorphic regular, radially symmetrical, may be bisected into similar halves in at least two planes. Applies e. g. to steles and flowers in which the segments within each whorl are alike in size and shape, compare regular, contrast with asymmetrical, irregular. Aculeate Armed with prickles, e. g. the stem of a rose, acuminate Tapering gradually to a point. Acute Sharply pointed, converging edges making an angle of less than 90°, ad- A prefix meaning near or towards. Adaxial The surface of an organ facing towards the axis, e. g. the upper surface of an organ such as a leaf or petal. Adnate grown or fused to an organ of a different kind, especially along a margin, e. g. a stamen fused to a petal, cf. connate. Adventitious A structure produced in a position, e. g. an adventitious bud produced from a stem rather than from the axil of a leaf. Aerial Of the air, growing or borne above the surface of the ground, aestivation The arrangement of sepals and petals or their lobes in an unexpanded flower bud, cf. vernation, the arrangement of leaves in a bud. aff
26.
Honey bee
–
A honey bee is any bee member of the genus Apis, primarily distinguished by the production and storage of honey and the construction of perennial, colonial nests from wax. Currently, only seven species of bee are recognized, with a total of 44 subspecies, though historically. The best known honey bee is the Western honey bee which has been domesticated for honey production, Honey bees represent only a small fraction of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, including the stingless honey bees, the study of bees including honey bees is known as melittology. The genus name Apis is Latin for bee, nonetheless, compounds gradually solidify in the orthography of natural languages in ways that do not always comply with prescription. Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast Asia, notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge have their center of origin there. The first Apis bees appear in the record at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary. The origin of these prehistoric honey bees does not necessarily indicate Europe as the place of origin of the genus, few fossil deposits are known from South Asia, the suspected region of honey bee origin, and fewer still have been thoroughly studied. No Apis species existed in the New World during human times before the introduction of A. mellifera by Europeans, only one fossil species is documented from the New World, Apis nearctica, known from a single 14-million-year-old specimen from Nevada. The close relatives of modern honey bees – e. g. bumblebees and stingless bees – are also social to some degree, most species have historically been cultured or at least exploited for honey and beeswax by humans indigenous to their native ranges. Only two of these species have been domesticated, one at least since the time of the building of the Egyptian pyramids. Honey bees are the extant members of the tribe Apini. Todays honey bees constitute three clades, the chromosome counts of female bees for the three clades are, Micrapis 2N =16, Megapis 2N =16, and Apis 2N =32. Drones of all species have 1N chromosome counts, the genome of Apis has been mapped. Drones are produced from unfertilized eggs, so represent only the DNA of the queen that laid the eggs, workers and queens result from fertilized eggs, so have both a mother and a father. Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, a form of parthenogenesis, controls sex differentiation. The sex allele is polymorphic, and so long as two different variants are present, a female bee results, if both sex alleles are identical, diploid drones are produced. Honey bees detect and destroy diploid drones after the eggs hatch, queens typically mate with multiple drones on more than one mating flight
27.
Temperate climate
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
28.
Iron Age
–
The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
29.
Plantlife
–
Plantlife is a wild plant conservation charity. As of 2007, it owned 23 nature reserves around the United Kingdom and it was founded in 1989 with its first President who was a Professor namely David Bellamy. By 1999 it had 22 nature reserves and its patron is HRH the Prince of Wales, its president is Philip Mould OBE and its chairman is Peter Ainsworth. English gardener and television presenter Rachel De Thame is their vice-president, the chief executive is Marian Spain, who took over from Victoria Chester in 2014. Plantlife helps run an annual National Plant Monitoring Survey, and a species conservation programme. It is a partner of HRH the Prince of Wales Coronation Meadows project. Although much of Plantlifes work is centred on plants, it is involved in the conservation of fungi. Its work in area includes surveying waxcap grasslands and publishing a strategy for conserving fungi in the UK. The group also has a programme which includes projects on medicinal plant conservation and sustainable use in the Himalayas. The general public was invited to vote for the bloom they felt most represented their county, the list was declared in 2004. Although sometimes contested, all have, to date, stuck, the one exception was the county flower of Norfolk, originally Alexanders won the vote. However, a campaign led by the Eastern Daily Press was successful in requesting a change to the poppy, Plantlifes Back from the Brink programme was initiated in 1991. Its intention was to focus efforts on some of the rarest plant species in Britain. It initially concentrated on vascular plants but was extended to lower plants. As of 2006,101 species are covered by the programme, since 2008 the programme has gradually expanded to include a much larger list of species, this is in response to the publication of both the UK Red List and UK Biodiversity Action Plan. To effectively deliver conservation of an expanding list of rare species the work will be directed at habitats. In 2007, Plantlife announced the establishment of 150 Important Plant Areas across the UK and these areas were nominated for their internationally important wild plant populations. Plantlifes international team has had success in spreading the concept abroad
30.
County Clare
–
County Clare is a county in Ireland, in the Mid-West Region and the province of Munster. Clare County Council is the local authority, the county had a population of 117,196 at the 2011 census. Clare is north-west of the River Shannon covering an area of 3,400 square kilometres. Clare was founded by the noble Luke Fitzgerald, A knight of Internal Audit, Clare is the 7th largest of Irelands 32 traditional counties in area and the 19th largest in terms of population. It is bordered by two counties in Munster and one county in Connacht, County Limerick to the south, County Tipperary to the east, clares nickname is the Banner County. The county is divided into the baronies of Bunratty Lower, Bunratty Upper, Burren, Clonderalaw, Corcomroe, Ibrickan, Inchiquin, Islands, Moyarta, Tulla Lower and these in turn are divided into civil parishes, which are divided into townlands. These divisions are cadastral, defining land boundaries and ownership, rather than administrative, bodies of water define much of the physical boundaries of Clare. To the southeast is the River Shannon, Irelands longest river, the border to the northeast is defined by Lough Derg which is the third largest lake on Ireland. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the north is Galway Bay, County Clare contains The Burren, a unique karst region, which contains rare flowers and fauna. At the western edge of The Burren, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are the Cliffs of Moher, the highest point in County Clare is Moylussa,532 m, in the Slieve Bernagh range in the east of the county. Clare is one of the richest places for these tombs in Ireland, the most noted one is in The Burren area, it is known as Poulnabrone dolmen which translates to hole of sorrows. The remains of the people inside the tomb have been excavated and dated to 3800 BC, Ptolemy created a map of Ireland in his Geographia with information dating from 100 AD, it is the oldest written account of the island with geographical features. Within his map Ptolemy names the Gaelic tribes inhabiting it and the areas in which they resided and it was renamed Thomond, meaning North Munster and spawned Brian Boru during this period, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland. From 1118 onwards the Kingdom of Thomond was in place as its own petty kingdom, after the Norman invasion of Ireland, Thomas de Clare established a short-lived Norman lordship of Thomond, extinguished at the Battle of Dysert ODea in 1318 during Edward Bruces invasion. There are two hypotheses for the origins of the county name Clare. One hypothesis is that the name is derived from Thomas_de_Clare, _Lord_of_Thomond who was embroiled in local politics. An alternative hypothesis is that the county name Clare comes from the settlement of Clare whose Irish name Clár refers to a crossing over the River Fergus. In 1543, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, Murrough OBrien by surrender, Henry Sidney as Lord Deputy of Ireland responded the Desmond Rebellion by creating the presidency of Connaught in 1569 and presidency of Munster in 1570
31.
Vice-county
–
A vice-county is a geographical division of the British Isles used for the purposes of biological recording and other scientific data-gathering. In 1901 Robert Lloyd Praeger introduced a system for Ireland. Vice-counties are the geographical area for county based recording. This allows data collected over long periods of time to be compared easily, the vice-counties remain unchanged by subsequent local government reorganisations, allowing historical and modern data to be more accurately compared. The resulting datafiles were much more detailed than anything available to recorders up to that point. Intended for use with modern GIS and biological recording software, a standard version was released in 2008. Up until that point, county recorders only had access to a set of two fold-out vice-county maps covering the entirety of Great Britain, published in 1969. The vice-county system was first introduced by Hewett Cottrell Watson in the volume of his Cybele Britannica published in 1852. He refined the system in later volumes, the geographical area that Watson called Britain consisted of the island of Great Britain with all of its offshore islands, plus the Isle of Man, but excluding the Channel Islands. This area was divided into 112 vice-counties with larger counties divided, for example, Devon into the vice-counties of North Devon and South Devon, each of these 112 vice-counties has a name and a number. Thus Vice-county 38, often abbreviated to VC38, is called Warwickshire, in 1901, Robert Lloyd Praeger extended the system of vice-counties to Ireland and its off-shore islands, based on an earlier suggestion by C. C. The Irish vice-counties were based on the historic 32 counties of Ireland, with the six largest being sub-divided, for example and this produced a total of 40 vice-counties for Ireland, which were numbered from H1 to H40. As with the 112 vice-counties of Britain, each vice-county has a name as well as a number, thus Vice-county H3 is West Cork. Combining these two systems produces a 152 vice-county system, the exclusion of the Channel Islands from Watsons system for Britain has led to variations between different recording schemes. The geographical area covered by the 152 vice-counties may be described as the British Isles, other recording schemes regard the British Isles as including the Channel Islands. As they are not part of the 152 vice-county system, the Channel Islands may be added as an extra vice-county, making 153 in total, less usually, each of the five separate islands may be treated as a vice-county, giving 157 vice-counties in total. Alternative counts of vice-counties used in different recording schemes are shown in the table below, in all cases, the Channel Islands may be excluded, or included, so that the count of vice-counties varies, as noted in the table above
32.
Ireland
–
Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
33.
Herbal tea
–
Herbal teas — much less commonly called herb teas or tisanes — and fruit teas are beverages made from the infusion or decoction of herbs, spices, fruits, or other plant material in hot water. They do not usually contain caffeine, the tea industry often confusingly uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas, not fruit teas. Herbal teas and fruit teas should not be confused with true teas, as well as from decaffeinated tea, like beverages made from true teas, herbal teas can be served hot or cold. Documents have been recovered dating back to ancient Egypt and ancient China that discuss the enjoyment, among the Chinese, herbal teas are commonly known as liang cha. In any case, the herbal tea is very well established. The word tisane was rare in its modern sense before the 20th century, the word had already existed in late Middle English in the sense of medicinal drink and had already been borrowed from French. As herbal teas can be composed of any plant material, including plants that are known to be toxic. Most retail herbal teas sold as beverages could be considered safe, while most herbal teas are safe for regular consumption, some herbs have toxic or allergenic effects. The deadly foxglove, for example, can be mistaken for the more benign comfrey. The UK does not require herbal teas to have any evidence concerning their efficacy, mint and peppermint herbal teas have significantly stronger ferrous ion chelating ability than true teas. Depending on the source of the ingredients, herbal teas, like any crop. In addition to the mentioned above which are toxic to all people, several medicinal herbs are considered abortifacients. These include common ingredients like nutmeg, mace, papaya, bitter melon, verbena, saffron, slippery elm and it also includes more obscure herbs, like mugwort, rue, pennyroyal, wild carrot, blue cohosh, tansy, and savin. In Egypt, herbal teas such as hibiscus tea are very popular, the Chinese term liang cha, means cooling tea, and the Chinese drink it to cool down the body when it has become overheated due to weather or sickness. In Sri Lanka, herbal teas have a history within the local tradition of indigenous medicine. Iramusu, beli, ranawara, polpala, weniwel, and kothala-himbutu are among the plant species used to make herbal teas. Herbal teas can be made fresh or dried flowers, leaves, seeds or roots, generally by pouring boiling water over the plant parts. Seeds and roots can also be boiled on a stove, the herbal tea is then strained, sweetened if so desired, and served
34.
Tea blending and additives
–
Tea blending is the blending of different teas together to produce a final product. This occurs chiefly with black tea that is blended to make most tea bags but can occur with such teas as Pu-erh. The aim of blending is to create a well-balanced flavour using different origins and this also allows for variations in tea leaf quality and differences from season to season to be smoothed out. The one golden rule of blending is this, Every blend must taste the same as the previous one, there are various teas which have additives or different processing than pure varieties. Tea is able to receive any aroma, which may cause problems in processing, transportation or storage of tea. Tea can be flavoured in large blending drums with perfumes, flavourants, although blending and scenting teas can add an additional dimension to tea, the process may also sometimes be used to cover and obscure the quality of sub-standard teas. Breakfast Generally a blend of different black teas that are robust and full-bodied, some types are English breakfast, Irish breakfast and Scottish breakfast. Afternoon tea These blends are generally lighter than breakfast blends, both breakfast and afternoon blends are popular in the British Isles, for example, Prince of Wales tea blend. Russian Caravan A popular blend, Russian Caravan harks back to the days when tea was hauled to Russia from China on camelback and it often contains a bit of smoky Lapsang souchong, though its base is typically Keemun or Dian Hong. Although many teas are still flavoured directly with flowers, herbs, spices, or even smoke and this is particularly true for tea blends with pronounced fruit or flower aromas, which cannot be achieved with the original ingredients. Some firms such as Mariage Frères and Kusmi Tea have become famous for their perfumed teas. Due to the number of scents that can be produced by the artificial methods. A variety of flowers are used to flavour teas, although flowers are used to scent teas directly, most flower-scented teas on the market use perfumes and aromas to augment or replace the use of flowers. The most popular of these include the flowers of the following, Jasmine, Spread with jasmine flowers while oxidizing. The flowers are spread while oxidizing, and occasionally some are left in the tea as a decoration and this flower gives the tea a mild peach flavour. It is the second most popular scented tea in China, rose, Spread with rose flowers while oxidizing, occasionally some are left in the tea as a decoration. In China, roses are used to scent black tea. Chrysanthemum, The flowers are often brewed alone as a chrysanthemum tisane, lotus, Vietnamese lotus tea is made by stuffing green tea leaves into the blossom of Nelumbo nucifera and allowing the scent to be absorbed overnight
35.
Cultivar
–
The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
36.
Pastel colour
–
Pastels or pastel colors are the family of colors which, when described in the HSV color space, have high value and low to intermediate saturation. The name comes from pastels, art media characteristic of this color family, the colors of this family are usually described as soothing, soft, near neutral, milky, washed out, desaturated, and lacking strong chromatic content. Pink, mauve, and baby blue are typical pastel colors, the 1980s saw a huge trend in the use of pastel colors in mens fashion. The abundance of pastel was also visible in the locations with Art Deco buildings around the Miami area. Media related to Pastel colors at Wikimedia Commons
37.
Maroon
–
Maroon is a dark brownish red color which takes its name from the French word marron, or chestnut. The Oxford English Dictionary describes it as a crimson or claret color. In the RGB model used to create colors on computer screens and televisions, Maroon is derived from French marron, itself from the Italian marrone, from the medieval Greek maraon. The first recorded use of maroon as a name in English was in 1789. Displayed on the right is the tone of maroon that was designated as maroon in Crayola crayons beginning in 1949. It is a medium shade of maroon halfway between brown and rose. The color halfway between brown and rose is crimson, so color is also a tone of crimson. Displayed on the right is the color maroon, i. e. maroon as defined in the X11 color names. See the chart Color name clashes in the X11 color names article to see those colors which are different in HTML/CSS, displayed on the right is the web color dark red. Books In The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris, the serial killer Dr Hannibal Lecter has eyes that are described as being maroon brown, Maroon is frequently associated with Ron Weasley, a character in J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series, though Ron tells Harry that he dislikes the color, business Maroon is the main color of the Hollister Co. logo. Maroon was the livery applied to coaching stock of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, Maroon is the signature color of the Japanese private rail company, Hankyu Railway, decided by a vote of women customers in 1923. In the 1990s, Hankyu planned an alternative color as it was developing new vehicles and that plan was called off following opposition by local residents. Government Maroon is the color associated with the historic County of Midlothian. While the declared shade of maroon is RGB 115/24/44, Queenslanders display the spirit of the state by wearing all shades of maroon at sporting, Maroon is the official color of the Socialist Party of America. Military The distinctive maroon beret has been worn by airborne forces around the world since 1942, Maroon 5 is a pop rock band. Religion Vajrayana Buddhist monks, such as the Dalai Lama, wear maroon robes, Maroon, along with golden yellow, is worn in the Philippines by Catholic devotees of the Black Nazarene, especially during its procession on 9 January. School colors Many universities, colleges, high schools and other institutions have maroon as one of their school colors
38.
Germination
–
Germination is the process by which a plant grows from a seed. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, in addition, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination. Thus, in a sense, germination can be thought of as anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ. The seed of a plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos, these are called empty seeds and never germinate. Dormant seeds are seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right temperature, water, oxygen or air, various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plants natural habitat. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation, mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular metabolism and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them, the uptake of water by seeds is called imbibition, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a reserve with the seed, such as starch, proteins. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo, when the seed imbibes water, hydrolytic enzymes are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful chemicals. Oxygen is required by the seed for metabolism. Oxygen is used in respiration, the main source of the seedlings energy until it grows leaves. Oxygen is a gas that is found in soil pore spaces, if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged. Temperature affects cellular metabolic and growth rates, Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a range within which they will germinate
39.
Soil pH
–
The soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity in soils. PH is defined as the logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions in a solution. In water, it ranges from -1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline, Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it controls many chemical processes that take place. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the nutrient, the optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0, however many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range. While pH is the measure of H+ in solution, Al3+ is important in acid soils because between pH4 and 6, Al3+ reacts with water forming AlOH2+, and Al2+, releasing extra H+ ions, every Al3+ ion can create 3 H+ ions. Many other processes contribute to the formation of soils including rainfall, fertilizer use, plant root activity. Acid soils can also be caused by such as acid rain. Rainfall, Acid soils are most often found in areas of high rainfall, excess rainfall leaches base cation from the soil, increasing the percentage of Al3+ and H+ relative to other cations. Additionally, rainwater has a slightly acidic pH of 5.7 due to a reaction with CO2 in the atmosphere that forms carbonic acid, Fertilizer use, Ammonium fertilizers react in the soil in a process called nitrification to form nitrate, and in the process release H+ ions. Plant root activity, Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions, however plants must maintain a neutral charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the positive charge, they will release H+ ions from the root. Some plants will also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, weathering of minerals, Both primary and secondary minerals that compose soil contain Al. Highly weathered soils are characterized by having high concentrations of Fe. Acid rain, When atmospheric water reacts with sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result from industrial processes, however the amount of acidity that is deposited in rainwater is much less, on average, than that created through agricultural activities. Mine spoil, Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near mine spoils due to the oxidation of pyrite, Potential acid sulfate soils naturally formed in waterlogged coastal and estuarine environments can become highly acidic when drained or excavated. Decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms releases CO2 which when mixed with water can form carbonic acid. Alkaline soils have a high saturation of base cations and this is due to an accumulation of soluble salts which are classified as either saline soil, sodic soil, saline-sodic soil or alkaline soil
40.
Conservative People's Party of Estonia
–
The Conservative Peoples Party of Estonia is a national conservative political party in Estonia. Current chairman of the party is Mart Helme, former Estonian ambassador to Russia and its identitarian youth wing, Blue Awakening organizes frequent nationalist torchlight marches in Estonia. Ideologically, the party is a descendant of the Estonian ethno-nationalist camp, some political commentators place the EKRE on the right to far right but party representatives reject this and suggest other ways of looking at the left–right axis. The party was founded in March 2012 when the agrarian centrist party Peoples Union of Estonia, in the parliamentary election of 2015, it secured 8. 1% of the votes and entered the Riigikogu with 7 seats. At the same time it had around 7600 members, being the fourth largest Estonian party by membership size and it is also eurosceptic and wishes to implement Swiss-style direct democracy. The party is a descendant of the Estonian ethno-nationalist camp, which dates back to the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Patriotic Movement was founded in 2006. From 2008, the movement was led by Martin Helme, son of Mart Helme, the party was founded in March 2012 when the agrarian centrist party Peoples Union of Estonia and the nationalist pressure group Estonian Patriotic Movement merged. In 2010, the Peoples Union of Estonia started to look for a merging partner. Talks with the Social Democratic Party were concluded and a congress was convened to approve the merger agreement. However, at the party congress, only 172 delegates out of 412 supported the deal, following the failed merger attempt, many leading members left the party and joined the Social Democrats. In the 2011 parliamentary election, the Peoples Union did not pass the 5% threshold, Mart Helme and several members of his nationalist circle run at the election as independent candidates, none of whom passed the threshold necessary for an independent to enter the parliament. After the election, the leader of the Peoples Union, Margo Miljand, to save the party, Helme advised him to change the party name and alter the program. With links to the nationalist Estonian Patriotic Movement, Helme advised a deal between the two, the movement promised it would help redo the party program and elect new leaders. In March 2012, the Estonian Patriotic Movement merged into the Peoples Union, the government acts on right- and left liberal, also socialist ideas that our countrymen are simply statistical units or taxpayers, consumers at best. It is not far right or far left, just ultra-liberalism, the Conservative Peoples Party gives a solution to the voters who are sick of forced choice between Ansip and Savisaar, East and West, left and right. For the first three months, EKRE’s support according to the polls was zero, than it begun to gradually rise, EKRE takes part of yearly gatherings of the veterans of the Estonian Legion at the Sinimäed Hills. In 2013, the attendance of Mart Helme was praised in Estonian media while the abstention of other leaders was frown upon. During the local elections in October 2013, the party gained representation in several municipalities, such as the parishes of Tudulinna
41.
Estonia
–
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
42.
Finland
–
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
43.
National Coalition Party
–
The National Coalition Party is a liberal and conservative political party in Finland. Founded in 1918, the National Coalition Party is one of the four largest parties in Finland, along with the Social Democratic Party, the Finns Party and the Centre Party. The party bases its politics on freedom and responsibility, equality, Western democracy and economic system, humane principles. The party is strongly pro-European and is a member of the European Peoples Party and its vote share has been around 20% in parliamentary elections in the 1990s and 2000s. It won 44 out of 200 seats in the elections of 2011. On the municipal level, it became the most popular party in 2008 and has retained that position, in the 2015 election the NCP lost its status as the countrys largest party, as they finished second in votes and third in seats. Regardless, the party joined the government coalition. Its voters are predominantly urban, while in rural regions its performance is relatively weak, the current leader is Petteri Orpo, elected on 11 June 2016. According to its platform the National Coalition Party wants to build a society where a person’s own choices, hopes, the party defends individual freedom, and promotes people’s opportunities to make choices, but without ignoring everyone’s responsibility for their own life, others, and the environment. Our ideology combines freedom with responsibility, democracy, and equality, the partys basic values are education, tolerance, rewarding and caring. Individuals freedom to think and act independently and minorities rights are core matters to the party, according to the history section of the official website the platform has been shaped by ideas of conservatism, liberalism and social reform, which have all contributed to the current ideology. Alexander Stubb has described the policies as unambiguously liberal. In 2010 the party voted in favour of supporting same-sex marriage. In international affairs, the party and its voter base strongly believe in the benefits of the European Union, the party wants to build an economically and politically stronger European Union, we envisage an EU that is a more effective and a more prominent actor in world politics. The party advocates a membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the party is one of parties most supportive of work-based immigration, but many of its supporters want less immigration. The party has supported initiatives of allowing shops and restaurants to serve customers on Sundays. Polls show that as of 2008, the National Coalition Party is the party that has been viewed most positively by Finns, out of the major parties, the National Coalition Party has the highest proportion of women and is the most favored party among young generations. The party has the strongest support in the cities of Southern Finland and is popular among entrepreneurs, people can join various member organizations in the party
44.
Liberals (Sweden)
–
The Liberals is a liberal and social-liberal political party in Sweden. It was a part of the Alliance centre-right coalition government led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt from 2006 to 2014, the party is the seventh-largest party in the Swedish Riksdag. Until 22 November 2015 it was known as the Liberal Peoples Party, the party is a member of the Liberal International and Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe. 1902, Free-minded National Association is formed as the first liberal party with a grassroots organisation. It is heavily reliant on the religious church movement. 1910, After women become eligible to be elected to municipal councils in Sweden,1923, Frisinnade Landsföreningen splits over alcohol prohibition, the anti-ban minority forms the Liberal Party of Sweden. Frisinnade Landsföreningen heads several governments during the following years,1934, The parties reconcile and form the Peoples Party, i. e. the party in its present form. 1939–45, It takes part in a coalition government comprising all parties except the communists. Sweden remains neutral during the Second World War,1976, It enters a three-party government ending 44 years of Social Democratic Party rule. 1978, The Peoples Party forms a minority government by itself. Hans Blix, later to become famous before the Iraq War, is foreign minister,1979, A new attempt at a three-party coalition is made. 1980–82, It forms a two-party coalition government with the Centre party,1990, It adds Liberal to its name to become the Liberal Peoples Party. 1991–94, It forms part of a four-party centre-right coalition government under Moderate Party leader Carl Bildt, 2006–14, It forms part of the Alliance four-party centre-right coalition government under Moderate Party leader Fredrik Reinfeldt. 2015, It changes its name from the Liberal Peoples Party to the Liberals and it has stayed opposed to the Social Democrats ever since, often as the largest or second-largest party of the opposition block, but often equally critical towards parties on the right. Over time, this has shifted towards a more clear-cut rightwing role, in the mid-nineties the party seemed to have ruled out the alternative of co-operation with the Social Democrats, focusing instead on bringing them down by strengthening the opposition. Foreign policy is another high-profile issue, always oriented towards the United States and the United Kingdom, the party was a strong opponent of Communism and Nazism during the 20th century. The party actively supported the struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Soviet regime, as a consequence, it suffered several sharply worded rebukes from the often-ruling Social Democrats for endangering Swedish relations with the Soviet Union. It also criticised what it perceived as Social Democrat tolerance of left-wing dictatorships in the third world, after the end of the Cold War it became the first Swedish party to call for abandoning the countrys traditional neutrality in favor of joining NATO
45.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
.jpg)
