1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
3.
McKim, Mead & White
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McKim, Mead & White was a prominent American architectural firm that thrived at the turn of the twentieth century. The firms founding partners were Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and they hired many other architects, partners, associates, designers and draftsmen, who came to prominence during or after their time at the firm. The firms New York City buildings include Manhattans former Pennsylvania Station, the Brooklyn Museum, elsewhere in New York State and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library and Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D. C. the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, other examples are in Canada, Cuba and Italy. McKim and Mead joined forces in 1872 and they were joined in 1879 by White, who, like McKim, had worked for architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Its vision was to clean up the confusion of American cities and imbue them with a sense of order. The firm retained its name long after the deaths of founding partners White, McKim, among the firms final works under the name McKim, Mead & White was the National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Designed primarily by partner James Kellum Smith, it opened in 1964, Smith died in 1961, and the firm was soon renamed Steinmann, Cain and White. In 1971, it became Walker O. Cain and Associates, lewis Colt Albro – who formed a partnership with Harrie T. Lindeberg from 1906 to 1914. Henry Bacon – worked at the firm from about 1886 through 1897, boring – worked at the firm in 1890 before forming a separate partnership with Edward Lippincott Tilton. Page Brown - worked with the beginning in the 1880s, went to California. Walker O. Cain – worked at the firm, he took it over in 1961, john Merven Carrère – worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885, then joined Thomas Hastings to form the firm Carrère and Hastings. Arthur Loomis Harmon – later of Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Thomas Hastings – of Carrère and Hastings, worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885. William Mitchell Kendall, worked with the firm from 1882 until his death, Harrie T. Lindeberg – started at the firm in 1895 as an assistant to Stanford White and remained with the firm until Whites death in 1906. Austin W. James Kellum Smith – a member of the firm from 1924 to 1961, full partner in 1929, and he primarily designed academic buildings, but his last major work was the National Museum of American History. Egerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout – both Tracy and Swartwout worked together for the firm on multiple projects prior to starting their own practice, robert von Ezdorf – took over much of the firms business after Whites death. William M. Wells – worked as firms first Chief Draftsman from 1879–90, often considered to be the fourth partner
4.
Renaissance Revival architecture
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The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture, in England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture and this is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. If this were not confusing enough, the new Neo-Renaissance then frequently borrowed architectural elements from the succeeding Mannerist period, mannerism and Baroque being two very opposing styles of architecture. Mannerism was exemplified by the Palazzo del Te and Baroque by the Wurzburg Residenz, as a consequence a self-consciously Neo-Renaissance manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline, the Hagues Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, the style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments, if a building were of several floors the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was more severe in its design. Like all architectural styles the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly, one of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Womens Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s, richardsons style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his Marshall Field Warehouse in Chicago, however, while the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came between was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the opera houses of the Europe, such as Gottfried Sempers Burgtheater in Vienna. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is known as the Second Empire style. By 1875 it had become the style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. In Austria, it was pioneered by such names as Rudolf Eitelberger
5.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
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The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district
6.
H. H. Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
7.
Neo-Grec
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It was one of many Revival styles of the mid to late 19th century, and just one among several concurrent modes of Classicism. Neo-Grec was eclectic, abstracted, polychromatic, and sometimes bizarre and its treatment was intentionally dry and linear. Its vignettes and repeating patterns lent themselves to stencilling, typical Neo-Grec color harmonies were rich and harsh, black motifs and outlines against Pompeian red, powder blue and puce, bistre and olive drab might be combined in a single decor. Lions heads and feet and eagles talons, although an old ornament, were now everywhere to be found again, the British fancy was carried captive, journeys were taken, explorations were set on foot, measurements were made and at last the Elgin Marbles came to England. Mr. Flaxman, and representing Aurora visiting Cephalus on Mount Ida, round the bottom of the room still reign the emblems of night. In the rail of a marble table are introduced medallions of the god of sleep. The bird consecrated to the latter deity perches on the pillars of a marble mantelpiece. The broad band which girds the top of the room contains medallions of the goddess and of the Phrygian youth intermixed with the instruments. It maintained its supremacy briefly before other fashions came to the top in France, in architecture the Neo-Grec is not always clearly distinguishable from the Neoclassical designs of the earlier part of the century, in buildings such as the Church of the Madeleine, Paris. Not only was the Neo-Grec popular in France, but also in Victorian England and especially in the United States, the architectural historian Neil Levine has explained the style as a reaction against the rigidity of classicism. According to Levine, Neo-Grec was a looser style, which replaced the rhetorical form of classical architectural discourse by a more literal. It was meant to be a readable architecture, in painting, the Neoclassical style continued to be taught in the French Academy des Beaux-Arts, inculcating crisp outlines, pellucid atmosphere, and a clear, clean palette. However, a formal Neo-Grec group of artists was created in the mid 19th century after growing interest in Ancient Greece and Rome, and especially the later excavations at Pompeii. Gérôme gained fame from this exhibition, and in the year formed the Neo-Grec group with Jean-Louis Hamon. The Neo-Grec group took Gleyres style and interests, but adapted it from use in painting as in Gleyres work. Because they were inspired by discoveries at Pompeii, they were also called néo-pompéiens. The paintings of the Neo-Grecs sought to capture everyday, anecdotal trivialities of ancient Greek life, in a manner of whimsy, grace, and charm, and were realistic, sensual. For this reason they were also called anacreontic after the Greek poet Anacreon, alfred de Tanouarn describes one of Hamons paintings as clear, simple and natural, the idea, the attitudes and the aspects
8.
Gentlemen's club
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Today, some clubs are more accommodating about the gender and social status of their members. The original clubs were established in the West End of London, today, the area of St Jamess is still sometimes called clubland. Clubs took over parts of the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London. The first clubs, such as Whites, Brookss and Boodles, were aristocratic in flavour, and provided an environment for gambling, the 19th century brought an explosion in the popularity of clubs, particularly around the 1880s. At their height, London had over 400 such establishments and this expansion can be explained in part by the large extensions of the franchise in the Reform Acts of 1832,1867, and 1885. Each time, hundreds of more men were qualified to vote. Each of the three great Reform Acts corresponded with an expansion of clubs, as did a further extension of the franchise in 1918. Many of these new, more inclusive clubs proved just as reluctant as their forebears to admit new members when the franchise was further extended. Club Life in London, an 1866 book, begins, The Club in the general acceptation of the term, may be regarded as one of the earliest offshoots of mans habitual gregariousness and social inclination. An increasing number of clubs were characterised by their members interest in politics, literature, sport, art, automobiles, travel, particular countries, or some other pursuit. In other cases, the connection between the members was membership of the branch of the armed forces, or the same school or university. Thus the growth of clubs provides an indicator as to what was considered a part of the Establishment at the time. This came to include professionals who had to earn their income, most gentlemen had only one club, which closely corresponded with the trade or social / political identity he felt most defined him, but a few people belonged to several. Members of the aristocracy and politicians were likely to have several clubs, the record number of memberships is believed to have been with Earl Mountbatten, who had nineteen in the 1960s. Public entertainments, such as performances and the like, were not a feature of this sort of club. The clubs were, in effect, second homes in the centre of London where men could relax, mix with their friends, play games, get a meal. Expatriates, when staying in England, could use their clubs, as the East India Club or the Oriental Club and they allowed upper- and upper-middle-class men with modest incomes to spend their time in grand surroundings. The richer clubs were built by the architects as the finest country houses of the time
9.
William Cullen Bryant
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William Cullen Bryant was an American romantic poet, journalist, and long-time editor of the New York Evening Post. Bryant was born on November 3,1794, in a log cabin near Cummington, Massachusetts and he was the second son of Peter Bryant, a doctor and later a state legislator, and Sarah Snell. The genealogies of both of his parents back to passengers on the Mayflower, his mothers to John Alden. He was also a nephew of Charity Bryant, a Vermont seamstress who is the subject of Rachel Hope Clevess 2014 book Charity and Sylvia, Bryant and his family moved to a new home when he was two years old. The William Cullen Bryant Homestead, his home, is now a museum. After just one year at Williams College, he hoped to transfer to Yale and his father counseled a legal career as his best available choice, and the disappointed poet began to study law in Worthington and Bridgewater in Massachusetts. He was admitted to the bar in 1815 and began practicing law in nearby Plainfield, on one of these walks, in December 1815, he noticed a single bird flying on the horizon, the sight moved him enough to write To a Waterfowl. Bryant developed an interest in early in life. Under his fathers tutelage, he emulated Alexander Pope and other Neo-Classic British poets, the Embargo, a savage attack on President Thomas Jefferson published in 1808, reflected Dr. Bryants Federalist political views. The first edition sold out — partly because of publicity attached to the poets young age. A second, expanded edition included Bryants translation of classical verse, during his collegiate studies and his reading for the law, he wrote little poetry, but encounters with the Graveyard Poets and then Wordsworth regenerated his passion for the witchery of song. Thanatopsis is Bryants most famous poem, which Bryant may have been working on as early as 1811, Bryant, he submitted them along with his own work. The editor of the Review, Edward Tyrrel Channing, read the poem to his assistant, Richard Henry Dana, who immediately exclaimed, That was never written on this side of the water. Someone at the North American joined two of the sons discrete fragments, gave the result the Greek-derived title Thanatopsis, mistakenly attributed it to the father, after clarification of the authorship, the sons poems began appearing with some regularity in the. To a Waterfowl, published in 1821 was the most popular, on January 11,1821, Bryant, still striving to build a legal career, married Frances Fairchild. As it would in all collections he subsequently issued, The Ages led the volume, also entitled Poems, for that book, he added sets of lines at the beginning and end of Thanatopsis that changed the poem. His poetry has been described as being of a thoughtful, meditative character, with the encouragement of a distinguished and well-connected literary family, the Sedgwicks, he quickly gained a foothold in New York Citys vibrant cultural life. His first employment, in 1825, was as editor of the New-York Review, from Assistant Editor he rose to Editor-in-Chief and co-owner of the newspaper that had been founded by Alexander Hamilton
10.
Asher Brown Durand
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Asher Brown Durand was an American painter of the Hudson River School. Durand was born in and eventually died in Maplewood, New Jersey, the eighth of eleven children, his father was a watchmaker and a silversmith. Durand was apprenticed to an engraver from 1812 to 1817 and later entered into a partnership with the owner of the company and he engraved Declaration of Independence for John Trumbull during 1823, which established Durands reputation as one of the countrys finest engravers. Durand helped organize the New York Drawing Association during 1825, which would become the National Academy of Design, ashers engravings on bank notes were used as the portraits for Americas first postage stamps, the 1847 series. Along with his brother Cyrus he also engraved some of the succeeding 1851 issues and his main interest changed from engraving to oil painting about 1830 with the encouragement of his patron, Luman Reed. During 1837, he accompanied his friend Thomas Cole on an expedition to Schroon Lake in the Adirondacks Mountains. Durand is remembered particularly for his portrayals of trees, rocks. He was an advocate for drawing directly from nature with as much realism as possible. Durand wrote, Let scrupulously accept whatever presents him until he shall, like other Hudson River School artists, Durand also believed that nature was an ineffable manifestation of God. He expressed this sentiment and his opinions on art in his essay Letters on Landscape Painting in The Crayon. Wrote Durand, he true province of Landscape Art is the representation of the work of God in the visible creation, Durand is noted for his 1849 painting Kindred Spirits which shows fellow Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole and poet William Cullen Bryant in a Catskills Mountains landscape. This was painted as a tribute to Cole upon Coles death during 1848, at $35 million, however, it would be a record price paid for an American painting at the time. Another of Durands painting is his Progress, commissioned by a railroad executive, the landscape depicts Americas progress, from a state of nature, towards the right, where there are roads, telegraph wires, a canal, warehouses, railroads, and steamboats. During 2007, the Brooklyn Museum exhibited nearly sixty of Durands works in the first monographic exhibition devoted to the painter in more than thirty-five years, the show, entitled Kindred Spirits, Asher B. Durand and the American Landscape, was exhibited from March 30 to July 29,2007, Durand is interred in Brooklyn, New York, in Green-Wood Cemetery. List of Hudson River School artists Books Howat, John K, American Paradise, The World of the Hudson River School. New York, NY, Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Anatomy of Nature, Geology & American Landscape Painting, 1825-1875. The Life and Times of Asher B, hensonville, NY, Black Dome Press Corp
11.
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America, largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and he also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations. Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders and his mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homers first teacher. She and her son had a relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature, her dry sense of humor, Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a student, but his art talent was evident in his early years. Homers father was a volatile, restless businessman who was looking to make a killing. When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other schemes that didnt materialize. After Homers high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement, Homers apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but treadmill experience. He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other work for two years. By 1857, his career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of Harpers Weekly. From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone, Homer later stated, I have had no master, Homers career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. His quick success was due to this strong understanding of graphic design. Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont and his uncles Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Womans Club, is open for public tours, in 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, in only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work
12.
Jervis McEntee
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Jervis McEntee was an American painter of the Hudson River School. He is a somewhat lesser-known figure of the 19th-century American art world, aside from his paintings, McEntees journals are an enduring legacy, documenting the life of a New York painter during and after the Gilded Age. McEntee was born in Rondout, New York on July 14,1828, little is known of his childhood. From approximately 1844-1846, he attended the Clinton Liberal Institute in Clinton and he exhibited his first painting at the National Academy of Design in New York City in 1850. The following year he apprenticed with Frederic Edwin Church, who was regarded as a rising star in the American art world. Church and McEntee remained lifelong friends, though McEntee never approached Churchs fame, after studying with Church, McEntee attempted a career as a businessman in Rondout, but did not experience much success. After three years he gave up business and devoted himself wholly to his art, becoming one of the residents of Richard Morris Hunts Tenth Street Studio Building in 1857. After his wife died in 1878, McEntee stayed on at the building, McEntee was a particularly close friend of Hudson River School artists Sanford Robinson Gifford, Worthington Whittredge, John Ferguson Weir, as well as figurative painter Eastman Johnson. He was made an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1860, in 1869 he visited Europe, painting much in Italy. He died on January 27,1891 of Brights disease and is buried in Montrepose Cemetery in Kingston, the landscapes of Jervis McEntee are known for their melancholy and poetic mood. The sky is cloudy in a McEntee landscape, the season autumn. While Jasper Francis Cropsey and other artists typically painted bright fall foliage, McEntee often captured the season near its end, with the leaves faded, some people call my landscapes gloomy and disagreeable, McEntee wrote in his journal. They say I paint the side of nature …But this is a mistake…Nature is not sad to me but quiet, pensive. Aside from his paintings, McEntees enduring legacy are the journals he kept from the early 1870s until his death. These diaries provide a vivid, accurate impression of the life of a typical New York painter during and he discusses his artistic successes and trials, particularly as money becomes more scarce with the decline in popularity of Hudson River School art. Long passages describe McEntees overwhelming anxieties over money and family difficulties, he is lonely and depressed. McEntees journals are now kept by the Archives of American Art, five volumes of these diaries, from 1872 to 1890, have been digitally scanned, transcribed, and can be browsed in their entirety online. In addition, the Archives holds McEntees personal papers, which were digitized in 2007
13.
John Frederick Kensett
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John Frederick Kensett was an American artist and engraver. The work of Kensetts maturity features tranquil scenery depicted with a spare geometry and he was a founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He was born on March 22,1816, Kensett attended school at Cheshire Academy, and studied engraving with his immigrant father, Thomas Kensett, and later with his uncle, Alfred Daggett. He worked as engraver in the New Haven area until about 1838, in 1840, along with Asher Durand and John William Casilear, Kensett traveled to Europe in order to study painting. There he met and traveled with Benjamin Champney, the two sketched and painted throughout Europe, refining their talents. During this period, Kensett developed an appreciation and affinity for 17th century Dutch landscape painting, Kensett and Champney returned to the United States in 1847. After establishing his studio and settling in New York, Kensett traveled extensively throughout the Northeast, Kensett is best known for his landscape of upstate New York and New England and seascapes of coastal New Jersey, Long Island and New England. He is most closely associated with the generation of the Hudson River School. Such effects stemmed from Transcendentalist philosophies of nature and contemplation bringing one closer to a spiritual truth. In 1848 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, in 1851 Kensett painted a monumental canvas of Mount Washington that has become an icon of White Mountain art. Mount Washington from the Valley of Conway was purchased by the American Art Union, made into an engraving by James Smillie, other artists painted copies of this scene from the print. Currier and Ives published a print in about 1860. This single painting by Kensett helped to popularize the White Mountain region of New Hampshire, Kensetts style evolved gradually, from the traditional Hudson River School manner in the 1850s into the more refined Luminist style in his later years. By the early 1870s Kensett was spending time at his home on Contentment Island, on Long Island Sound near Darien. It was during this time that Kensett painted some of his finest works, many of these were spare and luminist seascapes, the prime example being Eatons Neck, Long Island now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The artist was widely acclaimed and financially successful during his lifetime, in turn, he was generous in support of the arts and artists. He was a member of the National Academy of Design, the founder and president of the Artists Fund Society. Kensett contracted pneumonia and died of heart failure at his New York studio in December 1872, Kensett is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York
14.
Paul Manship
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Paul Howard Manship was an American sculptor. He consistently created mythological pieces in a style, and was a major force in the Art Deco movement. He is well known for his public commissions, including the iconic Prometheus in Rockefeller Center. He is also credited for designing the modern rendition of New York Citys official seal, Manship gained notice early in his career for rejecting the Beaux Arts movement and preferring linear compositions with a flowing simplicity. Additionally, he shared a home in Plainfield, New Hampshire, part of the Cornish Art Colony. Other members of the social colony were also contemporary artists. Manship created his own artist retreat on Cape Ann, developing a 15-acre site in Gloucester, a local nonprofit, the Manship Artists Residence and Studios has been formed to preserve this estate and establish an artist residency program at the site. Paul Howard Manship was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, on December 24,1885, the son of Charles H. and Mary Etta Manship. His father, born in Mississippi, was a clerk for the St. Paul gas company, and with his wife, who was born in Pennsylvania, were parents of seven children. Charles and Mary were married in St. Paul, on July 14,1870, Paul H. Manship began his art studies at the St. Paul School of Art in Minnesota. From there he moved to Philadelphia and continued his education at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, following that he migrated to New York City where he enrolled in the Art Students League of New York, studying anatomy with George Bridgman and modeling under Hermon Atkins MacNeil. From 1905 to 1907 he served as an assistant to sculptor Solon Borglum, in 1909, at Kontis urging, he entered the competition for, and won, the Rome Prize and shortly thereafter decamped for Rome where he attended the American Academy from 1909 until 1912. While in Europe he became interested in Archaic art, his own work began to take on some archaic features. He also developed an interest in sculpture of India. When he returned to America from his European sojourn, Manship found that his style was attractive to both modernists and conservatives and his simplification of line and detail appealed to those who wished to move beyond the Beaux-Arts classical realism prevalent in the day. Also, his view of and use of a more traditional beauty as well as an avoidance of the more radical, Manships work is often considered to be a major precursor to Art Deco. Manship produced over 700 works and always employed assistants of the highest quality, at least two of them, Gaston Lachaise and Leo Friedlander, went on to create significant places for themselves in the history of American sculpture. Although not known as a portraitist, he did produce statues and busts of Theodore Roosevelt, Samuel Osgood, John D. Rockefeller, Robert Frost, Gifford Beal, Manship was very adept at low relief and used these skills to produce a large number of coins and medals
15.
Stanford White
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Stanford White was an American architect and partner in the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White, the frontrunner among Beaux-Arts firms. He designed a series of houses for the rich, and numerous public, institutional. His design principles embodied the American Renaissance, in 1906, White was murdered by millionaire Harry Kendall Thaw over Whites relationship with Thaws wife, actress Evelyn Nesbit. This led to a case which was dubbed The Trial of the Century by contemporary reporters. White was the son of Shakespearean scholar Richard Grant White and Alexina Black Mease and his father was a dandy and Anglophile with no money, but a great many connections in New Yorks art world, including painter John LaFarge, Louis Comfort Tiffany, and Frederick Law Olmsted. He remained with Richardson for six years, in 1878, White embarked for a year and a half in Europe, and when he returned to New York in September 1879, he joined Charles Follen McKim and William Rutherford Mead to form McKim, Mead and White. As part of the partnership, all designed by the architects were identified as being the work of the collective firm. In 1884, White married 22-year-old Bessie Springs Smith and his new wife hailed from a socially prominent Long Island family, her ancestors were early settlers of the area, and Smithtown, New York, was named for them. Their estate, Box Hill, was not only a home, a son, Lawrence Grant White, was born in 1887. In 1889, White designed the arch at Washington Square. White was the director of the Washington Centennial celebration and created a temporary triumphal arch which was so popular, outside of New York City, White designed the First Methodist Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland, now Lovely Lane United Methodist Church. He also designed Cocke, Rouss, and Old Cabell halls at the University of Virginia, additionally, he designed the Blair Mansion at 7711 Eastern Ave. in Silver Spring, Maryland, now being used as a restaurant. He was responsible for designing the Boston Public Library and the Boston Hotel Buckminster, in 1902, he designed the Benjamin Walworth Arnold House and Carriage House in Albany, New York, and he helped to develop Nikola Teslas Wardenclyffe Tower, his last design. Just as his Washington Square Arch still stands, so do many of Whites clubhouses, which were focal points of New York society, the Century, Colony, Harmonie, Lambs, Metropolitan, and Players clubs. However, his clubhouse for the Atlantic Yacht Club, built in 1894 overlooking Gravesend Bay, sons of society families also resided in Whites St. Anthony Hall Chapter House at Williams College, now occupied by college offices. In the division of projects within the firm, the sociable and his fluent draftsmanship was highly convincing to clients who might not get much visceral understanding from a floorplan, and his intuition and facility caught the mood. Whites Long Island houses have survived well, despite the loss of Harbor Hill in 1947 and he also designed the Kate Annette Wetherill Estate in 1895. White designed a number of other New York mansions as well, including the Iselin family estate All View, White was also active designing country estate homes in Greenwich, Connecticut
16.
Charles P. Daly
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Charles Patrick Daly was a member of the New York State Assembly, Chief Justice of the New York Court of Common Pleas, president of the American Geographical Society, and an author of several books. The Daly ancestors were the ODalys of County Galway, Ireland, in 1814, two years before Dalys birth, his parents immigrated to the U. S. from Omagh, County Tyrone, Ireland. Daly was born in New York, New York, USA and his father, Michael, had been a master carpenter in Ireland, but in New York City, he worked as the manager of a hotel on Broadway. His mother, Elizabeth, died when Daly was age three, Daly attended private school in his early years. Upon his fathers death, Daly was unwilling to rely on a widowed stepmother, leading him to leave school and he worked first as a clerk in Savannah, Georgia, before becoming a cabin boy on a trading ship. During his three years as a sailor, he was present at the 1830 capture of Algiers, when he returned to New York in 1832, he became a mechanical trade apprentice for a quill manufacturer. He also joined The New York Literary Society where he learned how to debate and this led to him becoming a law student and he was admitted to practice law in 1839. In 1843, Daly was elected to the New York State Assembly, while in office, he staunchly supported the establishment of Central Park against considerable opposition. The following year, Judge William Inglis term on the New York Court of Common Pleas expired, on a recommendation of Governor William Marcy, Governor William Bouck appointed Daly to the Court, beginning his term May 1844. When the position changed from a one to an elected one in 1847, Daly ran for election and won. One of his most notable cases dealt with the Astor Place Riot involving William Charles Macready at the Astor Place Theatre and he served on the court for six consecutive terms, retiring December 30,1885 because of the constitutional age limit. Ten years later, the Court of Common Pleas was abolished, for fifteen years, starting in 1860, he lectured on law at Columbia Law School. In 1867, Daly was a member of the New York Constitutional Convention, after leaving the bench, he became a partner in the firm of Daly, Hoyt and Mason. As a member, and then president of the AGS, Daly was influential in supporting Arctic expeditions, Daly, a bibliophile, had a personal collection of more than 12,000 volumes. He donated 700 of his books to the AGS on his 75th birthday and during his tenure as President. He was an member of the Royal Geographical Society of London, England, the Berlin Geographical Society. In London in 1895, he was a speaker at the 6th International Geographical Congress, Daly met Maria Lydig in 1855. Born in 1824, Maria was the daughter of Philip Mesier Lydig, Philip Lydig was the last holder of the land that subsequently became the Bronx Park, the park now contains the New York Botanical Garden
17.
Lewis Gaylord Clark
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Lewis Gaylord Clark was an American editor and the brother of Willis Gaylord Clark. Clark was born in Otisco, New York in 1808 and he succeeded Charles Fenno Hoffman as editor and publisher of the The Knickerbocker magazine, a role he held for over 25 years. He published the Knickerbocker Sketch-Book, including some of his own essays, during his career, Clark made an enemy of fellow editor and author Edgar Allan Poe. The two traded insults in their respective magazines and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, Works by Lewis Gaylord Clark at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lewis Gaylord Clark at Internet Archive
18.
Calvert Vaux
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Calvert Vaux was a British-American architect and landscape designer. He is best known as the co-designer, along with his protégé and junior partner Frederick Law Olmsted, Vaux, on his own and in various partnerships, designed and created dozens of parks across the country. He introduced new ideas about the significance of public parks in America during a time of urbanization. This industrialization of the cityscape inspired him to focus on an integration of buildings, bridges and he favored naturalistic, rustic, and curvilinear lines in his designs, and his design statements contributed much to today’s landscape and architecture. Little is known about Vauxs childhood and upbringing and he was born in London in 1824, and his father was a physician who provided a comfortable income for his family. Vaux attended a primary school until the age of nine. He then trained as an apprentice under London architect Lewis Nockalls Cottingham, Vaux trained under Cottingham until the age of 26, becoming a skilled draftsman. Downing had traveled to London in search of an architect who would complement his vision of what a landscape should be. Downing believed that architecture should be integrated into the surrounding landscape. Vaux readily accepted the job and moved to the United States, Vaux worked with Downing for two years and became a partner in the firm. Together they designed many significant projects, such as the grounds in the White House, vaux’s work on the Smithsonian inspired him to write an 1852 article for The Horticulturalist, arguing that the government should recognize and support the arts. Shortly afterward, Downing died in a steamboat accident, in 1854, Vaux married Mary McEntee, of Kingston, New York, the sister of Jervis McEntee, a Hudson River School painter. They had two sons and two daughters, in 1856, he gained U. S. citizenship and became identified with the city’s artistic community, “the guild, ” joining the National Academy of Design, as well as the Century Club. In 1857, he one of the founding members of the American Institute of Architects. Also in 1857, Vaux published Villas and Cottages, which was a pattern book that determined the standards for “Victorian Gothic” architecture. These particular writings revealed his acknowledgment and tribute to Ruskin and Ralph Waldo Emerson and these people, among others, influenced him intellectually and in his design path. In 1857, Vaux recruited Frederick Law Olmsted, who had never designed a landscape plan, to help with the Greensward Plan. They obtained the commission through an excellent presentation that drew upon Vauxs talents in drawing to include before-and-after sketches of the site
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Frederick Law Olmsted
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Frederick Law Olmsted was an American landscape architect, journalist, social critic, and public administrator. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, in Washington, D. C. he worked on the landscape surrounding the United States Capitol building. The quality of Olmsteds landscape architecture was recognized by his contemporaries and his work, especially in Central Park in New York City, set a standard of excellence that continues to influence landscape architecture in the United States. Olmsted was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on April 26,1822 and his father, John Olmsted, was a prosperous merchant who took a lively interest in nature, people, and places, Frederick Law and his younger brother, John Hull, also showed this interest. His mother, Charlotte Law Olmsted, died before his fourth birthday and his father remarried in 1827 to Mary Ann Bull, who shared her husbands strong love of nature and had perhaps a more cultivated taste. When the young Olmsted was almost ready to enter Yale College, after working as an apprentice seaman, merchant, and journalist, Olmsted settled on a 125-acre farm in January 1848 on the south shore of Staten Island NY, which his father helped him acquire. This farm, originally named the Akerly Homestead, was renamed Tosomock Farm by Olmsted and it was later renamed The Woods of Arden by owner Erastus Wiman. On June 13,1859, Olmsted married Mary Cleveland Olmsted, Daniel Fawcett Tiemann, the mayor of New York, officiated the wedding. He adopted her three children, John Charles Olmsted, Charlotte Olmsted and Owen Olmsted, Frederick and Mary had two children together who survived infancy, a daughter, Marion and a son Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. Their first child, John Theodore Olmsted, was born on June 13,1860, Olmsted had a significant career in journalism. In 1850 he traveled to England to visit gardens, where he was greatly impressed by Joseph Paxtons Birkenhead Park. He subsequently wrote and published Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England in 1852 and this supported his getting additional work. Interested in the economy, he was commissioned by the New York Daily Times to embark on an extensive research journey through the American South. His dispatches to the Times were collected into three volumes which remain vivid first-person social documents of the pre-war South. A one-volume abridgment, Journeys and Explorations in the Cotton Kingdom, was published during the first six months of the American Civil War at the suggestion of Olmsteds English publisher. To this he wrote a new introduction in which he stated explicitly his views on the effect of slavery on the economy and my own observation of the real condition of the people of our Slave States, gave me. He argued that slavery had made the slave states inefficient and backward both economically and socially, the citizens of the cotton States, as a whole, are poor. They work little, and that little, badly, they earn little, they sell little, they buy little and their destitution is not material only, it is intellectual and it is moral
20.
Central Park
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Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
21.
Thomas Cole
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Thomas Cole was an English-born American artist known for his landscape and history paintings. He is regarded as the founder of the Hudson River School, Coles work is known for its romantic portrayal of the American wilderness. Born in Bolton le Moors, Lancashire, in 1801, Coles family emigrated to the United States in 1818, settling in Steubenville, at the age of twenty-two Cole moved to Philadelphia, and later, in 1825, to New York City with his family. Cole found work early on as an engraver and he was largely self-taught as a painter, relying on books and by studying the work of other artists. In 1822 Cole started working as a painter, and later on gradually shifted his focus to landscape. This garnered Cole the attention of John Trumbull, Asher B, among the paintings was a landscape called View of Fort Ticonderoga from Gelyna. Cole was primarily a painter of landscapes, but he also painted allegorical works, there are two versions of the latter, one at the National Gallery in Washington, D. C. the other at the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute in Utica, New York. Among Coles other famous works are the Oxbow, the Notch of the White Mountains, Daniel Boone at his cabin at the Great Osage Lake and he also painted The Garden of Eden, with lavish detail of Adam and Eve living amid waterfalls, vivid plants, and deer. In 2014, friezes painted by Cole on the walls of his home, Cole influenced his artistic peers, especially Asher B. Durand and Frederic Edwin Church, who studied with Cole from 1844 to 1846, Cole spent the years 1829 to 1832 and 1841 to 1842 abroad, mainly in England and Italy. Thomas Cole is best known for his work as an American landscape artist, however, he also produced thousands of sketches of varying subject matter. Over 2,500 of these sketches can be seen at The Detroit Institute of Arts, in 1842, Cole embarked on a Grand Tour of Europe in an effort to study in the style of the Old Masters and to paint its scenery. Most striking to Cole was Europes tallest active volcano, Mount Etna, Cole was so moved by the volcanos beauty that he produced several sketches and at least six paintings of it. The most famous of these works is A View from Mount Etna from Taormina which is a 78-by-120-inch oil on canvas. Cole also produced a detailed sketch View of Mount Etna which shows a panoramic view of the volcano with the crumbling walls of the ancient Greek theatre of Taormina on the far right. After 1827 Cole maintained a studio at the farm called Cedar Grove in the town of Catskill and he painted a significant portion of his work in this studio. In 1836 he married Maria Bartow of Catskill, a niece of the owner, Thomas Cole had a sister, Sarah, who was also a landscape painter. Additionally, Thomas Cole held many friendships with important figures in the art world including Daniel Wadsworth, with whom he shared a close friendship, proof of this friendship can be seen in the letters that were unearthed in the 1980s by the Trinity College, Watkinson Library
22.
Thomas Doughty (artist)
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Thomas Doughty was an American artist associated with the Hudson River School. He was known for his quiet, often atmospheric landscapes of the rivers and mountains of Pennsylvania, New York, New England and he taught himself how to paint while apprenticing for a leather manufacturer. In 1827 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician and he worked mostly in Philadelphia, but also lived and worked in Boston and New York. List of Hudson River School artists Goodyear, Frank, Jr, life and Art of Thomas Doughty. Masters thesis, University of Delaware,1969, American Paintings and Sculpture, An Illustrated Catalogue. National Gallery of Art, Washington,1970, Fine Art Source Material Newsletter 1,5, no.41. Goodyear, Frank, Jr. Thomas Doughty 1793-1856, An American Pioneer in Landscape Painting, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Philadelphia,1973,17,26, no.28. American Art Review 1, An exhibition catalog available as a full-text PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
23.
Hudson River School
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The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty, the term is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer Dodge Martin. As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labeled had gone out of favor after the plein-air Barbizon School had come into vogue among American patrons and collectors. Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century, discovery, exploration, and settlement, the paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and their reverence for Americas natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Several painters were members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others were educated by the German Paul Weber, while the elements of the paintings were rendered realistically, many of the scenes were composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. During these expeditions, the artists recorded sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the works later. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing. He hiked west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area, the first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on November 22,1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a landscape where autumnal tints were of browns and yellows, coles close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well. An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School was its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, however, its leading artists, such as Thomas Cole, were also suspicious of the economic and technological development of the age. Works by artists of this generation are often described as examples of Luminism. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford, most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were celebrities and they were both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years. When Church exhibited paintings such as Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people lined up around the block and paid fifty cents a head to view the solitary works. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings, unexampled in earlier American painting, reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, such works were being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks. One of the largest collections of paintings by artists of the Hudson River School is at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Johnsbury Athenaeum, in St. Johnsbury, VT Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art, in Tuscaloosa, AL Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, in Madrid, Spain. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, avery, Kevin J. & Kelly, Frank
24.
Salmagundi Club
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The Salmagundi Club, sometimes referred to as the Salmagundi Art Club, was founded in 1871 in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan, New York City. Since 1917 it has been located at 47 Fifth Avenue, as of 2014, its membership roster totals roughly 900 members. The Salmagundi Club has served as a center for arts, artists and collectors, with art exhibitions, art classes, artist demonstrations, art auctions. It is also a sponsor of the United States Coast Guard Art Program, the club formally changed its name to The Salmagundi Sketch Club in January 1877. The name has variously attributed to salmagundi, a stew which the group has served from its earliest years. Park for $100,000.00 and erected a two-story annex in the rear at an additional cost of $20,000.00 to house its primary art gallery, a housewarming event on Feb 5th,1918 was attended by more than 500 persons. In 1969 the building was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. In 1975 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places, in 1918, the club spearheaded a national effort to produce range-finder paintings used to train military gunners for World War I. The club provided the canvas and painting materials for these special-purpose paintings, the Salmagundi Club was a male-only club for its first century, although artworks by women were accepted and praised. A sister club for artists, the Pen and Brush Club, was formed around the corner from Salmagundi in 1894. Salmagundi began admitting women members in 1973, honorary members have included Paul Cadmus, Schuyler Chapin, Winston Churchill, Buckminister Fuller, Al Hirschfeld, and Thomas Hoving. In 1894, to money for the growing clubs library, artist members were invited to decorate ceramic mugs, which were then fired by Charles Volkmar. The club would host a dinner followed by an auction of the finished mugs, over the years, many decorated mugs have been returned to the club and are on exhibit in the library along with the largest collection of used artists palettes in America. Official website Documenting the Gilded Age, New York City Exhibitions at the Turn of the 20th Century A New York Art Resources Consortium project, exhibition catalogs from the Salmagundi Club. The Salmagundi Club Photograph Collection at the New York Historical Society Salmagundi Club, David John Gue
25.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
26.
Union Square, Manhattan
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The park is under the aegis of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Adjacent neighborhoods are the Flatiron District to the north, Chelsea to the west, Greenwich Village to the southwest, East Village to the southeast, many buildings of The New School are near the square, as are several dormitories of New York University. It features a wall sculpture and digital clock expelling bursts of steam. Among the heterogeneous assortment of buildings along the west side is the Decker Building, Union Square is noted for its impressive equestrian statue of U. S. A statue of Mahatma Gandhi in the southwest corner of the park was added in 1986, the 14th Street – Union Square New York City Subway station, served by the 456 <6> L N Q R W trains, is located under Union Square. In 1815, by act of the legislature, this former potters field became a public commons for the city. Ruggles obtained a lease on most of the surrounding lots from 15th to 19th Streets. In 1834 he convinced the Board of Aldermen to enclose and grade the square, then sold most of his leases, a fountain was built in the center of Union Square to receive water from the Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1842. The Everett House on the corner of 17th Street and Fourth Avenue was for one of the citys most fashionable hotels. In the early years of the park a fence surrounded the central oval planted with radiating walks lined with trees. In 1872, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were called in to replant the park, the last of the neighborhoods free-standing private mansions, Peter Goelets at the northeast corner of 19th Street, made way for a commercial building in 1897. The Rialto, New York Citys first commercial district, was located in. It was called the Rialto after the district in Venice. The theater district gradually re-located northward, into less expensive and undeveloped uptown neighborhoods, thus, suppliers of props, costumes, wigs, scenery, and other theatrical necessities grew up around the new theatres. The park has historically been the start or the end point for political demonstrations. In the summer of 1864 the north side of the square was the site of a Sanitary Fair, Union Square has been a frequent gathering point for radicals of all stripes to make speeches or demonstrate. On September 5,1882, in the first Labor Day celebration, on March 28,1908, an anarchist set off a bomb in Union Square which only killed himself and another man. On August 21,1893, Emma Goldman took the stage at Union Square to make her Free Bread speech to a crowd of overworked garment workers
27.
Madison Square and Madison Square Park
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Madison Square is a public square formed by the intersection of Fifth Avenue and Broadway at 23rd Street in the New York City borough of Manhattan. The square was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States, the park and the square are at the northern end of the Flatiron District neighborhood of Manhattan. The neighborhood to the north and west of the park is NoMad and to the north, the current Madison Square Garden, the fourth such building, is not in the area. The area where Madison Square is now had been a hunting ground. It was a Potters Field in the 1700s, in 1807, The Parade, a tract of about 240 acres from 23rd to 34th Streets and Third to Seventh Avenues, was set aside for use as an arsenal, a barracks, and a drilling area. In 1839 the building was destroyed by fire, the size of the tract was reduced in 1814 to 90 acres, and it received its current name. This house was the last stop for people travelling out of the city. The roots of the New York Knickerbocker Base Ball Club, one of the first professional teams, are in Madison Square. When they lost their sandlot to development, they moved to Hoboken, on May 10,1847, the 6. 2-acre Madison Square Park, named after President James Madison, opened to the public. In 1853, plans had been made to build the Crystal Palace there and it had fireplaces in every bedroom, private bathrooms, and public rooms which saw many elegant events. Notable visitors to the hotel included Mark Twain, famed Swedish singer Jenny Lind, U. S. Presidents Chester A. Arthur and Ulysses S. Grant and the Prince of Wales. When the center of the city moved north by the turn of the century, and the neighborhood had become a commercial district and was no longer fashionable. A plaque on the currently on the site, the Toy Center. During the 1863 New York City draft riots,10,000 Federal troops brought in to control the rioters encamped in Madison Square and Washington Square, as well as Stuyvesant Square. Madison Square was also the site in November 1864 of a rally, complete with torchlight parade and fireworks. McClellan, who was running against his old boss, Abraham Lincoln and it was larger than the Republican parade the night before, which had marched from Madison Square to Union Square to rally there. At the western side of Madison Square Park, on an island bordered by Broadway, Fifth Avenue and 25th Street, stands an obelisk, the citys Parks Department designated the area immediately around the monument as a parklet called General Worth Square. Nearby, huge dry-goods emporia such as Siegel-Cooper in the Ladies Mile district brought daytime crowds of shoppers, no longer primarily residential, Madison Square was still a thriving area
28.
15th Street (Manhattan)
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The New York City borough of Manhattan contains 228 numbered east–west streets, the majority of them created by the Commissioners Plan of 1811. These streets do not run exactly east–west, because the plan is aligned with the Hudson River, rather than with the cardinal direction. Thus, the grids west is approximately 29 degrees north of true west, the grid covers the length of the island from 14th Street north. All numbered streets carry an East or West prefix, which changes from one to the other at Broadway below 8th Street, the numbered streets carry crosstown traffic. In general, but with exceptions, even-numbered streets are one-way eastbound. Most wider streets, and a few of the narrow ones, some streets in that area that do continue farther west change direction before reaching the Hudson River. 220th Street is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island, but Marble Hill is also within the borough of Manhattan, the numbering system continues in the Bronx, up to 263rd Street. The lowest numbered street in Manhattan is East First Street, which runs through Alphabet City near East Houston Street, there is also a First Place in Battery Park City. East 1st Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue A, peretz Square, a small triangular sliver park where Houston Street, First Street and First Avenue meet marks the spot where the grid takes hold. East 2nd Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue C, the East end of East 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 7th Streets is Avenue D, with East 6th Street continuing further Eastward and connecting to FDR Drive. The west end of these streets is the Bowery and Third Avenue, except for 3rd Street and 4th Street, great Jones Street connects East 3rd to West 3rd. For 4th Street, see 4th Street, East 5th Street goes west to Cooper Square, but is interrupted between Avenues B and C by The Earth School, Public School 364, and between First Avenue and Avenue A by the Village View Apartments. West 8th Street is an important local shopping street, 8th Street between Avenue A and Third Avenue is called St Marks Place, but it is counted in the length below. M8 bus route operates eastbound on 8th Street and westbound on 9th Street between Avenue A and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street begins at the FDR Drive and Avenue C. West of Sixth Avenue, it turns southward about 40 degrees to join the Greenwich Village street grid, because West 4th Street turns northward at Sixth Avenue, it intersects 10th, 11th and 12th and 13th Streets in the West Village. The M8 bus operates on 10th Street in both directions between Avenue D and Avenue A, and eastbound between West Street and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street has an eastbound bike lane from West Street to the East River. In 2009, the section of 10th Street between Avenue A and the East River had bicycle markings and sharrows installed, but it still has no dedicated bike lane. West 10th Street was previously named Amos Street for Charles Chistopher Amos, the end of West 10th Street toward the Hudson River was once the home of Newgate Prison, New York Citys first prison and the United States second
29.
Lexington Avenue
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Along its 5. 5-mile, 110-block route, Lexington Avenue runs through Harlem, Carnegie Hill, the Upper East Side, Midtown, and Murray Hill to a point of origin that is centered on Gramercy Park. South of Gramercy Park, the axis continues as Irving Place from 20th Street to East 14th Street, the portion of Lexington Avenue between 14th and 20th Streets is known as Irving Place. Ruggles had purchased land in the area, and was developing it as a community of townhouses around a private park. He was also developing property around the planned Union Square, the legislation approved, and, as the owner of most of the land along the route of the new street, Ruggles was assessed for the majority of its cost. Ruggles named the section, below 20th Street, which opened in 1833. The northern section, which opened three years later, in 1836, was named after the Battle of Lexington in the Revolutionary War. Lexington saw the first arrest in New York for speeding, in 1899, when a bicycle patrolman overtook cabdriver Jacob German, the portion of Lexington Avenue above East 42nd Street was reconstructed at the same time as the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. The widened street and the line both opened on July 17,1918. Parallel to Lexington Avenue lies Park Avenue to its west and Third Avenue to its east, the avenue is largely commercial at ground level, with offices above. There are clusters of hotels in the 30s and 40s, roughly from the intersection with 30th Street through to its intersection with 49th Street. Portions of the avenue were widened in 1955, which required eminent domain takings of the facades of some structures along Lexington, Lexington Avenue has carried one-way traffic since July 17,1960. The July 18,2007 New York City steam explosion sent a geyser of hot steam up from beneath the avenue at 41st Street resulting in one death and more than 40 injuries. In contrast to Lexington Avenue, the stretch of Irving Place. Irving Plaza, on East 15th Street and Irving, hosts concerts for both well-known and indie bands and draws a crowd almost every night. Another component of the avenue are the apartment buildings which line the street from Gramercy Park to 17th Street. Also at 17th, a small bed-and-breakfast, the Inn at Irving Place, offices located on Irving Place include those of The Nation magazine, the New York branch of the Rosicrucian Order and the Seafarers and International House mission. There are also a number of clinics and official city buildings along the street, including Washington Irving High School, the bottom of the street is anchored by the rear of the Zeckendorf Towers condominium apartment complex on the west side, and the Consolidated Edison Building on the east. M101 and M103 run to 125th Street, M102 runs to 116th Street, Lexington Avenue became part of a classic American cinematic moment, in the 1955 movie The Seven Year Itch, the scene in which Marilyn Monroe shot what would become her most famous scene
30.
Joseph C. Wells
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Joseph Collins Wells was an English-born architect who practiced in New York City from 1839 to 1860. He was a member of the American Institute of Architects. Two of his works, the Henry C. Bowen House and he also designed First Presbyterian Church, a New York City Landmark in Greenwich Village. Wells was born in England in 1814 and emigrated to the United States in 1839 and his first known work in the United States is the Jonathan Sturges House in Connecticut. By 1840, Wells had formed a partnership with architect William Ranlett in New York City, Wells has been credited with designing some of the earliest Gothic Revival cottages in this country, a style later popularized by Andrew Jackson Downing. In February 1857, Wells was one of 13 architects who met to form an organization to promote the scientific and practical perfection of its members, the organization became the American Institute of Architects. Others at that meeting included Richard Morris Hunt, Charles Babcock, Richard Upjohn, his son Richard Mitchell Upjohn and Leopold Eidlitz. A number of his works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Wells works include, Former Century Association Building,1857 renovation and extension by Wells,111 East 15th St, Manhattan, New York City. First Presbyterian Church, also known as Old First,48 Fifth Avenue, Greenwich Village, New York, New York, Wells designed the original 1846 structure. Luzerne County Courthouse, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania E. B, Wells of the McKim, Mead & White firm. Notes Media related to Joseph C
31.
Palazzo style architecture
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Palazzo style refers to an architectural style of the 19th and 20th centuries based upon the palazzi built by wealthy families of the Italian Renaissance. The architects of these buildings sometimes drew their details from other than the Italian Renaissance, such as Romanesque. In the 20th century, the style was applied, like the Gothic revival style. In the late 20th and 21st century some Postmodern architects have again drawn on the style for city buildings. Italian palazzi, as against villas which were set in the countryside, were part of the architecture of cities, being built as town houses, the ground floor often serving as commercial premises. Early palazzi exist from the Romanesque and Gothic periods, but the definitive style dates from a beginning in the 15th century. The earliest true Renaissance Revival Palazzo style buildings in Europe were built by the German architect Leo von Klenze who usually worked in the Greek Neo-Classical style, the walls are stoccoed and painted like the Palazzo Farnese. In England, the earliest 19th-century application of the Palazzo style was to a number of London gentlemens clubs and it was then applied to residences, both as town and, less commonly, country houses and to banks and commercial premises. In the late 19th century, the Palazzo style was adapted and expanded to serve as an architectural form for department stores and warehouses. In England, the Palazzo style was at its purist in the quarter of the 19th century. Early examples are the London clubs, The Athenaeum Club by Decimus Burton and The United Service Club by John Nash and Decimus Burton on Waterloo Place, in 1829 Barry initiated Renaissance Revival architecture in England with his Palazzo style design for The Travellers Club, Pall Mall. They are Florentine in style, rather than Palladian, Barry built a second palazzo on Pall Mall, The Reform Club, as well as The Athenaeum, Manchester. Barrys other major essays in this style are the townhouse Bridgewater House, London, after Charles Barry, the Palazzo style was adopted for different purposes, particularly banking. The Belfast Bank had its premises remodelled by Sir Charles Lanyon in 1845, no.15 Kensington Palace Gardens by James Thomas Knowles freely adapts features of the palazzo. A major 19th-century architect to work extensively in the Palazzo style was Edmund Blacket, Blacket arrived in Sydney, Australia, just a few years before the discovery of gold in NSW and Victoria in 1851. Within the next decade he built the head premises of six different banking companies in Sydney, T. Rochead and Watts Warehouse, Manchester, by Travis and Magnall, a virtuoso performance in palazzo design. The palazzo style found wider application in the late 19th century when it was adapted for retail, henry Hobson Richardson designed a number of buildings using the palazzo form but remarkable for employing the Italian Romanesque rather than Renaissance style. Only one of Richardsons palazzo style commercial buildings remains intact, the Hayden Building in Boston and this technological development permitted the construction of much taller habitable buildings than was previously possible
32.
Ashlar
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Ashlar is finely dressed masonry, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared or the masonry built of such stone. It is the finest stone masonry unit, generally cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, one such decorative treatment consists of small grooves achieved by the application of a metal comb. Generally used only on softer stone ashlar, this decoration is known as masons drag, ashlar is in contrast to rubble masonry, which employs irregularly shaped stones, although sometimes minimally worked or selected for similar size, or both. Ashlar is related but distinct from other stone masonry that is finely dressed but not quadrilateral, such as curvilinear masonry, ashlar may be coursed, which involves lengthy horizontal courses of stone blocks laid in parallel, and therefore with continuous horizontal joints. Ashlar may also be random, which involves stone blocks laid with deliberately discontinuous courses, in either case, it generally uses a joining material such as mortar to bind the blocks together, although dry ashlar construction, metal ties, and other methods of assembly have been used. The dry ashlar of Inca architecture in Cusco and Machu Picchu is particularly fine, the word is attested in Middle English and derives from Old French aisselier, from Latin axilla, diminutive of axis, plank. Ashlar blocks have been used in the construction of buildings as an alternative to brick or other materials. In classical architecture, ashlar wall surfaces were contrasted with rustication. The term is used to describe the dressed stone work of prehistoric Greece and Crete. For example, the tombs of Bronze Age Mycenae use ashlar masonry in the construction of the so-called beehive dome. This dome consists of finely cut ashlar blocks that decrease in size and these domes are not true domes, but are constructed using the corbel arch. Ashlar masonry was also used in the construction of palace facades on Crete. These constructions date to the MM III-LM Ib period, ca, in modern European masonry the blocks are generally about 35 centimetres in height. When shorter than 30 centimetres, they are called small ashlar. In some Masonic groupings, which such societies term jurisdictions, ashlars are used as a metaphor for how ones personal development relates to the tenets of their lodge. Ablaq Dimension stone Opus quadratum Rustication Stone cladding Stone veneer
33.
Stucco
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Stucco or render is a material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a dense solid. It is used as coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe. In English, stucco usually means a coating for the outside of a building, and plaster one for interiors, as described below, but other European languages, importantly including Italian, do not have the same distinction, stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. This has led to English often using stucco for interior decorative plasterwork in relief, especially in art history, the difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster, and mortar is based more on use than composition. Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength, in the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency in an attempt to improve the durability of stucco. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were being replaced by gypsum plaster, traditional stucco is made of lime, sand, and water. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand, and water, lime is added to increase the permeability and workability of modern stucco. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve the properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, lime stucco is a relatively hard material that can be broken or chipped by hand without too much difficulty. The lime itself is white, color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments. Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a degree because of the slight water solubility of lime. Portland cement stucco is very hard and brittle and can easily crack if the base on which it is applied is not stable, typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also used. Todays stucco manufacturers offer a wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive and it was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over a solid masonry, brick or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained a color and was typically textured for appearance. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco, while the increased thickness, the traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats — the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat
34.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
35.
Mansard roof
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A mansard or mansard roof is a four-sided gambrel-style hip roof characterized by two slopes on each of its sides with the lower slope, punctured by dormer windows, at a steeper angle than the upper. The steep roof with windows creates a floor of habitable space. The upper slope of the roof may not be visible from street level when viewed from close proximity to the building, the earliest known example of a mansard roof is credited to Pierre Lescot on part of the Louvre built around 1550. This roof design was popularized in the early 17th century by François Mansart and it became especially fashionable during the Second French Empire of Napoléon III. Mansard in Europe also means the attic space itself, not just the roof shape and is used in Europe to mean a gambrel roof. Two distinct traits of the mansard roof – steep sides and a double pitch – sometimes lead to it being confused with other roof types. Since the upper slope of a roof is rarely visible from the ground. The gambrel roof style, commonly seen in barns in North America, is a cousin of the mansard. Both mansard and gambrel roofs fall under the classification of curb roofs. However, the mansard is a hip roof, with slopes on all sides of the building. French roof is used as a synonym for a mansard but is also defined as an American variation of a mansard with the lower pitches nearly vertical. In France and Germany, no distinction is made between gambrels and mansards – they are both called mansards, in the French language, mansarde can be a term for the style of roof, or for the garret living space, or attic, directly within it. The mansard style makes use of the interior space of the attic. Often the decorative potential of the Mansard is exploited through the use of convex or concave curvature, one frequently seen explanation for the popularity of the mansard style is that it served to shelter its owners against taxes as well as rain. Later examples suggest that either French or American buildings were taxed by their height to the base of the roof and this last explanation is the nearest to the truth, a Parisian law had been in place since 1783, restricting the heights of buildings to 20 metres. The height was measured up to the cornice line, making any living space contained in a mansard roof exempt. A1902 revision of the law permitted building three or even four stories within such a roof, the style was popularized in France by architect François Mansart. Although he was not the inventor of the style, his extensive and prominent use of it in his designs gave rise to the mansard roof
36.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
37.
George B. Post
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George Browne Post was an American architect trained in the Beaux-Arts tradition. Many of his most characteristic projects were for commercial buildings where new requirements pushed the boundaries of design. Many of them have also been demolished, since their locations in New York. Some of his lost buildings were landmarks of their era, nevertheless and his eight-story Equitable Life Assurance Society, was the first office building designed to use elevators, Post himself leased the upper floors when contemporaries predicted they could not be rented. His Western Union Telegraph Building at Dey Street in Lower Manhattan, was the first office building to rise as high as ten stories, when it was erected in Newspaper Row facing City Hall Park, Posts twenty-story New York World Building was the tallest building in New York City. He was born on December 15,1837 in Manhattan, New York to Joel Browne Post and he graduated from New York University in 1858 with a degree in civil engineering. He then became a student of Richard Morris Hunt from 1858 to 1860, in 1860 he formed a partnership with a fellow-student in Hunts office, Charles D. Gambrill, with a brief hiatus for service in the Civil War. He married Alice Matilda Stone on October 14,1863 and they had five children, George Browne, Jr. William Stone, Allison Wright, James Otis and Alice Winifred. At the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois in 1893, Post was named to the staff by Burnham. He designed the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, Post served as the sixth president of the American Institute of Architects from 1896 to 1899, and received the AIA Gold Medal in 1911. He died on November 28,1913 in Bernardsville, New Jersey, Post was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City. He also designed more staid public and semi-public structures, New York Stock Exchange Building Bronx Borough Hall Wisconsin State Capitol, in Newport, Rhode Island he built for the president of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, C. C. Baldwin, Chateau-Nooga or the Baldwin Cottage, an exercise in the Quaint Style with bargeboards and half-timbering. He trained architect Arthur Bates Jennings, a true member of the American Renaissance, Post engaged notable artists and artisans to add decorative sculpture and murals to his architectural designs. Among those who worked with Post were the sculptor Karl Bitter and painter Elihu Vedder, Post was a founding member of the National Arts Club, serving as president from 1898 to 1905. In 1905, his two sons were taken into the partnership, and they continued to lead the firm after Posts death, thereafter, the firm carried on under the stewardship of Posts grandson, Edward Everett Post until the late twentieth century. Post served as president of the American Institute of Architects, 1896-99. His extensive archive is in the collection at the New-York Historical Society, sarah Bradford Landaus publication George B
38.
Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
39.
Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
40.
Trinity Broadcasting Network
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The Trinity Broadcasting Network is an international Christian-based broadcast television network. Operating as an independent entity, TBN is also the worlds largest religious television network, TBN was headquartered in Costa Mesa, California until March 3,2017 when it sold its highly visible office park. The broadcaster will retain its Tustin facilities, auxiliary studio facilities are located in Irving, Texas, Hendersonville, Tennessee, Gadsden, Alabama, Decatur, Georgia, Miami, Florida, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Orlando, Florida, and New York City. TBN also offers a range of original programming, and faith-based films from various distributors. TBN owns and operates six broadcast networks, each reaching separate demographics, in addition to the main TBN network, TBN owns Hillsong Channel, Smile, TBN Enlace, TBN Salsa and JUCE TV. It also owns several other networks outside of the United States. Matt Crouch currently serves as TBNs president and head of operations, the Trinity Broadcasting Network was co-founded in 1973 by Paul Crouch, an Assemblies of God minister, and spouse Jan Crouch as KTBN. TBN began their activities by renting time on independent station KBSA in Ontario. After that station was sold, he began buying two hours a day of programming time on KLXA-TV in Fontana, California in early 1974 and that station was put up for sale shortly afterward. Paul Crouch then placed a bid to buy the station for $1 million, initially, the station ran Christian programs for about six hours a day. The fledgling network was so weak in its first days, that, according to Crouch in his autobiography and it almost went bankrupt after just two days on the air. TBN began national distribution through cable providers in 1978. The ministry, which known as the Trinity Broadcasting Network. The network was a member of the National Religious Broadcasters association until 1990, in 1977, the ministry purchased KPAZ-TV in Phoenix, Arizona, becoming its second television station property. TBNs availability eventually expanded to 95% of American households by early 2005, TBNs programming is available by default via a national feed distributed to cable and satellite providers in markets without a local TBN station. Worldwide, TBNs channels are broadcast on 70 satellites and over 18,000 television, the TBN networks are also streamed live on the internet globally, the network also provides select archived shows on demand, through the website and select IPTV services. During 2010, citing economic problems and a lack of donations, TBN closed down, of those,17 were sold to another Christian television network, Daystar. On April 13,2012, TBN sold 36 of its translators to Regal Media, a group headed by George Cooney
41.
Palace
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A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name Palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences, in many parts of Europe, the term is also applied to ambitious private mansions of the aristocracy. Many historic palaces are now put to uses such as parliaments, museums, hotels. The word is sometimes used to describe a lavishly ornate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions. The word palace comes from Old French palais, from Latin Palātium, the original palaces on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power while the capitol on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills the Palatine remained a residential area. Emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero, with his Golden House, enlarged the house, the word Palātium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill. Palace meaning government can be recognized in a remark of Paul the Deacon, AD790 and describing events of the 660s, When Grimuald set out for Beneventum, he entrusted his palace to Lupus. At the same time, Charlemagne was consciously reviving the Roman expression in his palace at Aachen, in the 9th century, the palace indicated the housing of the government too, and the constantly travelling Charlemagne built fourteen. In the Holy Roman Empire the powerful independent Electors came to be housed in palaces and this has been used as evidence that power was widely distributed in the Empire, as in more centralized monarchies, only the monarchs residence would be a palace. In modern times, the term has been applied by archaeologists and historians to large structures that housed combined ruler, court, in informal usage, a palace can be extended to a grand residence of any kind. The earliest known palaces were the residences of the Egyptian Pharaohs at Thebes, featuring an outer wall enclosing labyrinthine buildings. Other ancient palaces include the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Nineveh, the Minoan palace at Knossos, the Brazilian new capital, Brasília, hosts modern palaces, most designed by the citys architect Oscar Niemeyer. The Alvorada Palace is the residence of the Brazils president. The Planalto Palace is the official workplace, the Jaburu Palace is the official residence of Brazils vice-president. In Canada, Government House is a given to the official residences of the Canadian monarchy. The use of the term Government House is a custom from the British Empire
42.
43rd Street (Manhattan)
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The New York City borough of Manhattan contains 228 numbered east–west streets, the majority of them created by the Commissioners Plan of 1811. These streets do not run exactly east–west, because the plan is aligned with the Hudson River, rather than with the cardinal direction. Thus, the grids west is approximately 29 degrees north of true west, the grid covers the length of the island from 14th Street north. All numbered streets carry an East or West prefix, which changes from one to the other at Broadway below 8th Street, the numbered streets carry crosstown traffic. In general, but with exceptions, even-numbered streets are one-way eastbound. Most wider streets, and a few of the narrow ones, some streets in that area that do continue farther west change direction before reaching the Hudson River. 220th Street is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island, but Marble Hill is also within the borough of Manhattan, the numbering system continues in the Bronx, up to 263rd Street. The lowest numbered street in Manhattan is East First Street, which runs through Alphabet City near East Houston Street, there is also a First Place in Battery Park City. East 1st Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue A, peretz Square, a small triangular sliver park where Houston Street, First Street and First Avenue meet marks the spot where the grid takes hold. East 2nd Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue C, the East end of East 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 7th Streets is Avenue D, with East 6th Street continuing further Eastward and connecting to FDR Drive. The west end of these streets is the Bowery and Third Avenue, except for 3rd Street and 4th Street, great Jones Street connects East 3rd to West 3rd. For 4th Street, see 4th Street, East 5th Street goes west to Cooper Square, but is interrupted between Avenues B and C by The Earth School, Public School 364, and between First Avenue and Avenue A by the Village View Apartments. West 8th Street is an important local shopping street, 8th Street between Avenue A and Third Avenue is called St Marks Place, but it is counted in the length below. M8 bus route operates eastbound on 8th Street and westbound on 9th Street between Avenue A and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street begins at the FDR Drive and Avenue C. West of Sixth Avenue, it turns southward about 40 degrees to join the Greenwich Village street grid, because West 4th Street turns northward at Sixth Avenue, it intersects 10th, 11th and 12th and 13th Streets in the West Village. The M8 bus operates on 10th Street in both directions between Avenue D and Avenue A, and eastbound between West Street and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street has an eastbound bike lane from West Street to the East River. In 2009, the section of 10th Street between Avenue A and the East River had bicycle markings and sharrows installed, but it still has no dedicated bike lane. West 10th Street was previously named Amos Street for Charles Chistopher Amos, the end of West 10th Street toward the Hudson River was once the home of Newgate Prison, New York Citys first prison and the United States second
43.
Garrick Club
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The Garrick Club is a gentlemens club in the heart of London founded in 1831. From the literary world came writers such as Charles Dickens, H. G. Wells, J. M. Barrie, A. A. Milne, the visual arts have been represented by painters such as John Everett Millais, Lord Leighton and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. In 1956 the rights to A. A. Milnes Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries, his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club. As of 2016, the club has around 1,400 members including many of the most distinguished actors, the Garrick Club is also home to major collections of art, with more than 1,000 paintings, drawings and sculptures on display. It also houses a theatrical library, the Garrick Club was founded at a meeting in the Committee Room at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, on Wednesday 17 August 1831. Present were James Winston, Samuel James Arnold, Samuel Beazley, General Sir Andrew Barnard and it was decided to write down a number of names in order to invite them to be original members of the Garrick Club. The avowed purpose of the Club was to tend to the regeneration of the Drama and it was to be a place where “actors and men of refinement could meet on equal terms” at a time when actors were not generally considered to be respectable members of society. Less than six months later the members had been recruited and a Club House found and equipped on King Street in Covent Garden. On 1 February 1832 it was reported that the novelist and journalist Thomas Gaspey was the first member to enter at 11am, even the patron, the Duke of Sussex, had an element of the theatrical about him, being a well-known mesmerist. To this can be added numerous Barons, Counts, Dukes, Earls and Lords, soldiers, parliamentarians and judges. The membership would later include Charles Kean, Henry Irving, Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Arthur Sullivan, J. M. Barrie, Arthur Wing Pinero, Laurence Olivier and John Gielgud. From the literary world came writers such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, H. G. Wells, A. A. Milne, the visual arts has been represented by painters such as John Everett Millais, Lord Leighton and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The Club’s popularity at the beginning of the 1860s created an overcrowding of its original clubhouse, slum clearance being undertaken just round the corner provided the opportunity to move into a brand-new purpose-built home on what became known as Garrick Street. The move was completed in 1864 and the Club remains in this building today, the Club remains for gentlemen only, which is to say restricted to male members, although women guests are welcome as visitors in most parts of the Club. Several past attempts to open the club to women members have failed to attain the necessary majority, though the most recent poll, in mid-2015. Baroness Hale, Deputy President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, has protested about the continued exclusion of women. The Club holds a collection of art works representing the history of the British theatre. There are over 1000 paintings, drawings and sculptures, a selection of theatrical memorabilia and he also actively commissioned artists such as Samuel De Wilde to paint all the popular stars of the stage at that time
44.
The Daily Telegraph
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It was founded by Arthur B. Sleigh in 1855 as The Daily Telegraph and Courier, the papers motto, Was, is, and will be, appears in the editorial pages and has featured in every edition of the newspaper since April 19,1858. The paper had a circulation of 460,054 in December 2016 and its sister paper, The Sunday Telegraph, which started in 1961, had a circulation of 359,287 as of December 2016. The Daily Telegraph has the largest circulation for a newspaper in the UK. The two sister newspapers are run separately, with different editorial staff, but there is cross-usage of stories, articles published in either may be published on the Telegraph Media Groups www. telegraph. co. uk website, under the title of The Telegraph. However, critics, including an editor, accuse it of being unduly influenced by advertisers. The Daily Telegraph and Courier was founded by Colonel Arthur B, Sleigh in June 1855 to air a personal grievance against the future commander-in-chief of the British Army, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Joseph Moses Levy, the owner of The Sunday Times, agreed to print the newspaper, the paper cost 2d and was four pages long. Nevertheless, the first edition stressed the quality and independence of its articles and journalists, however, the paper was not a success, and Sleigh was unable to pay Levy the printing bill. Levy took over the newspaper, his aim being to produce a newspaper than his main competitors in London. The same principle should apply to all other events—to fashion, to new inventions, in 1876, Jules Verne published his novel Michael Strogoff, whose plot takes place during a fictional uprising and war in Siberia. In 1937, the newspaper absorbed The Morning Post, which espoused a conservative position. Originally William Ewart Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose, bought The Morning Post with the intention of publishing it alongside The Daily Telegraph, for some years the paper was retitled The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post before it reverted to just The Daily Telegraph. As an result, Gordon Lennox was monitored by MI5, in 1939, The Telegraph published Clare Hollingworths scoop that Germany was to invade Poland. In November 1940, with Fleet Street subjected to almost daily bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, The Telegraph started printing in Manchester at Kemsley House, Manchester quite often printed the entire run of The Telegraph when its Fleet Street offices were under threat. The name Kemsley House was changed to Thomson House in 1959, in 1986 printing of Northern editions of the Daily and Sunday Telegraph moved to Trafford Park and in 2008 to Newsprinters at Knowsley, Liverpool. During the Second World War, The Daily Telegraph covertly helped in the recruitment of code-breakers for Bletchley Park, the ability to solve The Telegraphs crossword in under 12 minutes was considered to be a recruitment test. The competition itself was won by F. H. W. Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes, both the Camrose and Burnham families remained involved in management until Conrad Black took control in 1986
45.
The Century Company
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The Century Company was an American publishing company, founded in 1881. It was originally a subsidiary of Charles Scribners Sons, named Scribners and Company, the magazine that the company had published up to that time, Scribners Monthly, was renamed The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine. The Century Company was also the publisher of St. Nicholas Magazine from the time of its founding, in 1933 the Century Company merged with publisher D. Appleton & Company to form Appleton-Century Company, and later Appleton-Century-Crofts. Century Vagabond Books Century Dictionary Century type family Duell, Sloan and Pearce Meredith Publishing Company History of the Century Company at New York Public Library
46.
The Century Magazine
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It was the successor of Scribners Monthly Magazine and ceased publication in 1930. The change of name brought no change in scope or policy, and Scribner’s Monthly. Dr. Holland was an editor who knew what the public wanted. From the first he secured well-known contributors of high rank, a Publisher’s Department, with A word to our readers, or A talk with our readers, though relegated to the advertising pages, continued the methods of the old-fashioned personal journalist. The Century has always given much space to illustrated articles on history, the Life of Lincoln by Nicolay and Hay, large parts of which appeared serially in the Century, was of higher grade. Stedman had, even in the days of Scribner’s Monthly, contributed articles on the American poets, without neglecting fiction, poetry, and other general literature the magazine has devoted rather more attention than has Harper’s to matters of timely, though not of temporary, interest. The magazine was successful during the 19th century, most notably for the aforementioned series of articles about the American Civil War. It included reminiscences of 230 participants from all ranks of the service on both sides of the conflict, upon Gilder’s death in 1909, Robert Underwood Johnson replaced him as editor. According to Arthur John, the later history was marked by sudden shifts in content, format. In 1929, due to competition from cheaper magazines and newspapers, The Century became a quarterly, at the time it folded, The Century had 20,000 subscribers, less than a tenth of its peak circulation of the late nineteenth century. Scribner’s Monthly Magazine, the periodical that became The Century in 1881, the noted critic and editor Frank Crowninshield briefly served as the magazines art editor. The tone and content of The Century changed over its long history and it began as an Evangelical Christian publication, but over time began to speak to a more general educated audience as it developed into the largest periodical in the country. Novelist and poet Josiah G. Holland was one of the three founders of Scribner’s Monthly and wrote regular editorials for the periodical, setting the tone for the magazines content. As Holland was deeply religious, Scribners to a great extent reflected the views, while hostile towards sectarianism within Protestantism, Scribners initially took a strong stand against both Catholicism and those who doubted the divinity of Christ. Less than one year later, the magazine attacked the skepticism of Henry David Thoreau, mormon polygamy was also a frequent target. At the same time, Scribner’s Monthly, being non-dogmatic in its Protestantism, by the end of the 1870s, however, Scribner’s had departed from its original Evangelical orientation. An April 1879 editorial declared all seekers of truth, whether believing Christians or not, to be allies, Catholics were said to have just as much to teach Protestants as Protestants had to teach Catholics. After the magazine became The Century in 1881, it continued to hold onto this secular outlook under Gilder, the break with the past was reflected in the magazine’s changing treatment of the question of evolution
