1.
Cessna
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The Cessna Aircraft Company is an American general aviation aircraft manufacturing corporation headquartered in Wichita, Kansas. Best known for small, piston-powered aircraft, Cessna also produces business jets, the company is a subsidiary of the U. S. conglomerate Textron. In March 2014 Cessna became a brand of Textron Aviation, Clyde Cessna, a farmer in Rago, Kansas, built his own aircraft and flew it in June 1911, the first person to do so between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Cessna started his wood-and-fabric aircraft ventures in Enid, Oklahoma, testing many of his early planes on the salt flats, when bankers in Enid refused to lend him more money to build his planes, he moved to Wichita. Cessna Aircraft was formed when Clyde Cessna and Victor Roos became partners in the Cessna-Roos Aircraft Company in 1927, Roos resigned just one month into the partnership selling back his interest to Cessna. In the same year, the Kansas Secretary of State approved dropping Rooss name from the company name, the Cessna DC-6 earned certification on the same day as the stock market crash of 1929,29 October 1929. In 1932 Cessna Aircraft Company closed its doors due to the Great Depression, however the Cessna CR-3 custom racer took its first flight in 1933. The plane won the 1933 American Air Race in Chicago and later set a new speed record for engines smaller than 500 cubic inches by averaging 237 mph. Cessnas nephews, Dwane Wallace and his brother Dwight, bought the company from Cessna in 1934 and they reopened it and began the process of building it into what would become a global success. The Cessna C-37 was introduced in 1937 as Cessnas first seaplane when equipped with Edo floats, in 1940, Cessna received their largest order to date, when they signed a contract with the U. S. Army for 33 specially equipped Cessna T-50s. Later in 1940, the Royal Canadian Air Force placed an order for 180 T-50s, Cessna returned to commercial production in 1946, after the revocation of wartime production restrictions with the release of the Model 120 and Model 140. The approach was to introduce a new line of aircraft that used production tools, dies. The Model 140 was named by the US Flight Instructors Association as the Outstanding Plane of the Year, Cessnas first helicopter, the Cessna CH-1, received FAA type certification, in 1955. Cessna introduced the Cessna 172, in 1956 and it became the most produced airplane in history. In 1960 Cessna affiliated itself with Reims Aviation of Reims, France,1963 saw Cessna produce its 50, 000th airplane, a Cessna 172. Cessnas first business jet, the Cessna Citation I performed its maiden flight on 15 September 1969, Cessna produced its 100, 000th single engine airplane in 1975. In 1985 Cessna ceased to be an independent company and it was purchased by General Dynamics Corporation and became a wholly owned subsidiary. Production of the Cessna Caravan began, General Dynamics in turn, sold Cessna to Textron Inc, in 1992
2.
Cessna 310
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The Cessna 310 is an American six-seat, low-wing, twin-engined monoplane that was produced by Cessna between 1954 and 1980. It was the first twin-engined aircraft that Cessna put into production after World War II, the 310 first flew on January 3,1953 with deliveries starting in late 1954. The sleek modern lines of the new twin were backed up by innovative features such as engine exhaust thrust augmenter tubes, in 1964, the engine exhaust was changed to flow under the wing instead of the augmenter tubes, which were considered to be noisy. Typical of Cessna model naming conventions, a letter was added after the number to identify changes to the original design over the years. The first significant upgrade to the 310 series was the 310C in 1959, in 1960 the 310D featured swept back vertical tail surfaces. An extra cabin window was added with the 310F, the 320 Skyknight was developed from the 310F, which featured turbocharged TSIO-470-B engines and a fourth cabin side-window. The Skyknight was in production between 1961 and 1969, when it was replaced by the similar Turbo 310, a single side window replaced the rear two windows on the 310K, with optional three-blade propellers being introduced as well. Over the years there were modifications to the 310 to improve performance. Noted aircraft engineer Jack Riley produced two variants, The Riley Rocket 310 and the Riley Turbostream 310, Riley replaced the standard Continental 310 hp engines with Lycoming TIO-540350 hp engines. These turbocharged intercooled engines were installed with three-blade Hartzell propellers in a configuration to further increase performance. At 5,400 lb. gross weight the aircraft had a weight to power ratio of 7.71 lb. per horsepower and this resulted in a cruising speed of 260 knots at 18,000 feet and a 3, 000fpm rate of climb. The Cessna 310 was a charter aircraft for the many air taxi firms that sprang up in the general aviation boom that followed World War II. It could use short runways while at the time carrying a large useful load of 2,000 lb. or more. In 1957, the United States Air Force selected the Cessna 310 for service as a utility aircraft for transport. The USAF purchased 160 unmodified 310A aircraft with the designation L-27A and unofficially nicknamed Blue Canoe, a USAF study after one year of operational service found the U-3A had direct operating costs of less than $12 an hour. Some USAF aircraft were transferred to the US Army and US Navy. 310 Production aircraft powered by two 240 hp Continental O-470-B engines,547 built, 310A Military version of the 310 for the United States Air Force, designated L-27A and later U-3A,160 built. 310B310 with new instrument panel, O-470-M engines and minor changes,225 built, 310C 310B with 260 hp IO-470-D engines, increased takeoff weight and minor changes,259 built
3.
Airstair
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An airstair is a set of steps built into an aircraft so that passengers may board and alight the aircraft. The stairs are often built into a door on the aircraft. Airstairs eliminate the need for passengers to use a mobile stairway or jetway to board or exit the aircraft, some of the earliest aircraft to feature airstairs were the Martin 2-0-2 and Martin 4-0-4. Some models of the Douglas DC-3 were also retrofitted with airstairs, as airport infrastructure has developed, the need for airstairs has decreased, as jetways or mobile stairways are often available. Wide-body aircraft rarely employ airstairs, as the doors are higher above the ground than narrow-body aircraft. One notable exception is the Lockheed L-1011, the only aircraft to feature full-height airstairs. The only other wide-bodies with airstairs, the VC-25 and the Ilyushin Il-86, have airstairs contained in the cargo hold, the Ilyushin Il-86 has three airstairs on the port side. Aircraft such as the Fokker F-28 series and the VFW-Fokker 614 made this design popular, the stairs are actually part of the door rather than an attached stair. Another widespread type of airstair is used for forward doors, the stair folds and stows under the floor of the door and is deployed from the fuselage immediately below the forward door. This type of airstair is found on many short-range aircraft such as Boeing 737s, DC-9s, the mechanism is also quite heavy, as a result, many airlines have removed this system to reduce aircraft weight. This system was cumbersome, was very susceptible to damage. This design was ultimately so large and heavy, and it took up cargo space. The original On-Board Folding Airstairs were designed by Winters Aircraft Engineering Company over 30 years ago, the On-Board Folding Airstairs can be found in use on many U. S. and Foreign Military and Government Aircraft including the Boeing E4B as well as VIP aircraft around the world. The On-Board Folding Airstairs is a multi-section airstair that can be installed at either the forward, center, when retracted/closed, the airstair sits on a track and is typically stowed in a closet either Forward, Aft, or Transverse. A rear, ventral, airstair can be used as a means of parachuting from an airliner that is equipped with one. This was attempted on 24 November 1971 by an unknown hijacker, Cooper, who jumped from a Boeing 727 along with US$200,000 in ransom money. However it is if he survived the jump. Subsequently, a number of individuals carried out copycat hijackings against Boeing 727s and safely parachuted to the ground, to prevent this, Boeing 727s were ordered to be fitted with a simple device known as a Cooper vane that prevented the ventral airstair from being opened in flight
4.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
5.
Wing loading
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In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded mass of the aircraft divided by the area of the wing. An aircraft with a low wing loading has a wing area relative to its mass. The faster an aircraft flies, the lift is produced by each unit of wing area, so a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight. This increased wing load also increases takeoff and landing distances and speeds, a high wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints apply to winged biological organisms, the table, which shows wing loadings, is intended to give an idea of the range of wing loadings used by aircraft. There will be variations amongst variants of any particular type, the dates are approximate, indicating period of introduction. The upper critical limit for bird flight is about 25 kg/m2, an analysis of bird flight which looked at 138 species ranging in mass from 10 g to 10 kg, from small passerines to swans and cranes found wing loadings from about 1 to 20 kg/m2. The wing loadings of some of the lightest aircraft fall comfortably within this range, one typical hang glider has a maximum wing loading of 6.3 kg/m2, and an ultralight rigid glider 8.3 kg/m2. Wing loading is a measure of the general maneuvering performance of an aircraft. Wings generate lift owing to the motion of air over the wing surface, larger wings move more air, so an aircraft with a large wing area relative to its mass will have more lift available at any given speed. Therefore, an aircraft with wing loading will be able to take off. It will also be able to turn at a higher speed. Quantitatively, the lift force L on a wing of area A, traveling at speed v is given by L A =12 v 2 ρ C L, where ρ is the density of air and CL is the lift coefficient. The latter is a number of order unity which depends on the wing cross-sectional profile. At take-off or in flight, neither climbing nor diving, the lift force. With L/A = Mg/A =WSg, where M is the mass, WS = M/A the wing loading and g the acceleration due to gravity. As a consequence, aircraft with the same CL at takeoff under the atmospheric conditions will have takeoff speeds proportional to W S. So if a wing area is increased by 10% and nothing else changed
6.
Beechcraft Duke
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The Beechcraft 60 Duke is an American-built twin-engine fixed-wing aircraft created by Beechcraft. The aircraft has retractable tricycle landing gear and a pressurized cabin, the two piston engines are turbocharged and the turbochargers also pressurize the cabin with bleed air. The development of the Beechcraft 60 began in early 1965 and it was designed to fill the gap between the Beechcraft Baron and the Beechcraft Queen Air, on 29 December 1966 the prototype made its first flight. On 1 February 1968 the FAA issued the type certificate, distribution to customers began in July 1968. The passenger cabin is fitted with seating and entry is by means of a port-side airstair entry door in the rear fuselage. The last variant, the B60, was introduced in 1974, the interior arrangement was renewed and the engine efficiency again increased by improved turbochargers. The Beechcraft 60 was, despite its good performance, only a moderate seller. Most of the Duke B-60s still flying have retained their original equipment, electro-mechanical systems, which were highly advanced when the aircraft was introduced, were superseded in other aircraft with simpler I/C controlled mechanical parts. The aircraft design uses turbocharged Lycoming TIO541-B4 engines that develop 380 hp each, other systems, parts, and FAA certified technicians are increasingly difficult to locate. Normally, pilots figure 45 gallons per hour, plus another 40 gallons for each takeoff, owners compare the Beechcraft B60 to classic sports cars—noting that they do not fly Dukes to economize. Some Dukes have been modified by Rocket Engineering of Spokane, Washington, called the Royal Turbine Duke conversion, the modification increases fuel capacity by 28 gallons and the maximum useful load by 400 pounds. The take-off length required is shortened by over 1,500 feet to only 1,000 feet and the landing distance is reduced by over 2,000 feet to only 900. The maximum rate of climb is increased from 1,600 feet per minute to 4,000 feet per minute, the cruise speed is increased to 290 knots at 29,000 feet. The modification does have some disadvantages as it increases fuel burn from 56 gallons per hour to 66, the supplemental type certificate was issued on May 12,2006. The Duke was purchased by corporate and private pilot owners, one Duke was flown by the Jamaica Defense Force. Many remain in service in the early twenty-first century, the assertive lines of the airframe made for a startlingly attractive airplane, but lead to high costs of manufacture and, surprising to the casual onlooker, horrendous drag. The roughly 230-knot max. cruise speed is marginally less than that of a King Air 90 and about the same as a Cessna 421. Owners report buying a Duke partially because of its looks, and they describe King Air maintenance costs in a piston-twin airframe and recognize that the value of the airplane is entirely dependent on the engines
7.
Piper PA-31 Navajo
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The Piper PA-31 Navajo is a family of cabin-class, twin-engined aircraft designed and built by Piper Aircraft for the general aviation market, most using Lycoming engines. It was also license-built in a number of Latin American countries, targeted at small-scale cargo and feeder liner operations and the corporate market, the aircraft was a success. It continues to prove a popular choice, but due to decreased demand across the general aviation sector in the 1980s. At the request of company founder William T. Piper, Piper began development of a six- to eight-seat twin-engined corporate and commuter transport aircraft in 1962 under the project name Inca. The type, now designated the PA-31 and looking like a scaled-up Twin Comanche, was announced in late 1964 after its first flight on 30 September that year. As testing proceeded two cabin windows were added to each side of the fuselage and the engines moved further forward, the PA-31-300 was the next model, certified by the FAA in June 1967. This model was the one of the PA-31 series not to have turbocharged engines. A pair of 300 hp Lycoming IO-540-M1A5 engines were fitted to the PA-31-300, following the introduction of the PA-31-300 the turbocharged model began to be known unofficially as the PA-31-310. The PA-31-300 was only produced in 1968 and 1969 and had the smallest production total for any PA-31 series model, the next member of the family was also Pipers first pressurized aircraft, the PA-31P Pressurized Navajo, certified in late 1969. Development of the PA-31P had begun in January 1966, before the FAA had awarded the PA-31 a Type certificate, MTOW was greatly increased at 7,800 lb. Also known unofficially as the PA-31P-425, the PA-31P was produced from 1970 to 1977, in 1971 Piper introduced improvements to the PA-31 model. The fuselage was lengthened by 2 ft 0 in, allowing for up to ten seats in total, variants of the Lycoming TIO-540 developing 350 hp were fitted to the Chieftain, with an opposite-rotation LTIO-540 installed on the right-hand wing, MTOW was increased to 7,000 lb. The Chieftains introduction was delayed by a flood at Pipers factory at Lock Haven, Pennsylvania caused by Hurricane Agnes, in 1974 Piper used a Navajo B as the basis for developing a new model, the PA-31-325 Navajo C/R. The Navajo C/R had lower-power versions of the engines of the Chieftain. After certification of the PA-31-325 in May 1974, production commenced in the 1975 model year, the Navajo B was also superseded in the 1975 model year, by the Navajo C version of the PA-31 model. Piper established its T1000 Airliner Division in May 1981 at its Lakeland, there were two aircraft in the T1000 series. The T1020, or more accurately the PA-31-350T1020 was a PA-31-350 Chieftain optimized for and it featured reduced fuel capacity compared to the standard Chieftain, with the 40 US gal auxiliary fuel tanks in each wing of the Chieftain not fitted to the T1020. It also had reduced baggage capacity and up to eleven seats, the first T1020 was delivered in December 1981
8.
Aero Commander 500 family
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The initial production version was the Aero Commander 520. Piston-engined versions manufactured after 1967 are known as the Shrike Commander, the idea for the Commander light business twin was conceived by Ted Smith, a project engineer at the Douglas Aircraft Company. Originally, the new company was going to build three pre-production aircraft, but as the first aircraft was being built, they decided to build just one prototype, the final configuration was completed in July 1946 and was designated the Model L3805. Registered NX1946, the prototype first flew on 23 April 1948, the L3805 accommodated up to five people and was powered by two Lycoming O-435-A piston engines. It was an all-metal high-wing monoplane with retractable undercarriage using components from a Vultee BT-13 Valiant, walter Beech test flew the aircraft in 1949 and expressed interest in buying the project, but passed on to develop the Beechcraft Twin Bonanza. Fairchild Aircraft also evaluated the prototype at its Hagerstown, Maryland, the prototype flew successfully and the company leased, at no cost, a new 26,000 square-foot factory at Bethany near Oklahoma City to build a production version, certified on 30 June 1950. Nearly 10,000 hours of work went into the model, including more powerful Lycoming GO-435-C2 engines. The production model was named the Commander 520, the first Commander 520 was rolled out of the new factory in August 1951. Serial number 1 was used as a demonstrator, then sold in October 1952 to the Asahi Shimbun Press Company of Tokyo. In military service, it was designated the L-26, though in 1962 this was changed to U-4 for the United States Air Force. His Shrike Commander is displayed in the colors of his last sponsor, Evergreen International Aviation, at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Air, Bob Odegaard continued the tradition in 2012, flying a 1975 Shrike 500S in a Bob Hoover tribute routine. One U-4B became a transport aircraft for Dwight D. Eisenhower between 1956 and 1960. This was the smallest Air Force One, and the first to wear the now-familiar blue-and-white livery, as of 2004, Shrike Commanders remained in service with the United States Coast Guard and United States Customs Service. A single 560F was operated by the Belgian Air Force as the transport of the late king Boudewijn from 1961 to 1973. The unpressurized, long-fuselage 680FL was operated as a package freighter by Combs Freightair in the 1970s and 1980s. The aircraft was popular with pilots, because it was extremely pilot friendly, a number are still operated on contracts for cargo and fire control applications, as their piston engines offer good fuel specifics at low altitudes and longer loiter times. C. on one engine. There they met with CAA personnel, then replaced the propeller, the flight received nationwide coverage in the press. From approximately 1961 to 1993,24 aircraft crashed when spar failures caused the loss of the wing in flight, thirty-five more spars were found cracked during inspections
9.
Airfoil
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An airfoil or aerofoil is the shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force, the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag, subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the fluid are called hydrofoils. The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack, when oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as force and can be resolved into two components, lift and drag. Most foil shapes require an angle of attack to generate lift. This turning of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines, resulting in pressure on one side. The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation, a fixed-wing aircrafts wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines, sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, an airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction. Any object with an angle of attack in a fluid, such as a flat plate. Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to more lift. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right, the curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a linear relation. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that, the drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thicker boundary layer also causes an increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near. Airfoil design is a facet of aerodynamics
10.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
11.
Lycoming O-540
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The Lycoming O-540 is a family of air-cooled six-cylinder, horizontally opposed fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter engines of 541.5 cubic inch displacement, made by Lycoming Engines. The engine is a version of the four-cylinder Lycoming O-360. Generally these engines produce 230 to 350 horsepower and they are installed on a large number of different aircraft types. Their main competitive engine is the Continental IO-520 and IO-550 series, the AEIO version was developed for high-performance competition aerobatics aircraft. Starting at 260 hp, the power was improved to 300 hp. The AEIO-540 family has achieved results in competition aircraft such as the Extra 300, CAP232. All engines have an additional prefix preceding the 540 to indicate the specific configuration of the engine, there are also numerous engine suffixes, denoting different accessories such as different manufacturers carburetors, or different magnetos. O-540 Standard, direct-drive, normally aspirated Opposed engine, equipped with a carburetor, IO-540 Normally aspirated engine with fuel Injection. AEIO-540 Normally aspirated engine with fuel injection and inverted lubrication for Aerobatic use, lTIO-540 Left-hand rotation, turbocharged, fuel-injected, used as the right-hand engine on Piper PA-31-325 Navajo C/Rs and Piper PA-31-350 Chieftains to prevent critical engine control issues. Also used for the hand side of the Aerostar 700P. IGO-540 Gearbox at the front end of the crankshaft to drive the propeller revolutions per minute than the engine. Dry sump engine built specifically for the Aero Commander 560F, TIGO-540 Turbo-charged, injected and geared IGSO-540 Supercharger driven by the engine, gearbox to drive propeller, and fuel injection. VO-540 Vertically mounted engine for use in a helicopter, normally aspirated and equipped with a carburetor, iVO-540 Normally aspirated engine with fuel injection, mounted vertically for use in a helicopter. TVO-540 Turbocharged engine equipped with a carburetor, mounted vertically for use in a helicopter, tIVO-540 Turbocharged engine with fuel injection, mounted vertically for use in a helicopter. HIO-540 Helicopter engine mounted horizontally as in fixed-wing aircraft, normally aspirated with fuel injection, tIO-541 Same as a TIO-540, except the 1 indicates an integral accessory drive. TIGO-541 Same as a TIGO-540, except the 1 indicates an integral accessory drive, data from FAA Lycoming IO-540 Series Type Certificate
12.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
