1.
Henry Fuseli
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Henry Fuseli RA was a Swiss painter, draughtsman and writer on art who spent much of his life in Britain. Many of his works, such as The Nightmare, deal with supernatural subject-matter and he painted works for John Boydells Shakespeare Gallery, and created his own Milton Gallery. He held the posts of Professor of Painting and Keeper at the Royal Academy and his style had a considerable influence on many younger British artists, including William Blake. Fuseli was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second of 18 children and his father was Johann Caspar Füssli, a painter of portraits and landscapes, and author of Lives of the Helvetic Painters. He intended Henry for the church, and sent him to the Caroline college of Zurich, one of his schoolmates there was Johann Kaspar Lavater, with whom he became close friends. After taking orders in 1761 Fuseli was forced to leave the country as a result of having helped Lavater to expose an unjust magistrate and he travelled through Germany, and then, in 1765, visited England, where he supported himself for some time by miscellaneous writing. Eventually, he acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he showed his drawings. Following Reynolds advice, he decided to devote entirely to art. In 1770 he made an art-pilgrimage to Italy, where he remained until 1778, Early in 1779 he returned to Britain, taking in Zürich on his way. In London he found a commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydell, Fuseli painted a number of pieces for Boydell, and published an English edition of Lavaters work on physiognomy. He also gave William Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing a translation of Homer, in 1788 Fuseli married Sophia Rawlins, and he soon after became an associate of the Royal Academy. Fuseli later said I hate clever women, in 1790 he became a full Academician, presenting Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent as his diploma work. In 1799 Fuseli was appointed professor of painting to the Academy, four years later he was chosen as Keeper, and resigned his professorship, but resumed it in 1810, continuing to hold both offices until his death. As Keeper, he was succeeded by Henry Thomson, in 1799 Fuseli exhibited a series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of John Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery comparable to Boydells Shakespeare gallery. There were 47 Milton paintings, many of them very large, the exhibition proved a commercial failure and closed in 1800. In 1805 he brought out an edition of Pilkingtons Lives of the Painters, which did little for his reputation. Antonio Canova, when on his visit to England, was taken with Fuselis works. As a painter, Fuseli favoured the supernatural and he pitched everything on an ideal scale, believing a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches of historical painting
2.
Folklore
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Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
3.
Folk religion
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The precise definition of folk religion varies among scholars. Sometimes also termed popular belief, it consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of a religion, the term folk religion is generally held to encompass two related but separate subjects. The first is the dimension of folk culture, or the folk-cultural dimensions of religion. Chinese folk religion, Folk Christianity, Folk Hinduism, and Folk Islam are examples of religion associated with major religions. Don Yoder argued that there were five separate ways of defining folk religion and this definition would view folk religion in Catholic Europe as the survivals of pre-Christian religion and the folk religion in Protestant Europe as the survivals of Medieval Catholicism. The fourth definition provided by Yoder stated that folk religion represented the folk interpretation and expression of religion and his fifth and final definition represented a practical working definition that combined elements from these various other definitions. Yoder described folk religion as existing in a society in relation to. Its relatively unorganized character differentiates it from organized religion and this term was first employed by a German Lutheran preacher, Paul Drews, in a 1901 article that he published which was titled Religiöse Volkskunde, eine Aufgabe der praktischen Theologie. Although developing within an environment, the term came to be adopted by German academics in the field of folkloristics. Over the coming decades, Georg Schreiber established an Institut für religiöse Volkskund in Munich while a department was established in Salzburg by Hanns Koren. Throughout the 20th century, many studies were made of folk religion in Europe, paying attention to such subjects as pilgrimage. In the Americas, the study of folk religion developed among cultural anthropologists studying the syncretistic cultures of the Caribbean and Latin America. The pioneer in this field was Redfield, whose 1930 book Tepoztlán, Yoder later noted that although the earliest known usage of the term folk religion in the English language was unknown, it probably developed as a translation of the German Volksreligion. One of the earliest prominent usages of the term was in the title of Joshua Trachtenbergs 1939 work Jewish Magic and Superstition, A Study in Folk Religion. Courses on the study of religion came to be taught at various universities in the United States, such as John Messengers at Indiana University. Although the subject of folk religion fell within the remit of scholars operating in both folkloristics and religious studies, by 1974 Yoder noted that U. S. He also lamented that many U. S. -based folklorists also neglected the subject of religion because it did not fit within the standard genre-based system for cataloguing folklore, the term folk religion came to be increasingly rejected in the 1990s and 2000s by scholars seeking more precise terminology. Yoder noted that one problem with the use of the folk religion was that it did not fit into the work of those scholars who used the term religion in reference solely to organized religion
4.
Fairy
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A fairy is a type of mythical being or legendary creature in European folklore, a form of spirit, often described as metaphysical, supernatural, or preternatural. According to Thomas Keightley, the word derives from the Latin fata. Other forms are the Italian fata, and the Provençal fada, in old French romance, fee was a woman skilled in magic, and who knew the power and virtue of words, of stones, and of herbs. Faierie became fairy, but with that now almost exclusively referring to one of the legendary people. The word fairy was used to represent an illusion, or enchantment, to the word faie was added the suffix -erie, used to express either a place where something is found or a trade or typical activity engaged in. In later usage it applied to any kind of quality or activity associated with a particular type of person. In the sense land where fairies dwell, the distinctive and archaic spellings Faery, the latinate fay is not to be confused with the unrelated fey, meaning fated to die. Various folkloristic traditions refer to them euphemistically, by such as wee folk, good folk, people of peace, fair folk. Sometimes the term fairy is used to any magical creature, including goblins or gnomes, at other times. Fairies have their origin in the conflation of Celtic traditions in the Middle French medieval romances. Fairie was in origin used adjectivally, meaning enchanted, but was used as a name for enchanted creatures from as early as the Late Middle English period. In English literature of the Elizabethan era, elves became conflated with the fairies of Romance culture, the Victorian and Edwardian eras saw an increase in interest in fairies. The Celtic Revival viewed them as part of Irelands cultural heritage, carole Silvers and others suggest that the fascination of English antiquarians arose from a reaction to greater industrialization, and loss of folkways. Fairies are generally described as human in appearance and having magical powers, even with these small fairies, however, their small size may be magically assumed rather than constant. Some fairies though normally quite small were able to dilate their figures to imitate humans, on Orkney they were described as short in stature, dressed in dark grey, and sometimes seen in armour. Wings, while common in Victorian and later artwork of fairies, are rare in the folklore, even very small fairies flew with magic. Nowadays, fairies are depicted with ordinary insect wings or butterfly wings. In some folklore, fairies have green eyes, some depictions of fairies either have them wearing some sort of footwear and other depictions of fairies are always barefoot
5.
Domestic worker
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A domestic worker or domestic helper or domestic servant is a person who works within the employers household. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food, such work has always needed to be done but before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of labour saving devices, it was physically much harder. Some domestic helpers live within their employers household, in some cases, the contribution and skill of servants whose work encompassed complex management tasks in large households have been highly valued. However, for the most part, domestic work, while necessary, is demanding, although legislation protecting domestic workers is in place in many countries, it is often not extensively enforced. In many jurisdictions, domestic work is regulated and domestic workers are subject to serious abuses. Servant is an older English word for domestic worker, though not all servants worked inside the home, Domestic service, or the employment of people for wages in their employers residence, was sometimes simply called service and has often been part of a hierarchical system. The United Kingdoms Master and Servant Act 1823 was the first of its kind and influenced the creation of domestic laws in other nations. However, before the passing of such Acts servants, and workers in general, had no protection in law, the only real advantage that domestic service provided was the provision of meals, accommodation, and sometimes clothes, in addition to a modest wage. Service was normally an apprentice system with room for advancement through the ranks, the conditions faced by domestic workers have varied considerably throughout history and in the contemporary world. In 2011, the International Labour Organization adopted the Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers. In July 2011, at the annual International Labour Conference, held by the ILO, conference delegates adopted the Convention on Domestic Workers by a vote of 396 to 16, the Convention recognized domestic workers as workers with the same rights as other workers. On 26 April 2012, Uruguay was the first country to ratify the convention, many domestic workers are live-in domestics. Though they often have their own quarters, their accommodations are not usually as comfortable as those reserved for the family members, in some cases, they sleep in the kitchen or small rooms, such as a box room, sometimes located in the basement or attic. Domestic workers may live in their own home, though often they are live-in domestics, meaning that they receive their room. The majority of workers in China, Mexico, India. Employers may require their domestic workers to wear a uniform, livery or other domestic workers clothes when in their employers residence, the uniform is usually simple, though aristocratic employers sometimes provided elaborate decorative liveries, especially for use on formal occasions. In traditional portrayals, the attire of domestic workers especially was typically more formal, on 30 March 2009, Peru adopted a law banning employers from requiring domestic workers to wear uniform at public places. However, it’s not explained which punishments will be given to employers violating the law, chile adopted a similar law in 2014, also banning employers to require domestic workers to wear uniform at public places
6.
Martino di Bartolomeo
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Martino di Bartolomeo or Martino di Bartolomeo di Biago was an Italian painter and manuscript illuminator active between 1389 and 1434. He was one of his generations principal painters of the Sienese School, from specific aspects of his early style, he is believed to have trained in the studio of Taddeo di Bartolo. As a young man Martino collaborated with Giovanni di Pietro da Napoli in Pisa, the fresco cycle in the church of San Giovanni Battista di Cascina, outside Pisa, bears Martino’s signature, and the date 1398. He returned permanently to Siena in 1405, there he painted several prominent fresco cycles in the Duomo, further official commissions for altarpieces and for polychromy of sculptures attest to his versatility and to his prestige as one of the city’s official artists. When he contracted with the Collegiata of San Gimignano for the polychromy of the carved wooden Annunciation in 1420, jacopos father, Pietro di Angiolo, worked in Martinos shop. Bénézit, Emmanuel, ed. Dictionnaire critique et documentaire des Peintres, Sculpteurs, Dessinateurs et Graveurs, Originally published 1911-1923, Paris, El Paso Museum of Art, The Samuel H. Kress Collection, El Paso, El Paso Museum of Art,1961. Encyclopedia of World Art, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1959-1987
7.
Tam Lin
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Tam Lin is a character in a legendary ballad originating from the Scottish Borders. It is also associated with a reel of the same name, the story revolves around the rescue of Tam Lin by his true love from the Queen of the Fairies. While this ballad is specific to Scotland, the motif of capturing a person by holding him through all forms of transformation is found throughout Europe in folktales, the story has been adapted into various stories, songs and films. Most variants begin with the warning that Tam Lin collects either a possession or the virginity of any maiden who passes through the forest of Carterhaugh. When a young woman, usually called Janet or Margaret, goes to Carterhaugh and plucks a rose, Tam appears and asks her why she has come without his leave. She states that she owns Carterhaugh because her father has given it to her, in most variants, Janet then goes home and discovers that she is pregnant, some variants pick up the story at this point. When asked about her condition, she declares that her babys father is an elf whom she will not forsake and she asks him whether he was ever human, either after that reappearance or, in some versions, immediately after their first meeting resulted in her pregnancy. He reveals that he was a man, who, falling from his horse, was caught. Every seven years, the fairies give one of their people as a teind to Hell and Tam fears he will become the tithe that night and he is to ride as part of a company of elven knights. Janet will recognise him by the horse upon which he rides. He instructs her to him by pulling him down from the white horse - so Janet catches him this time -. He warns her that the fairies will attempt to make her drop him by turning him into all manner of beasts, but that he will do her no harm. When he is turned into a burning coal, she is to throw him into a well, whereupon he will reappear as a naked man. Janet does as she is asked and wins her knight, the Queen of Fairies is angry but acknowledges defeat. In different variations, Tam Lin is reportedly the grandson of the Laird of Roxburgh, the Laird of Foulis and his name also varies between versions as Tom Line, Tomlin, Young Tambling, and Tam-a-line. The ballad dates to at least as early as 1549, there have been several interpretations of the Tam Lin story, Francis James Child collected fourteen variants in The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. Joseph Jacobs included a variant, Tamlane, in More English Fairy Tales, john Myers Myers tells a variant in Silverlock. Michael Draytons narrative poem Nimphidia includes the character who goes by the name Tomalin, in the poem he is a vassal and kinsman of Oberon, King of the Fairies
8.
Pixie
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Pixies are mythical creatures of folklore, considered to be particularly concentrated in the high moorland areas around Devon and Cornwall, suggesting some Celtic origin for the belief and name. Akin to the Irish and Scottish Aos Sí, pixies are believed to inhabit ancient underground ancestor sites such as circles, barrows, dolmens. Sometimes their eyes are described as being pointed upwards at the temple ends and these, however, are Victorian era conventions and not part of the older mythology. In modern use, the term can be synonymous with fairies or sprites, however, in folklore there is a traditional enmity, even war, between the two races. The origin of the name pixie is uncertain, some have speculated that it comes from the Swedish dialectal pyske meaning wee little fairy. The term Pobel Vian is often used to refer to them collectively, in west Penwith, the area of late survival of the Cornish language, spriggans are distinguished from pixies by their malevolent nature. Closely associated with tin mining in Cornwall are the subterranean ancestral knockers, Pixie mythology is believed to pre-date Christian presence in Britain. In the Christian era they were said to be the souls of children who had died un-baptised. These children would change their appearance to pixies once their clothing was placed in clay pots used in their earthly lives as toys. By 1869 some were suggesting that the name pixie was a remnant of Pictic tribes who used to paint and tattoo their skin blue. This suggestion is still met in contemporary writing, but there is no proven connection, the earliest published version of The Three Little Pigs story is from Dartmoor in 1853 and has three little pixies in place of the pigs. Until the advent of modern fiction, pixie mythology was localised to Britain. Some have noted similarities to northern fairies, Germanic and Scandinavian elves, before the mid-19th century, pixies and fairies were taken seriously in much of Cornwall and Devon. Books devoted to the beliefs of the peasantry are filled with incidents of pixie manifestations. Some locales are named for the associated with them. In Devon, near Challacombe, a group of rocks are named for the said to dwell there. At Trevose Head in Cornwall 600 pixies were said to have gathered dancing and laughing in a circle that had appeared upon the turf until one of their number, named Omfra, in some areas belief in pixies and fairies as real beings persists. In the legends associated with Dartmoor, pixies are said to themselves as a bundle of rags to lure children into their play
9.
Devil
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The Devil is, according to Christianity, the primary opponent of God. Islam identifies the Devil with all those who oppose Allah, some non-Abrahamic religions contain figures similar to the Devil, such as the Buddhist demon Mara and the Zoroastrian spirit Angra Mainyu. The Modern English word devil descends from the Middle English devel, from Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from Ancient Greek Greek, διάβολος, slanderer, from Greek, διαβάλλειν to slander, διά- across, through + βάλλειν to hurl, probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate he lifts up. In the New Testament, Satan occurs more than 30 times in passages alongside diábolos, in mainstream Judaism there is no concept of a devil as in mainstream Christianity or Islam. Texts make no direct link between the serpent that tempts Eve in the Garden of Eden in Genesis and the references to Satan are in Zechariah. For the Hasidim of the century, ha-satan was Baal Davar. In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world, a similar story is found in 1 Enoch, however, in that book, the leader of the Grigori is called Semjâzâ. In the apocryphal literature, Satan rules over a host of angels, mastema, who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature. The Book of Enoch contains references to Sathariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satanel, the similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion from Heaven. In mainstream Christianity the devil is usually referred to as Satan, some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, opposing God, spreading lies, other modern Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any immoral human system. Satan is often identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the fruit, thus. He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation, beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, Belzeboub, appears in The Divine Comedy, in Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis or sometimes the Shaytan. Etymologically, Iblis means the desperate in Arabic, thus, the name Iblis can be seen as a sobriquet given to Shaitan after falling from Grace. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the hearts of men and women. He was of the jinn and departed from the command of his Lord, then will you take him and his descendants as allies other than Me while they are enemies to you
10.
Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
11.
Dwarf (mythology)
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In Germanic mythology, a dwarf is a being that dwells in mountains and in the earth, and is variously associated with wisdom, smithing, mining, and crafting. Dwarfs are often described as short and ugly, although some scholars have questioned whether this is a later development stemming from comical portrayals of the beings. The concept of the dwarf has had influence in popular culture. The modern English noun dwarf descends from the Old English dweorg and it has a variety of cognates in other Germanic languages, including Old Norse dvergr and Old High German twerg. According to Vladimir Orel, the English noun and its cognates ultimately descend from Proto-Germanic *đwerȝaz, beyond the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, the etymology of the word dwarf is highly contested. Competing etymologies include a basis in the Indo-European root *dheur-, the Indo-European root *dhreugh, modern English has two plurals for the word dwarf, dwarfs and dwarves. Dwarfs remains the most commonly employed plural, regarding the plural, Tolkien wrote in 1937, I am afraid it is just a piece of private bad grammar, rather shocking in a philologist, but I shall have to go with it. Norse mythology provides different mythical origins for the beings, as recorded in the Poetic Edda, the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá details that the dwarfs were the product of the primordial blood of the being Brimir and the bones of Bláinn. The Prose Edda, however, describes dwarfs as beings similar to maggots that festered in the flesh of Ymir before being gifted with reason by the gods. The Poetic Edda and Prose Edda contain over 100 dwarf names, while the Prose Edda gives the four dwarfs Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri a cosmological role, they hold up the sky. In addition, scholars have noted that the Svartálfar appear to be the same beings as dwarfs, one dwarf named Alvíss claimed the hand of Thors daughter Þrúðr in marriage, but he was kept talking until daybreak and turned to stone, much like some accounts of trolls. After the Christianization of the Germanic peoples, tales of dwarfs continued to be told in the folklore of areas of Europe where Germanic languages were spoken, in the late legendary sagas, dwarfs demonstrate skill in healing as well as in smithing. In the early Norse sources, there is no mention of their short, in the legendary sagas, however, they are small. Anatoly Liberman suggests that dwarfs may have originally been thought of as supernatural beings. Old Norse dwarf names include Fullangr and Hár, whereas Anglo-Saxon glosses use dweorg to render Latin terms such as nanus and pygmaeus, dwarfs in folklore are usually described as old men with long beards. Female dwarfs are hardly ever mentioned, however, in the Swedish ballad Herr Peder och Dvärgens Dotter, the role of supernatural temptress is played by a dwarfs daughter. The Anglo-Saxon charm Wið Dweorh appears to relate to sleep disturbances, in the Old English Herbal, it translates Latin verrucas, warts. Lotte Motz theorized that the Germanic dwarfs, particularly as smiths and gatekeepers, there were seven dwarfs in the Brothers Grimms fairy tale Snow White
12.
Liminality
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During a rituals liminal stage, participants stand at the threshold between their previous way of structuring their identity, time, or community, and a new way, which the ritual establishes. The concept of liminality was first developed in the early 20th century by folklorist Arnold van Gennep, more recently, usage of the term has broadened to describe political and cultural change as well as rituals. The dissolution of order during liminality creates a fluid, malleable situation that enables new institutions, the term has also passed into popular usage, where it is applied much more broadly, undermining its significance to some extent. Van Gennep, who coined the term liminality, published in 1906 his Rites de Passage, van Gennep began his book by identifying the various categories of rites. He distinguished between those that result in a change of status for an individual or social group, Liminal rites, Two characteristics are essential to these rites. First, the rite “must follow a prescribed sequence, where everybody knows what to do. Second, everything must be done “under the authority of a master of ceremonies”, the destructive nature of this rite allows for considerable changes to be made to the identity of the initiand. This middle stage “implies an actual passing through the threshold that marks the boundary between two phases, and the term ‘liminality’ was introduced in order to characterize this passage. ”Postliminal rites, During this stage, the initiand is re-incorporated into society with a new identity, as a “new” being. Turner confirmed his nomenclature for the three phases of passage from one culturally defined state or status to another. preliminal, liminal, van Gennep considered rites of initiation to be the most typical rite. In such rites of passage, the experience is highly structured, the first phase requires the child to go through a separation from his family, this involves his/her “death” as a child, as childhood is effectively left behind. In the second stage, initiands must pass a “test” to prove they are ready for adulthood, if they succeed, the third stage involves a celebration of the “new birth” of the adult and a welcoming of that being back into society. By constructing this three-part sequence, van Gennep identified a pattern he believed was inherent in all ritual passages, by suggesting that such a sequence is universal, van Gennep made an important claim. An anthropological ritual, especially a rite of passage, involves some change to the participants, and in the first phase comprises symbolic behaviour signifying the detachment of the individual. from an earlier fixed point in the social structure. Turner, who is considered to have “re-discovered the importance of liminality”, in 1967 he published his book The Forest of Symbols, which included an essay entitled Betwixt and Between, The Liminal Period in Rites of Passage. Within the works of Turner, liminality began to wander away from its application to ritual passages in small-scale societies. He became aware that liminality “, the attributes of liminality or of liminal personae are necessarily ambiguous. Ones sense of identity dissolves to some extent, bringing about disorientation, however, Turner’s approach to liminality has two major shortcomings. However, Agnes Horvath argues that the term can be applied to historical events
13.
Ulster
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Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
14.
Isle of Man
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The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island
15.
Sophia Morrison
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Sophia Morrison was a Manx cultural activist, folklore collector and author. Through her own work and role in encouraging and enthusing others, Sophia Morrison was born in Peel, Isle of Man, as the third of nine children to Charles Morrison and his wife Louisa. Her father was a merchant who owned a fleet of fishing boats and was responsible for the building of Atholl Street in Peel. The 1881 census recorded Sophia Morrison as living at 7 Atholl Street, Morrison attended the Clothworkers School in Peel and took up music studies with her relative and friend, Edmund Goodwin. In receiving honours from Trinity College of Music, Morrison was the first person on the island to pass a college examination. Little is known of the rest of her other than that at the age of eleven Morrison was lodging in Ballig, near Onchan. She developed an interest in languages, becoming fluent in Manx and French and she travelled widely, including to France, Brittany, the Basque region and the USA. Sophia Morrison devoted her life to the preservation of Manx culture in all of its forms and this found its expression in the collection of folklore, language and music and in her remarkable role in enthusing others in appreciating all things Manx. During her lifetime Morrison was recognized was the authority on Manx folklore. She contributed work to the journal Folk Lore, Celtic Nations & their Literary Activities edited by Rhŷs Phillips and it was with Roeder that Morrison co-authored Manx Proverbs and Sayings in 1905. I make, therefore, no apology for introducing this collection to the public. Her most successful work in area is Manx Fairy Tales. Unlike other works in area at that time, Morrisons book managed to gain wide appreciation from both scholars and the public. This leaning of the book towards the audience can be seen in both the books title and in the near complete absence of Manx language or strong dialect. The popularity of Manx Fairy Tales was boosted by its second edition in 1929 when illustrations were added by Archibald Knox, Morrisons friend who had illustrated the journal. It is this edition of the book which is still in print today, despite coming from an English-speaking home, Morrison was a fluent Manx speaker, thanks to her contact with people such as the fishermen of Peel who she came to know well through her father. At a time when the Manx language was going into a steep decline, with O. Joughin and William Cashen, Morrison set up Manx language lessons in Peel, which would soon become a feature of most towns across the island. In March 1899 she was a member of Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh
16.
Anglo-Scottish border
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The Anglo-Scottish border, or the English-Scottish border, is the official border and mark of entry between England and Scotland. It runs for 96 miles between Marshall Meadows Bay on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west and it is Scotlands only land border. England shares a border with Wales. The Firth of Forth was the border between the Picto-Gaelic Kingdom of Alba and the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria in the early 10th century and it became the first Anglo-Scottish border with the annexation of Northumbria by Anglo-Saxon England in the mid 10th century. Lothian was taken by the Scots at the Battle of Carham in 1018, the Solway-Tweed line was legally established in 1237 by the Treaty of York between England and Scotland. It remains the border today, with the exception of the Debatable Lands, north of Carlisle, and an area around Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is thus one of the oldest extant borders in the world, for centuries until the Union of the Crowns the region on either side of the boundary was a lawless territory suffering from the repeated raids in each direction of the Border Reivers. The age of legal capacity under Scots law is 16, while it was previously 18 under English law, the border settlements of Gretna Green, Coldstream and Lamberton were convenient for elopers from England who wanted to marry under Scottish laws, and marry without publicity. The border is marked by signposts welcoming travellers both into Scotland and into England and it is a hilly area, with the Scottish Southern Uplands to the north, and the Cheviot Hills forming the border between the two countries to the south. A 16th-century Act of the Scottish Parliament talks about the chiefs of the clans. Although Lowland aristocrats may have liked to refer to themselves as families. For a time a local clan dominated a region on the border between England and Scotland. It was known as the Debatable Lands and neither monarchs writ was heeded, King James VI & I decreed that the Borders should be renamed the Middle Shires. In 1605 he established a commission of ten drawn equally from Scotland and England to bring law. Reivers could no longer escape justice by crossing from England to Scotland or vice versa, the rough-and-ready Border Laws were abolished and the folk of the middle shires found they had to obey the law of the land like all other subjects. In 1603 the King placed George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar in charge of pacification of the borders, courts were set up in the towns of the Middle Shires and known reivers were arrested. The more troublesome and lower classes were executed without trial, known as Jeddart justice, mass hanging soon became a common occurrence. In 1607 James felt he could boast that the Middle Shires had become the navel or umbilic of both kingdoms, planted and peopled with civility and riches, after ten years King James had succeeded, the Middle Shires had been brought under central law and order
17.
Elf
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An elf is a type of supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. Reconstructing the early concept of an elf depends almost entirely on texts in Old English or relating to Norse mythology, later evidence for elves appears in diverse sources such as medical texts, prayers, ballads, and folktales. Legends of álfar may have been changing and were perhaps always heterogeneous so it might be argued that any particular source will only reflect the state of affairs at one given time. However, the character of beliefs in elves across the Germanic-speaking world has varied considerably across time, space. In Old Norse mythological texts, elves seem at least at times to be counted among the gods, in medieval German texts they seem more consistently monstrous. Elves are prominently associated with sexual threats, seducing people and causing them harm, for example, a number of early modern ballads in the British Isles and Scandinavia, originating in the medieval period, describe human encounters with elves. In English literature of the Elizabethan era, elves became conflated with the fairies of Romance culture, German Romanticist writers were influenced by this notion of the elf, and reimported the English word elf in that context into the German language. In Scandinavia, probably through a process of euphemism, elves often came to be conflated with the called the huldra or huldufólk. Meanwhile, German folklore has tended to see the conflation of elves with dwarfs, the Christmas elves of contemporary popular culture are of relatively recent tradition, popularized during the late nineteenth-century in the United States. Elves entered the high fantasy genre in the wake of works published by authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, for which. The English word elf is from the Old English word most often attested as ælf, although this word took a variety of forms in different Old English dialects, these converged on the form elf during the Middle English period. During the Old English period, separate forms were used for female elves, the main medieval Germanic cognates of elf are Old Norse alfr, plural alfar, and Old High German alp, plural alpî, elpî. These words must come from Common Germanic, the ancestor-language of English, German, and the Scandinavian languages, Germanic *ɑlβi-z~*ɑlβɑ-z is generally agreed to be cognate with the Latin albus, Old Irish ailbhín, Albanian elb, and Germanic words for ‘swan’ such as Modern Icelandic álpt. These all come from an Indo-European base *albh-, and seem to be connected by whiteness, the Germanic word presumably originally meant white person, perhaps as a euphemism. Jakob Grimm thought that whiteness implied positive moral connotations, and, noting Snorri Sturlusons ljósálfar and this is not necessarily the case, however. Compare descriptions such as ‘swan white’ to describe the beauty of fair complexion, Norse cultural values view masculinity as an ideal of beauty, which the Alfr personifies. For example, the Norse Eddas similarly celebrate the beauty of Baldr. Icelandic Sagas celebrate the beauty of the giants, and certain warrior kings that descend from them
18.
Fairyland
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Fairyland, in folklore, is the fabulous land or abode of fairies or fays. Fairyland may be referred to simply as Fairy or Faerie, though usage is an archaism. The Scots word elfame or elphyne fairyland has other variant forms, attested in Scottish witch trials, records of the Scottish witch trials reveal that many initiates claimed to have had congress with the Queen of Elfame and her retinue. On 8 November 1576 midwife Bessie Dunlop, a resident of Dalry, Scotland, was accused of sorcery and it resulted in a conviction and she was burned at the stake in 1576. Allison Peirson was burned as a witch in 1588 for conversing with the Queen of Elfame and this same woman is also featured in Robert Sempills ballad where she is said to have been in a fairy-ride. Sempills piece mentions Elphyne glossed as Elfland or Fairyland, in the medieval verse romance and the Scottish ballad of Thomas the Rhymer the title character is spirited away by a female supernatural being. The mysteriousness of the land, and its powers are a source of scepticism. Additional journeys to the include the fairy tale Childe Rowland. Álfheimr Tír na nÓg Citations Bibliography
19.
Sadness
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Sadness is an emotional pain associated with, or characterized by, feelings of disadvantage, loss, despair, grief, helplessness, disappointment and sorrow. An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic, and withdraw themselves from others, an example of severe sadness is depression. Crying is often an indication of sadness, sadness is one of the six basic emotions described by Paul Ekman, along with happiness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust. Sadness is an experience in childhood. Some families may have a rule that sadness is not allowed, pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems. Sadness is part of the process of the child separating from an early symbiosis with the mother. Every time a child separates a little more, he or she will have to cope with a small loss, if the mother cannot allow the minor distress involved, the child may never learn how to deal with sadness by themselves. Margaret Mahler also saw the ability to feel sadness as an emotional achievement, D. W. Winnicott similarly saw in sad crying the psychological root of valuable musical experiences in later life. Jose V. Pardo has his M. D and Ph. D, using positron emission tomography Pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things. They observed increased activity in the bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal cortex. A significant increase in activity was observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures. People deal with sadness in different ways, and it is an important emotion because it helps to motivate people to deal with their situation. Some coping mechanisms include, getting social support and/or spending time with a pet, creating a list, some individuals, when feeling sad, may exclude themselves from a social setting, so as to take the time to recover from the feeling. As alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above, cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging ones negative thoughts, or scheduling some positive event as a distraction. Being attentive to, and patient with, ones sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude, such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss can lead to a new sense of aliveness, and to a re-engagement with the outside world. Pupil size may be an indicator of sadness, a sad facial expression with small pupils is judged to be more intensely sad as the pupil size decreases. A persons own pupil size also mirrors this and becomes smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils, no parallel effect exists when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions. The greater degree to which a persons pupils mirror another predicts a persons greater score on empathy, during the Renaissance, Edmund Spenser in The Faerie Queene endorsed sadness as a marker of spiritual commitment
20.
Bairn
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Bairn is Scots, Scottish English, and Northern English for a child. It originated in Old English as bearn, becoming chiefly Scottish c, cain bairns are children seized by witches and warlocks as tribute for the devil. Examples of the terms use include the phrase Jock Tamsons Bairns as an expression of egalitarian sentiment. Baloo Baleerie, a traditional Scottish lullaby, incorporates the term repeatedly, as does The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry, the UK named one of their Second World War coastal tankers the SS Empire Bairn. In the Star Trek, The Original Series episode The Paradise Syndrome, the Bairns is the title of an album by folk rock group The Unthanks
21.
Newcastleton
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Newcastleton, or Copshaw Holm is a village in the Scottish Borders and within the historic boundaries of Roxburghshire, a few miles from the border of Scotland with England. The village is in Liddesdale and is on the Liddel Water, Newcastleton was built as a result of the land clearances in the 1790s when people were forced to move from Old Castleton village. There has been a festival at Newcastleton since 1970. Copshaw Holm is celebrated in the song Copshawholm Fair written by David Anderson in 1830, as sung by Willie Scott among others. Newcastleton has two hotels, a few shops, three pubs, a pub the Liddesdale Branch of the Royal British Legion closed in May 2011. It also has a doctors surgery, the fuel station closed in 2008. The former Townfoot Church now houses the Liddesdale Heritage Centre, a devoted to the culture. Newcastleton Forest is near the village, and is home to one of the 7stanes mountain bike centres, the village also possesses the amenity of an astroturf multi-sport pitch, as well as a gym and football pitch. Situated on the Holm Hill is a golf course. Newcastleton hosts a music festival every year, as well as the Holm Show. The village also recently welcomed 12 &24 Hours of Exposure, and part of Kielder 100, another mountain bike event
22.
Liddesdale
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Liddesdale, the valley of the Liddel Water, in the County of Roxburgh, southern Scotland, extends in a south-westerly direction from the vicinity of Peel Fell to the River Esk, a distance of 21 miles. The Waverley route of the North British Railway runs down the dale, the area which was in the Sheriffdom of Roxburgh and later became part of the County of Roxburgh, one of the counties of Scotland. Liddesdale is sometimes considered to form the end of the Maiden Way Roman road. At one time the points of vantage on the river and its affluents were occupied by freebooters peel towers, but many of them have disappeared and the remainder are in decay. Larriston Tower belonged to the Elliots, Mangerton, now more than a site, to the Armstrongs and Park to Little Jock Elliot. Hollows Tower, Johnnie Armstrongs peel, is in condition, it is on the A7, about six. The chief point of interest in the valley, however, is Hermitage Castle and it stands on a hill overlooking Hermitage Water, a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1244 by Nicholas de Soulis, and was captured by the English in David IIs reign and it was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant of it from the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus, exchanged it for Bothwell Castle on the Clyde with Patrick Hepburn and it finally passed to the Duke of Buccleuch, under whose care further ruin was arrested. To the east of the castle is Ninestane Rig, a hill 943 ft high, four miles long, only five of the stones remain. James Telfer, the writer of ballads, who was born in the parish of Southdean, was for several years schoolmaster of Saughtree, near the head of the valley. The castle of the lairds of Liddesdale stood near the junction of Hermitage Water and the Liddel, ettleton List of places in the Scottish Borders Historic map showing Liddesdale in Scotland
23.
Queen of Elphame
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Queen of Elphame or Elf-hame, in the folklore belief of Lowland Scotland and Northern England, designates the elfin queen of Faerie, mentioned in Scottish witch trials. She is equivalent to the Queen of Fairy who rules Faërie or Fairyland, the Queen, according to testimony, has a husband named Christsonday. Such a queen also appears in the legend of Thomas the Rhymer, the name Queen of Elfland is mentioned for her only in a later ballad. Thomas the Rhymers abduction by the queen was not just familiar folklore, the Queen of Fairies in Tam Lin may be the queen of the same world, at least, she too is compelled deliver humans as tithe to hell every seven years. In Scottish popular tradition the Fairy Queen was known as the Gyre-Carling or Nicnevin, In one metrical legend, The Faeries of Fawdon Hill is where the Fairy Court is held, presided by Queen Mab. The Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue lists only the Elfame and elphyne spellings, other spellings include, Quene of Elphane and Court of Elfane, Court of Elfame, Queen of Elphen. The Queen of Elphame designation was used in isolated instances in the 19th century. Serious scholarship on Thomas the Rhymer, for instance, generally do not employ this spelling, but it was embraced by Robert Graves who used Queen of Elphame in his works. Usage has since spread in popular publications. The Queen of Elphame was invoked, under various names, in Scottish witch trials, the forms Queen of Elfame occur in documents from the trial of Alison Pearson in 1588, and emendation to elf-hame was suggested by the editor, Robert Pitcairn. Alison was carried off to Elfame on a number of occasions over the years, the elfin folk from this world would arrive unexpectedly, allowing her to join in their herb-picking before sunrise, and brewing their salves before her eyes. But they were abusive, striking her in a manner that left her bereft of all her powers on her sides. The form Queen of Elphen occurs in the 1598 witchcraft trial indictment, further down however, the Devil whom he calls Christsonday is the goodman, though the Quene has grip of all the craft. Andro Man further confessed that on the Holy Rood Day the Queen of Elphen and she and her companions had human shapes, yet were as shadows, and that they were playing and dancing whenever they pleased. When interrogated, Bessie denied having carnal relations with Thom, though he took her by the apron. And indeed, it was at the behest of this Queen who was his master that Thom had come to Bessie at all, the Queens shape-shifting magic extends to her own person. Andro Mans confession also noted that she can be old or young as she pleases, marion Grant, of the same coven as Andro Man, witnessed the queen as a fine woman, clad in a white walicot. Similarly, Isobel Gowdies confession described the Qwein of Fearrie as handsomely clothed in linen and in white and brown clothes
24.
Deities of Slavic religion
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Since Ukrainian independence in 1991, she has undergone a fakeloric metamorphosis, and today is identified as a combination of the hearth-mother and the rusalka. This metamorphosis has its roots in the late 1980s, as several Ukrainian writers sought to personify their vision of an ideal Ukrainian woman, consequently, Berehynia today also has a place in Ukrainian nationalism, feminism, and neopaganism. In 2001, a column with a monument to Berehynia on top, as a protector of Kiev, was erected at Maidan Nezalezhnosti in the center of the city, kievs historic protector Archangel Michael older monument is located just across at the same square. Goddess of the Orange Revolution by Marian J. Rubchak, compares Berehynia with Yulia Tymoshenko, oksana Kis Who is protected by Berehynia, or Matriarchy as a mens invention, Zerkalo Nedeli, April 26 - May 6,2005
25.
Scandinavian folklore
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Scandinavian folklore or Nordic folklore is the folklore of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Collecting folklore began when Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden sent out instructions to all of the priests in all of the parishes to collect the folklore of their area in the 1630s and they collected customs, beliefs that were not sanctioned by the church, and other traditional material. Iceland and the Faroe Islands are not part of Scandinavia, because of their common Germanic origin, Scandinavian folklore shows a large correspondence with folklores elsewhere, such as England and Germany, among others. Most of what has survived there might be found, of a nature, in Finland and Sapmi. These beings could be scared by a piece of iron or steel, such as a strategically placed pair of scissors or a knife, or with salt and fire. The stories about the livings and doings of these beings, and their interaction with humans, even the helpful tomte, nisse, gårdbo or gårdbuk could turn into a fearsome adversary if not treated with caution and respect. Many of them blend into each other when their morals and/or place of residence are similar, when the folktales were collected and printed, the illustrators started to give shape to the creatures that had hitherto lingered in obscurity. The creatures underwent a metamorphosis and became concrete figures to the people of Scandinavian countries, perhaps most abundant are the stories about the race of trolls. Scandinavian trolls tend to be big, hairy, stupid. Any human with courage and presence of mind can outwit a troll, and they are said to have a temperament like a bear—which are, incidentally, their favorite pets—good-natured when they are left in peace, and savage when they are teased. Trolls come in different shapes and forms, and are generally not fair to behold. Trolls live throughout the land, dwelling in mountains, under bridges, while the trolls who live in the mountains are very wealthy, hoarding mounds of gold and silver in their cliff dwellings, the most dangerous trolls live in lonely huts in the forest. The trolls have their own king, called Dovregubben, who lives inside the Dovre Mountains with his court, Dovregubben and his court are described in detail in Ibsens Peer Gynt. After the integration of Christianity into Scandinavian folklore, trolls developed a hatred of church-bells, Trolls are often said to be able to change their appearance and did so in order to trick humans into doing what they wanted. For example, Trolls may present a beautiful appearance in order to trick a character into following them into their mountain home, then hold the character captive for years. In older tales, the word troll/trold may simply mean to badly harm/hurt someone, someone who is a troll is someone who may eat human flesh or engage in other socially-unacceptable acts, luckily, trolls are said to turn into stone when exposed to sunlight. The Huldra, Hylda, Skogsrå or Skogfru is a seductress who lives in the forest. One of her methods is to appear out of the rain and mist, friendly
26.
John Bauer (illustrator)
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John Albert Bauer was a Swedish painter and illustrator. His work is concerned with landscape and mythology, but he also composed portraits and he is best known for his illustrations of early editions of Bland tomtar och troll, an anthology of Swedish folklore and fairy tales. Bauer was born and raised in Jönköping, at 16 he moved to Stockholm to study at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. While there he received his first commissions to illustrate stories in books and magazines, and met the artist Ester Ellqvist and he traveled throughout Lappland, Germany and Italy early in his career, and these cultures deeply informed his work. He painted and illustrated in a nationalistic style, in part influenced by the Italian Renaissance. Most of his works are watercolors or prints in monochrome or muted colours, he also produced oil paintings and his illustrations and paintings broadened the understanding and appreciation of Swedish folklore, fairy tales and landscape. When Bauer was 36, he, Ester and their son, Bengt, John Bauer was born and raised in Jönköping, the son of Josef Bauer, a man of Bavarian origin, and Emma Charlotta Wadell, from a farming family from the town Rogberga just outside Jönköping. Josef Bauer came to Sweden in 1863, penniless and he founded a successful charcuterie business at the Östra Torget in Jönköping. The family lived in the apartment above the shop until 1881 when the construction of their house in Sjövik was completed. John, born in 1882, lived at the Villa Sjövik by the shore of Lake Rocksjön with his parents, the family home would remain central to him long after he lived on his own. His initial schooling was at the Jönköpings Högre Allmäna Läroverk, followed by the Jönköpings Tekniska Skola from 1892 to 1898 and he spent most of his time drawing caricatures of his teachers and daydreaming, something not appreciated by his teachers. He was given to sketching and drawing from an early age, however, when he turned sixteen and wanted to go to Stockholm to study art, they were enthusiastic for him and backed him financially. In 1898, he was one of the 40 applicants to study at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and he spent the next two years at the Kaleb Ahltins school for painters. During this time he was, like most teenagers, torn between hope and despair, something that is reflected in his artwork. By 1900, he was old enough to attend the Academy of Arts and he studied traditional illustrations and made drawings of plants, medieval costumes and croquis, all of which served him in his later work. One of his teachers, professor and noted historic painter, Gustaf Cederström praised Bauer, While at the academy, he received his first commissions to illustrate magazines and books. In 1904 he traveled to Lappland to create paintings for a book on the culture of the county, at the end of 1905, he left the academy and put Artist on his business card. Following the discovery of ore deposits in the north of Sweden, Lappland became a frontier for industrial development, instead of an exotic wilderness of the Sami culture
27.
Helena Nyblom
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Helena Nyblom was a Swedish childrens story author. She is perhaps most remembered for The Swan Suit, Helena was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, daughter to the Danish painter Jørgen Roed. Her brother was the painter Holger Roed, in September 1864 she married the Swedish academic Carl Rupert Nyblom, Associate Professor of Aesthetics at Uppsala University, and at the end of the month the newly-weds took a steamer to Uppsala. Helenas first writings were poems and short stories, the stories, written in Danish and then translated into Swedish by her husband, were first published in the Ny Illustrerad Tidskrift and subsequently collected in four volumes between 1875 and 1881. Helena did not think highly of the stories, which she regarded as potboilers, innately musical, she put more of herself into her poems, many of which were later set to music by Emil Sjögren and other composers. Her first collection of poems, written in Danish, came out in 1881 and it attracted attention not just in Denmark, but also in Sweden, where it was praised by the poet Carl Snoilsky. She published her first fairy tales in 1897, when she was 54 years old, in all she wrote more than 80 fairy tales, in which she mixed Swedish folklore, ancient myths and romantic motifs. Many of her tales contain clear feminist messages, besides publishing her own collections, she also contributed to the Swedish folklore and fairy tales annual Among Gnomes and Trolls, where many of her tales were illustrated by John Bauer. In 1895 Helena converted to Roman Catholicism in St. Eugenias Church, the conversion received great attention in the media and she endured much criticism in her circle of friends to have fallen for Rome. Her husband, himself not a Catholic, however, took her publicly in defense of the Catholic minority in Stockholm was proud of the famous convert. (Because Nyblom converted in adulthood her children were educated in Church of Sweden, Helena Nyblom is buried in Uppsala Old Cemetery
28.
Among Gnomes and Trolls
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Among Gnomes and Trolls, is a popular Swedish folklore and fairy tales annual and childrens fairy tale anthology published since 1907. One of the most noted of the early illustrators is artist John Bauer, founded in 1907, and continuing to this very day, several of the foremost Swedish authors and illustrators have worked for the annual. The first volumes had illustrations by John Bauer who was succeeded by Gustaf Tenggren, between 1927 and 1980, Einar Norelius was the chief illustrator. Among the writers were authors such as Hjalmar Bergman, Helena Nyblom, Margareta Ekström, Gösta Knutsson, several books with extracts from the original volumes illustrated by John Bauer have been published. The first one was published in 1931 to raise money for a memorial honouring Bauer, one of the most noted pictures from Among gnomes and trolls by John Bauer 1913 is Ännu sitter Tuvstarr kvar och ser ner i vattnet. Complete list of the tales in the series, 1907–1910 and 1912–1915, illustrated by John Bauer. A. E
29.
Asturias
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Asturias, officially the Principality of Asturias, is an autonomous community in north-west Spain. It is coextensive with the province of Asturias, and contains some of the territory that was part of the larger Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages. The most important cities are the capital, Oviedo, the seaport and largest city Gijón. Other municipalities in Asturias include Cangas de Onís, Cangas del Narcea, Gozón, Grado, Langreo, Llanera, Laviana, Lena, Llanes, Mieres, Siero, Valdés, Vegadeo, Asturias is also home to the Princess of Asturias Awards. In the Mesolithic period, a culture developed, that of the Asturiense. Today the Astur Celtic influence persists in place names, such as those of rivers, with the conquest of Asturias by the Romans under Augustus, the region entered into the annals of history. The Astures were subdued by the Romans but were never fully conquered, however, as it had been for the Romans and Visigoths, the Moors did not find mountainous territory easy to conquer, and the lands along Spains northern coast never fully became part of Islamic Spain. In the 10th century, the Kingdom of Asturias gave way to the Kingdom of León, through the rebellion of Henry II of Castile in the 14th century, the Principality of Asturias was established. The most famous proponents of independence were Gonzalo Peláez and Queen Urraca, after its integration into the Kingdom of Spain, Asturias provided the Spanish court with high-ranking aristocrats and played an important role in the colonization of America. Since 1388, the heir to the Castilian throne has been styled Prince of Asturias, in the 16th century, the population reached 100,000 for the first time, and within another century that number would double due to the arrival of American corn. During the 18th century, Asturias was one of the centres of the Spanish Enlightenment, the renowned Galician thinker Benito de Feijóo settled in the Benedictine Monastery of San Vicente de Oviedo. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, a polymath and prominent reformer and politician of the late 18th century, was born in the town of Gijón. At the same time, there was significant migration to America and these entrepreneurs were known collectively as Indianos, for having visited and made their fortunes in the West Indies and beyond. Asturias played an important part in the events led up to the Spanish Civil War. For a month, a Popular Front Committee exercised control in southern Asturias, a war committee dominated by anarcho-syndicalist supporters took power in Oviedo. Troops under the command of a then unknown general named Francisco Franco Bahamonde were brought from Spanish Morocco to suppress the revolt, Franco applied tactics normally reserved for overseas colonies, using troops of the Spanish Legion and Moroccan troops, ferocious oppression followed. As a result, Asturias remained loyal to the government during the Spanish Civil War, and was the scene of an extraordinary defence in extreme terrain. With Franco eventually gaining control of all Spain, Asturias — traditionally linked to the Spanish Crown — was known merely as the Province of Oviedo from 1939 until Francos death in 1975, the provinces name was restored fully after the return of democracy to Spain, in 1977
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Nymph
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A nymph in Greek mythology and in Latin mythology is a minor female nature deity typically associated with a particular location or landform. They are beloved by many and dwell in mountainous regions and forests by lakes, charybdis and Scylla were once nymphs. Other nymphs, always in the shape of young maidens, were part of the retinue of a god, such as Dionysus, Hermes, or Pan, or a goddess, nymphs were the frequent target of satyrs. The Greek word νύμφη has bride and veiled among its meanings, other readers refer the word to a root expressing the idea of swelling. The mythologies of classicizing Roman poets were unlikely to have affected the rites and cult of individual nymphs venerated by people in the springs. Among the Roman literate class, their sphere of influence was restricted, the ancient Greek belief in nymphs survived in many parts of the country into the early years of the twentieth century, when they were usually known as nereids. At that time, John Cuthbert Lawson wrote and they might appear in a whirlwind. Such encounters could be dangerous, bringing dumbness, besotted infatuation, when parents believed their child to be nereid-struck, they would pray to Saint Artemidos. Due to widespread use of the term among lay persons and stereotypes attached, professionals nowadays prefer the term hypersexuality, the word nymphet is used to identify a sexually precocious girl. The term was made famous in the novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov, the main character, Humbert Humbert, uses the term many times, usually in reference to the title character. Thus the classes of nymphs tend to overlap, which complicates the task of precise classification, rose mentions dryads and hamadryads as nymphs of trees generally, meliai as nymphs of ash trees, and naiads as nymphs of water, but no others specifically. She is the consort of Acheron, and the mother of Ascalaphus, leuce, lover of Hades Minthe, lover of Hades, rival of Persephone Melinoe Orphic nymph, daughter of Persephone and Zeus disguised as Pluto. Her name is an epithet of Hecate. Nymphs in such groupings could belong to any of the mentioned above. For lists of Naiads, Oceanids, Dryades etc and this motif supposedly came from an Italian report of a Roman sculpture of a nymph at a fountain above the River Danube
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Shapeshifting
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In mythology, folklore and speculative fiction, shapeshifting is the ability of a being or creature to completely transform its physical form or shape. This is usually achieved through an inherent ability of a creature, divine intervention. The idea persisted through the Middle Ages, where the agency causing shapeshifting is usually a sorcerer or witch and it remains a common trope in modern fantasy, childrens literature, and works of popular culture. The most common form of shapeshifting myths is that of therianthropy, legends allow for transformations into plants and objects, and the assumption of another human countenance. Shapeshifting to the form of a wolf is known as lycanthropy. Therianthropy is the general term for human-animal shifts, but it is rarely used in that capacity. It was also common for deities to transform mortals into animals, other terms for shapeshifters include metamorph, the Navajo skin-walker, mimic, and therianthrope. The prefix were-, coming from the Old English word for man, is used to designate shapeshifters, despite its root. While the popular idea of a shapeshifter is of a human being who turns into something else, proteus was noted among the gods for his shapeshifting, both Menelaus and Aristaeus seized him to win information from him, and succeeded only because they held on during his various changes. Nereus told Heracles where to find the Apples of the Hesperides for the same reason, the Titan Metis, the first wife of Zeus and the mother of the goddess Athena, was believed to be able to change her appearance into anything she wanted. In one story, she was so proud, that her husband, Zeus and he then swallowed her because he feared that he and Metis would have a son who would be more powerful than Zeus himself. She stayed alive inside his head and built armor for her daughter, the banging of her metalworking made Zeus have a headache, so Hephaestus clove his head with an axe. Athena sprang from her fathers head, fully grown, and in battle armor, in Greek mythology, the transformation is often a punishment from the gods to humans who crossed them. Zeus transformed King Lycaon into a wolf as a punishment for either killing Zeus children or serving him the flesh of Lycaons own murdered son Nyctimus, Demeter transformed Ascalabus into a lizard for mocking her sorrow and thirst during her search for her daughter Persephone. She also turned King Lyncus into a lynx for trying to murder her prophet Triptolemus, Athena transformed Arachne into a spider for challenging her as a weaver and/or weaving a tapestry that insulted the gods. Artemis transformed Actaeon into a stag for spying on her bathing, io was a priestess of Hera in Argos, a nymph who was raped by Zeus, who changed her into a heifer to escape detection. The young Tiresias was walking through a forest when he found two snakes in the act of love and he poked them with a stick and was instantly changed into a woman. He lived in this form for many years, and even married and had children
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Brewery of Eggshells
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Brewery of Eggshells is a Welsh fairy tale collected by Joseph Jacobs in his Celtic Fairy Tales. A woman had to leave her twin babies alone for a time, when she returned, she saw two elves in blue petticoats cross her path. The babies looked the same, but would not grow and she and her husband argued about whether the children were theirs. A wise man told her to make pottage in an eggshell, when she did, the children exclaimed on it as something they had never seen, though they were older than acorns grown into oaks. She threw them into the water, which made their own parents take them back and give back the twins
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Digitalis
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Digitalis is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and biennials commonly called foxgloves. This genus was placed in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. This genus is native to western and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia, the scientific name means finger-like and refers to the ease with which a flower of Digitalis purpurea can be fitted over a human fingertip. The flowers are produced on a spike, are tubular, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white. The best-known species is the common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea and this biennial plant is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers which range in colour from various purple tints through various shades of light gray, and to purely white. The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings, the first year of growth of the common foxglove produces only the stem with its long, basal leaves. During the second year of the life, a long. Larvae of the pug, a moth, consume the flowers of the common foxglove for food. Other species of Lepidoptera eat the leaves, including the lesser yellow underwing, the term digitalis is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus. The name is recorded in Old English as foxes glofe/glofa foxs glove, although the elements of the name are transparent, their meaning is not. Because it is not clear why the flower should be called foxglove, henry Fox Talbot proposed folks glove, where folk means fairy. Prior suggested an etymology of foxes-glew, meaning fairy music, however, neither of these suggestions account for the Old English form foxes glofa. It is commonly found on sites where the ground has been disturbed, such as recently cleared woodland, a group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin. It is used to increase cardiac contractility and as an agent to control the heart rate. Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with heart failure. Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and it was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation. Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations, safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality in women may be contributing to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin. The two drugs differ in that digoxin has a hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring
"Changeling". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). 1911.
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