1.
Security hacker
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A security hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the computer underground, there is a longstanding controversy about the terms true meaning. The black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public, in computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of computer and network systems. While including those who endeavor to strengthen such mechanisms, it is often used by the mass media. That is, the media portrays the hacker as a villain, nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a part of the information security field. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, the subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and it is implicated with 2600, The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup. In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today used the term hacker in its title and it was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn describes his intentions to break into ENCOMs computer system, CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon, but there was no public awareness about such activities. However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, the Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense. Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation, as a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentors The Hacker Manifesto, use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title Stalking the Wily Hacker, an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage, the popularity of Stolls book The Cuckoos Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the publics consciousness. Several subgroups of the underground with different attitudes use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. Eric S. Raymond, author of The New Hackers Dictionary, yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected
2.
Phreaking
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The term phreak is a sensational spelling of the word freak with the ph- from phone, and may also refer to the use of various audio frequencies to manipulate a phone system. Phreak, phreaker, or phone phreak are names used for, the term first referred to groups who had reverse engineered the system of tones used to route long-distance calls. By re-creating these tones, phreaks could switch calls from the phone handset, to ease the creation of these tones, electronic tone generators known as blue boxes became a staple of the phreaker community, including future Apple Inc. cofounders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. The blue box era came to an end with the use of computerized phone systems. By the 1980s, much of the system in the US, Phreaking has since become closely linked with computer hacking. This is sometimes called the H/P culture, Phone phreaking got its start in the late 1950s in the United States. Its golden age was the late 1960s and early 1970s, prior to 1984, long-distance telephone calls were a premium item, with archaic regulations. In some locations, calling across the street counted as long distance, Phreaking consisted of techniques to evade the long-distance charges. This evasion was illegal, the crime was called toll fraud and it is done by rapidly pressing and releasing the switch hook to open and close the subscriber circuit, simulating the pulses generated by the rotary dial. Even most current telephone exchanges support this method, as they need to be compatible with old subscriber hardware. The pulse counter in the exchange counts the pulses or clicks, depending on continent and country, one click with a following interval can be either one or zero and subsequent clicks before the interval are additively counted. This renders ten consecutive clicks being either zero or nine, respectively, some exchanges allow using additional clicks for special controls, but numbers 0-9 now fall in one of these two standards. One special code, flash, is a short single click, possible. Such key-locked telephones, if wired to a modern DTMF capable exchange and these signals are now very uniformly standardized worldwide, and along with rotary dialing, they are almost all that is left of in-band signaling. Because the UK network as run by the Post Office was reliant on Strowger switches, the exchanges worked on pulses received from each subscribers phone, so tone signaling was of no use. The techniques primarily relied on the quirks of the exchange wiring, some typical tricks used between the 1950s and 1970s included, 9-1-11. By dialing an exchange local to the phone, dialing 9-1-10 then at the right moment tapping the phone rest to add an extra pulse. Sometimes it was possible to find a local exchange which when the caller dialed the local code, then added 0
3.
Cryptovirology
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Cryptovirology is a field that studies how to use cryptography to design powerful malicious software. The field was born with the observation that public-key cryptography can be used to break the symmetry between what an antivirus analyst sees regarding malware and what the attacker sees. The public key allows the malware to perform trapdoor one-way operations on the computer that only the attacker can undo. The first cryptovirology attack, invented by Adam L. Young and Moti Yung, is called cryptoviral extortion, in this attack a cryptovirus, cryptoworm, or cryptotrojan contains the public key of the attacker and hybrid encrypts the victims files. The malware prompts the user to send the asymmetric ciphertext to the attacker who will decipher it, the victim needs the symmetric key to get the files back if there are no backups of them. The 1996 IEEE paper of Young and Yung predicted that cryptoviral extortion attackers would one day demand e-money, many years later the media relabeled cryptoviral extortion as ransomware. In 2016 cryptovirology attacks on healthcare providers reached epidemic levels prompting the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services to issue a Fact Sheet on Ransomware, the rationale being that an adversary has taken control of the information. This expansion of the breach to account for cryptoviral extortion is monumental since now a breach can happen even when sensitive data never leaves the victim organization. California enacted a law that defines the introduction of ransomware into a system with the intent of extortion as being against the law. This is SB-1137 that amends Section 523 of the Penal Code, the field also encompasses covert malware attacks in which the attacker securely steals private information such as symmetric keys, private keys, PRNG state, and the victims data. Examples of such attacks are asymmetric backdoors. An asymmetric backdoor is a backdoor that can be used only by the attacker and this contrasts with the traditional backdoor that is symmetric, i. e. anyone that finds it can use it. The NIST Dual EC DRBG random bit generator has a backdoor in it. The EC-DRBG algorithm utilizes the discrete-log kleptogram from Kleptography which by definition makes the EC-DRBG a cryptotrojan, like ransomware, the EC-DRBG cryptotrojan contains and uses the attackers public key to attack the host system. Due to public outcry of this attack, NIST rescinded the EC-DRBG algorithm from the NIST SP 800-90 standard. Covert information leakage attacks carried out by cryptoviruses, cryptotrojans, and cryptoworms that, by definition, contain, in deniable password snatching by Young and Yung IEEE S&P1997, a cryptovirus installs a cryptotrojan that asymmetrically encrypts host data and covertly broadcasts it. This makes it available to everyone, noticeable by no one, an attacker caught installing the cryptotrojan claims to be a virus victim. An attacker observed receiving the covert asymmetric broadcast is one of if not millions of receivers
4.
Hacker Manifesto
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The Conscience of a Hacker is a small essay written January 8,1986 by a computer security hacker who went by the handle of The Mentor, who belonged to the 2nd generation of Legion of Doom. It was written after the authors arrest, and first published in the underground hacker ezine Phrack and can be found on websites, as well as on T-shirts. Considered a cornerstone of hacker culture, The Manifesto acts as a guideline to hackers across the globe, when asked about his motivation for writing the article, Blankenship said, I was going through hacking withdrawal, and Craig/Knight Lightning needed something for an upcoming issue of Phrack. I was reading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress and was taken with the idea of revolution. At a more prominent public event, when asked about his arrest and motivation for writing the article, Blankenship said, and a great deal of empathy for my friends around the nation that were also in the same situation. The article is quoted several times in the 1995 movie Hackers, although in the movie it is being read from an issue of the hacker magazine 2600, the Mentor gave a reading of The Hacker Manifesto and offered additional insight at H2K2. It is also an item in the game Culpa Innata, the Hackers Way written by Mark Zuckerberg Hacker ethic Timeline of computer security hacker history Hackers Manifesto at Phrack Magazine
5.
White hat (computer security)
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Ethical hacking is a term coined by IBM meant to imply a broader category than just penetration testing. Contrasted with black hat, a hacker, the name comes from Western films, where heroic and antagonistic cowboys might traditionally wear a white. White-hat hackers may also work in teams called sneakers, red teams, one of the first instances of an ethical hack being used was a security evaluation conducted by the United States Air Force of the Multics operating systems for potential use as a two-level system. Their evaluation found that while Multics was significantly better than conventional systems. Vulnerabilities in hardware security, software security and procedural security could be uncovered with a low level of effort. The authors performed their tests under a guideline of realism, so their results would accurately represent the kinds of access an intruder could potentially achieve and they performed tests involving simple information-gathering exercises, as well as outright attacks upon the system that might damage its integrity. Clearly, their audience wanted to know both results, there are several other now unclassified reports describing ethical hacking activities within the U. S. military. By 1981 The New York Times described white hat activities as part of a mischievous, the idea to bring this tactic of ethical hacking to assess security of systems was formulated by Dan Farmer and Wietse Venema. They provided several examples of how this information could be gathered and exploited to gain control of the target. They gathered up all the tools they had used during their work, packaged them in a single, easy-to-use application and their program, called Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks, or SATAN, was met with a great amount of media attention around the world in 1992. Only the owners, CEOs and Board Members who asked for such a security review of this magnitude are aware, in most recent cases these hacks perpetuate for the long term con. Some examples include leaving USB/flash key drives with hidden auto-start software in an area, as if someone lost the small drive. Struan Robertson, legal director at Pinsent Masons LLP, and editor of OUT-LAW. com, says Broadly speaking, if the access to a system is authorized, If it isnt, theres an offence under the Computer Misuse Act. The unauthorized access offence covers everything from guessing the password, to accessing someones webmail account, the maximum penalty for unauthorized access to a computer is two years in prison and a fine. There are higher penalties – up to 10 years in prison – when the hacker also modifies data, unauthorized access even to expose vulnerabilities for the benefit of many is not legal, says Robertson. Theres no defense in our hacking laws that your behavior is for the greater good, even if its what you believe. The United States National Security Agency offers certifications such as the CNSS4011, such a certification covers orderly, ethical hacking techniques and team-management. Aggressor teams are called red teams, defender teams are called blue teams
6.
Black Hat Briefings
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Black Hat Briefings is a computer security conference that provides security consulting, training, and briefings to hackers, corporations, and government agencies around the world. Black Hat brings together a variety of people interested in information security ranging from individuals, executives, hackers. The conference takes place regularly in Las Vegas, Barcelona, Amsterdam, the conference has also been hosted in Tokyo and Washington, D. C. in the past. Black Hat was founded in 1997 by Jeff Moss, who also founded DEF CON, today, Moss is the Conference Chair of the Black Hat Review Board. These are considered the information security conferences in the world. Black Hat started as an annual conference in Las Vegas. Black Hat was acquired by CMP Media, a subsidiary of U. K. -based United Business Media in 2005, Black Hat is typically scheduled prior to DEF CON with many attendees going to both conferences. Black Hat has been perceived by the security industry as a corporate security conference whereas DEF CON is more informal. The conference is composed of two sections, the Black Hat Briefings, and Black Hat Trainings. Training is offered by computer security vendors and individual security professionals. The conference has hosted the National Security Agencys information assurance manager course, and various courses by Cisco Systems, Offensive Security, the Briefings are composed of tracks, covering various topics including reverse engineering, identity and privacy, and hacking. Alexander, former Director of the National Security Agency and former commander of the United States Cyber Command, to engage attendees with hands-on demonstrations and the ability to speak to vendors or security professionals, the Black Hat Arsenal has been added since 2011. ToolsWatch maintains an archive of all Black Hat Briefings Arsenals, Black Hat is known for the antics of its hacker contingent, and the disclosures brought in its talks. Conference attendees have been known to hijack wireless connections of the hotels, hack hotel TV billing systems, in the past, companies have attempted to ban researchers from disclosing vital information about their products. At Black Hat USA in 2005, Cisco Systems tried to stop Michael Lynn from speaking about a vulnerability that he said could let hackers virtually shut down the Internet. However, in recent years, researchers have worked with vendors to resolve issues, hacker conference Chaos Communication Congress DEF CON Summercon Positive Hack Days Official website
7.
DEF CON
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DEF CON is one of the worlds largest annual hacker conventions, held annually in Las Vegas, Nevada, with the first DEF CON taking place in June 1993. Other contests, past and present, include lockpicking, robotics-related contests, art, slogan, coffee wars, scavenger hunt, Capture the Flag is perhaps the best known of these contests. It is a competition where teams of hackers attempt to attack and defend computers and networks using certain software. CTF has been emulated at other hacking conferences as well as in academic, federal law enforcement agents from the FBI, DoD, United States Postal Inspection Service, and other agencies regularly attend DEF CON. DEF CON was founded in 1993 by Jeff Moss as a party for his friend, fellow hacker, and member of Platinum Net. The party was planned for Las Vegas a few days before his friend was to leave the United States, however, his friends father left early, taking his friend along, so Jeff was left alone with the entire party planned. Jeff decided to all his hacker friends to go to Las Vegas with him and have the party with them instead. Hacker friends from far and wide got together and laid the foundation for DEF CON, the term DEF CON comes from the movie WarGames, referencing the U. S. In the movie, Las Vegas was selected as a nuclear target, however, to a lesser extent, CON also stands for convention and DEF is taken from the letters on the number 3 on a telephone keypad, a reference to phone phreakers. Any variation of the spelling, other than DEF CON, could be considered an infringement of the DEF CON brand, the official name of the conference includes a space in-between DEF and CON. DEF CON was planned to be an event, a party for his friend. After a while, he was convinced to host the event again, in 2016,22,000 people attended DEF CON24. The Black Badge is the highest award DEF CON gives to contest winners of certain events, Capture the flag winners sometimes earn these, as well as Hacker Jeopardy winners. The contests that are awarded Black Badges vary from year to year, since DEF CON11, fundraisers have been conducted for the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The first fundraiser was a tank and was an official event. The EFF now has an event named The Summit hosted by the Vegas 2.0 crew that is an open event, DEF CON18 hosted a new fundraiser called MohawkCon. High-profile issues which have garnered significant media attention, DEF CON was also portrayed in the The X-Files episode Three of a Kind featuring an appearance by The Lone Gunmen. DEF CON was portrayed as a United States government-sponsored convention instead of a civilian convention, a semi-fictionalized account of DEF CON2, Cyber Christ Meets Lady Luck written by Winn Schwartau demonstrates some of the early DEF CON culture
8.
Cybercrime
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Cybercrime, or computer related crime, is crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have used in the commission of a crime. Debarati Halder and K. Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nations security, there are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes, activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US, in 2016, a study by Juniper Research estimated that the costs of cybercrime could be as high as 2.1 trillion by 2019. Computer crime encompasses a range of activities. Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss, in this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by, Altering in an unauthorized way. A variety of scams, many based on phishing and social engineering, target consumers. Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems, cyberterrorism in general can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources. As such, a propaganda piece in the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers and these hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer protection. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pictures of 2014, the U. S. Department of Defense notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonias infrastructure in 2007, in August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states and these crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime and these crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have—which explains how unprepared society and the world in general is towards combating these crimes. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise, the damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible, making legal action against the variants more difficult
9.
Crimeware
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Crimeware is a class of malware designed specifically to automate cybercrime. Alternatively, crimeware may steal confidential or sensitive corporate information, crimeware represents a growing problem in network security as many malicious code threats seek to pilfer confidential information. Redirect a users web browser to a website controlled by the thief even when the user types the websites proper domain name in the address bar. Steal passwords cached on a users system, hijack a user session at a financial institution and drain the account without the users knowledge. Enable remote access applications, allowing criminals to break into networks for malicious purposes. Encrypt all data on a computer and require the user to pay a ransom to decrypt it, crimeware threats can be installed on victims computers through multiple delivery vectors, including, Vulnerabilities in Web applications. The Bankash. G Trojan, for example, exploited an Internet Explorer vulnerability to steal passwords and monitor user input on webmail and these social-engineered threats often arrive disguised as a valid e-mail messages and include specific company information and sender addresses. The malicious e-mails use social engineering to manipulate users to open the attachment, one survey estimates that in 2005 organizations lost in excess of $30 million due to the theft of proprietary information
10.
Script kiddie
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In programming and hacking culture, a script kiddie or skiddie is an unskilled individual who uses scripts or programs developed by others to attack computer systems and networks and deface websites. However, the term does not relate to the age of the participant. The term is considered to be pejorative. Script kiddies have at their disposal a number of effective, easily downloadable programs capable of breaching computers. Script kiddies vandalize websites both for the thrill of it and to increase their reputation among their peers, some more malicious script kiddies have used virus toolkits to create and propagate the Anna Kournikova and Love Bug viruses. Script kiddies lack, or are developing, programming skills sufficient to understand the effects. Black hat hacker Exploit Hacker Lamer List of convicted computer criminals Tapeworm
11.
Hacking tool
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A hacking tool is a program designed to assist with hacking, or a piece of software which can be used for hacking purposes and save hackers time. Examples include Nmap, Nessus, John the Ripper, p0f, bribes have also been described as among the most potent hacking tools, due to their potential exploitation in social engineering attacks. Occasionally, common software such as ActiveX is exploited as a tool as well. Hacking tools such as Cain and Abel, however, are known as Script Kiddie Tools. Script kiddies are people who follow instructions from a manual, without realising how it happens and these Script Kiddies have been an enormous threat to computer security as there are many hacking tools and keyloggers up for download which are free. Another example of a tool is a computer worm. These malicious programs detect vulnerabilities in operating systems, not all worms, however, are malicious. The Nachi Worms have actually fixed operating system vulnerabilities by downloading and installing security patches from the Microsoft website, however, port scanners are the best security auditing tools. Although not much is said about threats to the Linux system, they do exist, one of the biggest threats to the Linux system is given by the so-called Rootkits. These are programs that have special privileges and are able to hide to the system administrator, burp suite Nikto Web Scanner OWASP ZAP Clause 202c of German penal code endangers German IT industry, Chaos Computer Club
12.
Kali Linux
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Kali Linux is a Debian-derived Linux distribution designed for digital forensics and penetration testing. It is maintained and funded by Offensive Security Ltd, Mati Aharoni, Devon Kearns and Raphaël Hertzog are the core developers. Kali Linux can run natively when installed on a hard disk, can be booted from a live CD or live USB. It is a platform of the Metasploit Projects Metasploit Framework. It was developed by Mati Aharoni and Devon Kearns of Offensive Security through the rewrite of BackTrack, the third core developer Raphaël Hertzog joined them as Debian expert. Kali Linux is based on Debian Testing, most packages Kali uses are imported from the Debian repositories. Kali Linux is developed using an environment with only a small number of trusted people that are allowed to commit packages. Kali also has a kernel that is patched for injection. This was primarily added because the development team found they needed to do a lot of wireless assessments, Kali Linux requires a minimum of 10GB hard disk space for installation. A minimum of 512MB RAM for i386 and AMD64 architectures, a bootable CD-DVD drive or a USB stick. The developers of Kali Linux aim to make Kali Linux available for ARM devices.1, and SS808. With the arrival of Kali NetHunter, Kali Linux is also available on smartphones such as the Nexus 5, Nexus 6, Nexus 7, Nexus 9, Nexus 10, OnePlus One. Kali Linux has a project set aside for compatibility and porting to specific Android devices. It is the first Open Source Android penetration testing platform for Nexus devices and it supports Wireless 802.11 frame injection, one-click MANA Evil Access Point setups, HID keyboard, as well as Bad USB MITM attacks. BackTrack contained a mode known as forensic mode, which was carried over to Kali via live boot. This mode is popular for many reasons, partly because many Kali users already have a bootable Kali USB drive or CD. When booted in forensic mode, the system doesnt touch the internal hard drive or swap space, however, the developers recommend that users test these features extensively before using Kali for real world forensics. Robot in episode 5 of season one, the operating system is also shown to be downloaded and installed at episode 10 of season 2
13.
Vulnerability (computing)
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In computer security, a vulnerability is a weakness which allows an attacker to reduce a systems information assurance. Vulnerability is the intersection of three elements, a system susceptibility or flaw, attacker access to the flaw, and attacker capability to exploit the flaw, to exploit a vulnerability, an attacker must have at least one applicable tool or technique that can connect to a system weakness. In this frame, vulnerability is also known as the attack surface, Vulnerability management is the cyclical practice of identifying, classifying, remediating, and mitigating vulnerabilities. This practice generally refers to software vulnerabilities in computing systems, a security risk may be classified as a vulnerability. The use of vulnerability with the meaning of risk can lead to confusion. The risk is tied to the potential of a significant loss, then there are vulnerabilities without risk, for example when the affected asset has no value. A vulnerability with one or more instances of working and fully implemented attacks is classified as an exploitable vulnerability — a vulnerability for which an exploit exists. Constructs in programming languages that are difficult to use properly can be a source of vulnerabilities. The Open Group defines vulnerability in as, The probability that threat capability exceeds the ability to resist the threat. e. The strength of a control as compared to a measure of force. That could be exploited by a threat to gain unauthorized access to information or to disrupt critical processing, 3) In computer security, any weakness or flaw existing in a system. The attack or harmful event, or the opportunity available to an agent to mount that attack. The system computes through the application of state transitions that change the state of the system, all states reachable from a given initial state using a set of state transitions fall into the class of authorized or unauthorized, as defined by a security policy. In this paper, the definitions of classes and transitions is considered axiomatic. A vulnerable state is a state from which an unauthorized state can be reached using authorized state transitions. A compromised state is the state so reached, an attack is a sequence of authorized state transitions which end in a compromised state. By definition, an attack begins in a vulnerable state, a vulnerability is a characterization of a vulnerable state which distinguishes it from all non-vulnerable states. If generic, the vulnerability may characterize many vulnerable states, if specific, a weakness in system security procedures, hardware design, internal controls, etc. which could be exploited to gain unauthorized access to classified or sensitive information
14.
Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
15.
HackThisSite
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HackThisSite. org, commonly referred to as HTS, is an online hacking and security website founded by Jeremy Hammond, with the site being maintained by a members of the community after his departure. It aims to provide users with a way to learn and practice basic and advanced hacking skills through a series of challenges in a safe, the organization has a user base of over 1,800,000. The actual number of members is believed to be much lower, as most accounts are never used. The most users online at the time was 1,995 on February 5,2012 at 2,46,10 AM CST. HackThisSite involves a small, loose team of developers and moderators who maintain its website, IRC server and it produces an e-zine which it releases at various hacker conventions and through its hackbloc portal. Hard copies of the zine are published by Microcosm and Quimbys and it also has a short news/blog section run by developers. HackThisSite is known for its IRC network, where many users converse on a plethora of topics ranging from current events to technical issues with programming, mostly, the HackThisSite IRC network serves as a social gathering of like-minded people to discuss anything. Although there are many channels on the IRC network, the main channel and this requirement helps reduce botnets in the main channel, because they would have to register every nick. HackThisSite currently has one set of forums, because of the recent split from its former sister site CriticalSecurity. Net. The Hackbloc Forums also had many HackThisSite users involved then, however they were taken down. Before the split, the CriticalSecurity. net forums had most HTS discussion, the Hackbloc forums were more for focused hacktivist discussion as well as a place for people to discuss news and plan future projects. Many people criticize the forums as being too newbish compared to IRC, HackThisSite is taking steps to try to attract more qualified users to its forums. Members contribute original texts to the area of the site. This area is broken down into different sections on a range of topics, some of these sections include Ethics, HTS Challenge Tutorials, and Political Activism. The topics covered in these articles range widely in complexity, topics range from walkthroughs for the missions provided by HackThisSite, to articles regarding advanced techniques in a plethora of programming languages. HackThisSite is also host to a series of missions aimed at simulating real world hacks and these range from ten basic missions where one attempts to exploit relatively simple server-side scripting errors, to difficult programming and application cracking missions. The missions works on a system of points where users are awarded based on their completion of missions. In general, the missions become more difficult as the user advances through a particular mission category
16.
Malware
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Before the term malware was coined by Yisrael Radai in 1990, malicious software was referred to as computer viruses. The first category of malware propagation concerns parasitic software fragments that attach themselves to some existing executable content, the fragment may be machine code that infects some existing application, utility, or system program, or even the code used to boot a computer system. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user and it can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software. Malware is often disguised as, or embedded in, non-malicious files, as of 2011 the majority of active malware threats were worms or trojans rather than viruses. In law, malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant, Software such as anti-virus and firewalls are used to protect against activity identified as malicious, and to recover from attacks. Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm, were written as experiments or pranks, today, malware is used by both black hat hackers and governments, to steal personal, financial, or business information. Malware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded information, however, malware is often used against individuals to gain information such as personal identification numbers or details, bank or credit card numbers, and passwords. Left unguarded, personal and networked computers can be at considerable risk against these threats, since the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has more frequently been designed for profit. Since 2003, the majority of viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users computers for illicit purposes. Infected zombie computers are used to email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography. Programs designed to monitor users web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, spyware programs do not spread like viruses, instead they are generally installed by exploiting security holes. They can also be hidden and packaged together with unrelated user-installed software, ransomware affects an infected computer in some way, and demands payment to reverse the damage. For example, programs such as CryptoLocker encrypt files securely, some malware is used to generate money by click fraud, making it appear that the computer user has clicked an advertising link on a site, generating a payment from the advertiser. It was estimated in 2012 that about 60 to 70% of all active malware used some kind of click fraud, Malware is usually used for criminal purposes, but can be used for sabotage, often without direct benefit to the perpetrators. One example of sabotage was Stuxnet, used to very specific industrial equipment. Such attacks were made on Sony Pictures Entertainment and Saudi Aramco, preliminary results from Symantec published in 2008 suggested that the release rate of malicious code and other unwanted programs may be exceeding that of legitimate software applications. According to F-Secure, As much malware produced in 2007 as in the previous 20 years altogether, malwares most common pathway from criminals to users is through the Internet, primarily by e-mail and the World Wide Web. With the amount of malware currently being distributed, some percentage of computers are currently assumed to be infected, for businesses, especially those that sell mainly over the Internet, this means they need to find a way to operate despite security concerns
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Rootkit
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The term rootkit is a concatenation of root and the word kit. The term rootkit has negative connotations through its association with malware, Rootkit installation can be automated, or an attacker can install it once theyve obtained root or Administrator access. Obtaining this access is a result of attack on a system. Once installed, it possible to hide the intrusion as well as to maintain privileged access. The key is the root or administrator access, full control over a system means that existing software can be modified, including software that might otherwise be used to detect or circumvent it. Rootkit detection is difficult because a rootkit may be able to subvert the software that is intended to find it, detection methods include using an alternative and trusted operating system, behavioral-based methods, signature scanning, difference scanning, and memory dump analysis. When dealing with firmware rootkits, removal may require hardware replacement, the term rootkit or root kit originally referred to a maliciously modified set of administrative tools for a Unix-like operating system that granted root access. These first-generation rootkits were trivial to detect by using such as Tripwire that had not been compromised to access the same information. Lane Davis and Steven Dake wrote the earliest known rootkit in 1990 for Sun Microsystems SunOS UNIX operating system, additionally, the compiler would detect attempts to compile a new version of the compiler, and would insert the same exploits into the new compiler. A review of the code for the login command or the updated compiler would not reveal any malicious code. This exploit was equivalent to a rootkit, the first malicious rootkit for the Windows NT operating system appeared in 1999, a trojan called NTRootkit created by Greg Hoglund. It was followed by HackerDefender in 2003, the first rootkit targeting Mac OS X appeared in 2009, while the Stuxnet worm was the first to target programmable logic controllers. In 2005, Sony BMG published CDs with copy protection and digital rights management software called Extended Copy Protection, the software included a music player but silently installed a rootkit which limited the users ability to access the CD. Software engineer Mark Russinovich, who created the rootkit detection tool RootkitRevealer, the ensuing scandal raised the publics awareness of rootkits. To cloak itself, the rootkit hid from the user any file starting with $sys$, soon after Russinovichs report, malware appeared which took advantage of that vulnerability of affected systems. One BBC analyst called it a public relations nightmare, Sony BMG released patches to uninstall the rootkit, but it exposed users to an even more serious vulnerability. The company eventually recalled the CDs, in the United States, a class-action lawsuit was brought against Sony BMG. The taps began sometime near the beginning of August 2004 and were removed in March 2005 without discovering the identity of the perpetrators, the intruders installed a rootkit targeting Ericssons AXE telephone exchange
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Backdoor (computing)
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A backdoor is a method, often secret, of bypassing normal authentication in a product, computer system, cryptosystem or algorithm etc. Backdoors are often used for securing remote access to a computer, a backdoor may take the form of a hidden part of a program, a separate program, or may be a hardware feature. Although normally surreptitiously installed, in some cases backdoors are deliberate and these kinds of backdoors might have legitimate uses such as providing the manufacturer with a way to restore user passwords. Default passwords can function as if they are not changed by the user. Some debugging features can also act as if they are not removed in the release version. In 1993 the United States government attempted to deploy an encryption system, the chip was unsuccessful internationally and in business. The threat of backdoors surfaced when multiuser and networked operating systems became widely adopted, petersen and Turn discussed computer subversion in a paper published in the proceedings of the 1967 AFIPS Conference. They noted a class of active infiltration attacks that use trapdoor entry points into the system to bypass security facilities, the use of the word trapdoor here clearly coincides with more recent definitions of a backdoor. However, since the advent of public key cryptography the term trapdoor has acquired a different meaning, and thus the term backdoor is now preferred. More generally, such security breaches were discussed at length in a RAND Corporation task force report published under ARPA sponsorship by J. P. Anderson and D. J. Edwards in 1970. A backdoor in a system might take the form of a hard coded user. Although the number of backdoors in systems using proprietary software is not widely credited, programmers have even succeeded in secretly installing large amounts of benign code as Easter eggs in programs, although such cases may involve official forbearance, if not actual permission. Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer, such backdoors appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines. A sophisticated attempt to plant a backdoor in the Linux kernel, exposed in November 2003, added a small and this difference is easily overlooked, and could even be interpreted as an accidental typographical error, rather than an intentional attack. In January 2014, a backdoor was discovered in certain Samsung Android products, the Samsung proprietary Android versions are fitted with a backdoor that provides remote access to the data stored on the device. Harder to detect backdoors involve modifying object code, rather than source code – object code is much harder to inspect, as it is designed to be machine-readable, further, object code backdoors can be removed by simply recompiling from source. This leads to changes in the system and tools being needed to conceal a single change. As this requires subverting the compiler, this in turn can be fixed by recompiling the compiler, after this is done, the source meta-backdoor can be removed, and the compiler recompiled from original source with the compromised compiler executable, the backdoor has been bootstrapped
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Computer virus
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A computer virus is a type of malicious software program that, when executed, replicates by reproducing itself or infecting other computer programs by modifying them. Infecting computer programs can include as well, data files, or the sector of the hard drive. When this replication succeeds, the areas are then said to be infected with a computer virus. The term virus is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to types of malware. The majority of active malware threats are actually trojan horse programs or computer worms rather than computer viruses, the term computer virus, coined by Fred Cohen in 1985, is a misnomer. Virus writers use social engineering deceptions and exploit detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities to gain access to their hosts computers and computing resources. Computer viruses currently cause billions of dollars worth of damage each year, due to causing system failure, wasting computer resources, corrupting data, increasing maintenance costs. The work of von Neumann was later published as the Theory of self-reproducing automata, in his essay von Neumann described how a computer program could be designed to reproduce itself. Von Neumanns design for a computer program is considered the worlds first computer virus. In 1972, Veith Risak, directly building on von Neumanns work on self-replication, the article describes a fully functional virus written in assembler programming language for a SIEMENS 4004/35 computer system. In 1980 Jürgen Kraus wrote his diplom thesis Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen at the University of Dortmund, in his work Kraus postulated that computer programs can behave in a way similar to biological viruses. The Creeper virus was first detected on ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet, Creeper was an experimental self-replicating program written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies in 1971. Creeper used the ARPANET to infect DEC PDP-10 computers running the TENEX operating system, Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message, Im the creeper, catch me if you can. The Reaper program was created to delete Creeper, in fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton sci-fi movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimers character summarizes the problem by stating that. theres a pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process. To which the replies are stated, Perhaps there are similarities to disease and. In 1982, a program called Elk Cloner was the first personal computer virus to appear in the wild—that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created. Written in 1981 by Richard Skrenta while in the grade at Mount Lebanon High School near Pittsburgh, it attached itself to the Apple DOS3.3 operating system
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Computer worm
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A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. Often, it uses a network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consuming bandwidth, many worms that have been created are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through. However, as the Morris worm and Mydoom showed, even these payload free worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic, the actual term worm was first used in John Brunners 1975 novel, The Shockwave Rider. In that novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the men who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it, theres never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail. S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the virus from each installation was in the range of $200–53,000, Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the payload, typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system, encrypt files in a ransomware attack, or exfiltrate data such as confidential documents or passwords. Probably the most common payload for worms is to install a backdoor and this allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a zombie. Networks of such machines are referred to as botnets and are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes. Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems, vendors with security problems supply regular security updates, and if these are installed to a machine then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the growth and efficiency of phishing attacks. Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days, the use of a firewall is also recommended. In the April–June,2008, issue of IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, the researchers discovered how to contain the kind of worm that scans the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect. They found that the key is for software to monitor the number of scans that machines on a network send out. When a machine starts sending out too many scans, it is a sign that it has been infected, allowing administrators to take it off line, in addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer. Those worms allowed testing by John Shoch and Jon Hupp of the Ethernet principles on their network of Xerox Alto computers, the Nachi family of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsofts website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system—by exploiting those same vulnerabilities
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Spyware
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Spyware is mostly used for the purposes of tracking and storing Internet users movements on the Web and serving up pop-up ads to Internet users. Whenever spyware is used for malicious purposes, its presence is hidden from the user. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may be installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, while the term spyware suggests software that monitors a users computing, the functions of spyware can extend beyond simple monitoring. Spyware can collect almost any type of data, including personal information like internet surfing habits, user logins, Spyware can also interfere with a users control of a computer by installing additional software or redirecting web browsers. Some spyware can change computer settings, which can result in slow Internet connection speeds, un-authorized changes in browser settings, sometimes, spyware is included along with genuine software, and may come from a malicious website or may have been added to the intentional functionality of genuine software. In response to the emergence of spyware, an industry has sprung up dealing in anti-spyware software. Running anti-spyware software has become a widely recognized element of security practices. A number of jurisdictions have passed laws, which usually target any software that is surreptitiously installed to control a users computer. In German-speaking countries, spyware used or made by the government is called govware by computer experts, govware is typically a trojan horse software used to intercept communications from the target computer. Some countries, like Switzerland and Germany, have a framework governing the use of such software. In the US, the term policeware has been used for similar purposes, the report stated, Heres how it works. You go to Facebook, you log in, you spend time there. You move on without logging out, lets say the next site you go to is New York Times. Those buttons, without you clicking on them, have just reported back to Facebook and Twitter that you went there, lets say you moved on to something like a site about depression. This one also has a button, a Google widget, and those, too, can report back who you are. The WSJ analysis was researched by Brian Kennish, founder of Disconnect, Spyware does not necessarily spread in the same way as a virus or worm because infected systems generally do not attempt to transmit or copy the software to other computers. Instead, spyware installs itself on a system by deceiving the user or by exploiting software vulnerabilities, most spyware is installed without knowledge, or by using deceptive tactics. Spyware may try to deceive users by bundling itself with desirable software, other common tactics are using a Trojan horse, spy gadgets that look like normal devices but turn out to be something else, such as a USB Keylogger
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Ransomware
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Simple ransomware may lock the system in a way which is not difficult for a knowledgeable person to reverse, and display a message requesting payment to unlock it. More advanced malware encrypts the victims files, making them inaccessible, the ransomware may also encrypt the computers Master File Table or the entire hard drive. Thus, ransomware is an attack that prevents computer users from accessing files since it is intractable to decrypt the files without the decryption key. Ransomware attacks are carried out using a Trojan that has a payload disguised as a legitimate file. File encrypting ransomware was invented and implemented by Young and Yung at Columbia University and was presented at the 1996 IEEE Security & Privacy conference and it is called cryptoviral extortion and is the following 3-round protocol carried out between the attacker and the victim. The attacker generates a key pair and places the public key in the malware. To carry out the cryptoviral extortion attack, the malware generates a random symmetric key and it uses the public key in the malware to encrypt the symmetric key. This is known as hybrid encryption and it results in a small asymmetric ciphertext as well as the ciphertext of the victims data. It zeroizes the symmetric key and the plaintext data to prevent recovery. It puts up a message to the user that includes the asymmetric ciphertext, the victim sends the asymmetric ciphertext and e-money to the attacker. The attacker receives the payment, deciphers the asymmetric ciphertext with his private key, the victim deciphers the encrypted data with the needed symmetric key thereby completing the cryptovirology attack. The symmetric key is generated and will not assist other victims. At no point is the private key exposed to victims. Ransomware attacks are carried out using a Trojan, entering a system through, for example. The program then runs a payload, which locks the system in some fashion, or claims to lock the system but does not. The most sophisticated payloads encrypt files, with many using strong encryption to encrypt the files in such a way that only the malware author has the needed decryption key. A key element in making ransomware work for the attacker is a convenient payment system that is hard to trace, a range of such payment methods have been used, including wire transfers, premium-rate text messages, pre-paid voucher services such as Paysafecard, and the digital currency Bitcoin. A2016 census commissioned by Citrix revealed that larger business are holding bitcoin as contingency plans, the first known malware extortion attack, the AIDS Trojan written by Joseph Popp in 1989, had a design failure so severe it was not necessary to pay the extortionist at all
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Botnet
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A botnet is a number of Internet-connected devices used by a botnet owner to perform various tasks. Botnets can be used to perform Distributed Denial Of Service Attack, steal data, send spam, allow the access to the device. The owner can control the botnet using command and control software, the word botnet is a combination of the words robot and network. The term is used with a negative or malicious connotation. Botnets sometimes compromise computers whose security defenses have been breached and control ceded to a third party, each such compromised device, known as a bot, is created when a computer is penetrated by software from a malware distribution. Botnets are increasingly rented out by criminals as commodities for a variety of purposes. Botnet architecture has evolved over time in an effort to evade detection and disruption, traditionally, bot programs are constructed as clients which communicate via existing servers. This allows the bot herder to perform all control from a remote location, many recent botnets now rely on existing peer-to-peer networks to communicate. These P2P bot programs perform the actions as the client-server model. The first botnets on the internet used a model to accomplish their tasks. Typically, these botnets operate through Internet Relay Chat networks, domains, infected clients access a predetermined location and await incoming commands from the server. The bot herder sends commands to the server, which relays them to the clients, clients execute the commands and report their results back to the bot herder. In the case of IRC botnets, infected clients connect to an infected IRC server, the bot herder sends commands to the channel via the IRC server. Each client retrieves the commands and executes them, clients send messages back to the IRC channel with the results of their actions. IRC is a favored means of C&C because of its communication protocol. A bot herder creates an IRC channel for infected clients to join, messages sent to the channel are broadcast to all channel members. The bot herder may set the topic to command the botnet. An example response, bot1. bot1@compromised. net PRIVMSG #channel I am ddosing www. victim. com by a bot client alerts the bot herder that it has begun the attack
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Keystroke logging
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Keylogging can also be used to study human–computer interaction. Numerous keylogging methods exist, they range from hardware and software-based approaches to acoustic analysis and these are computer programs designed to work on the target computers software. Keyloggers are used in IT organizations to troubleshoot problems with computers. Families and business people use keyloggers legally to monitor network usage without their users direct knowledge, however, malicious individuals can use keyloggers on public computers to steal passwords or credit card information. Most keyloggers are not stopped by HTTPS encryption because that only protects data in transit between computers, thus the threat being from the users computer and it effectively becomes a virtual machine. Blue Pill is a conceptual example, kernel-based, A program on the machine obtains root access to hide itself in the OS and intercepts keystrokes that pass through the kernel. This method is both to write and to combat. Such keyloggers reside at the level, which makes them difficult to detect. They are frequently implemented as rootkits that subvert the system kernel to gain unauthorized access to the hardware. A keylogger using this method can act as a device driver, for example. API-based, These keyloggers hook keyboard APIs inside a running application, the keylogger registers keystroke events, as if it was a normal piece of the application instead of malware. The keylogger receives an event each time the user presses or releases a key, Windows APIs such as GetAsyncKeyState, GetForegroundWindow, etc. are used to poll the state of the keyboard or to subscribe to keyboard events. A more recent example simply polls the BIOS for pre-boot authentication PINs that have not been cleared from memory, Form grabbing based, Form grabbing-based keyloggers log web form submissions by recording the web browsing on submit events. This happens when the user completes a form and submits it and this type of keylogger records form data before it is passed over the Internet. Javascript-based, A malicious script tag is injected into a web page. Scripts can be injected via a variety of methods, including scripting, man-in-the-browser, man-in-the-middle. Memory injection based, Memory Injection -based keyloggers perform their function by altering the memory tables associated with the browser and other system functions. By patching the memory tables or injecting directly into memory, this technique can be used by authors to bypass Windows UAC
25.
Antivirus software
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Antivirus or anti-virus software, sometimes known as anti-malware software, is computer software used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software. Antivirus software was developed to detect and remove computer viruses. However, with the proliferation of other kinds of malware, antivirus software started to provide protection from other computer threats and this computer virus infected Digital Equipment Corporations PDP-10 mainframe computers running the TENEX operating system. The Creeper virus was deleted by a program created by Ray Tomlinson. The Creeper virus was followed by several other viruses, the first known that appeared in the wild was Elk Cloner, in 1981, which infected Apple II computers. In 1983, the computer virus was coined by Fred Cohen in one of the first ever published academic papers on computer viruses. Cohen used the computer virus to describe a program that. The first IBM PC compatible in the computer virus. From then, the number of viruses has grown exponentially, most of the computer viruses written in the early and mid-1980s were limited to self-reproduction and had no specific damage routine built into the code. That changed when more and more programmers became acquainted with computer virus programming, before internet connectivity was widespread, computer viruses were typically spread by infected floppy disks. Antivirus software came into use, but was updated relatively infrequently, during this time, virus checkers essentially had to check executable files and the boot sectors of floppy disks and hard disks. However, as internet usage became common, viruses began to spread online, there are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Possibly, the first publicly documented removal of an in the computer virus was performed by Bernd Fix in 1987. In 1987, Andreas Lüning and Kai Figge founded G Data Software, dubiously, they later also produced Virus Construction Kits. In 1987, the Ultimate Virus Killer was also released and this was the de facto industry standard virus killer for the Atari ST and Atari Falcon, the last version of which was released in April 2004. In 1987, in the United States, John McAfee founded the McAfee company and, at the end of that year, in the meanwhile, in Czechoslovakia, Peter Paško, Rudolf Hrubý and Miroslav Trnka created the first version of NOD antivirus. In 1987, Fred Cohen wrote that there is no algorithm that can detect all possible computer viruses. Finally, in the end of 1987, the first two heuristic antivirus utilities were released, Flushot Plus by Ross Greenberg and Anti4us by Erwin Lanting
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Firewall (computing)
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In computing, a firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted, secure network and another outside network, such as the Internet. Firewalls are often categorized as either network firewalls or host-based firewalls, Network firewalls filter traffic between two or more networks, they are either software appliances running on general purpose hardware, or hardware-based firewall computer appliances. Host-based firewalls provide a layer of software on one host that controls network traffic in, Firewall appliances may also offer other functionality to the internal network they protect, such as acting as a DHCP or VPN server for that network. The term firewall originally referred to a wall intended to confine a fire or potential fire within a building, later uses refer to similar structures, such as the metal sheet separating the engine compartment of a vehicle or aircraft from the passenger compartment. Firewall technology emerged in the late 1980s when the Internet was a new technology in terms of its global use. It has hit Berkeley, UC San Diego, Lawrence Livermore, Stanford, the Morris Worm spread itself through multiple vulnerabilities in the machines of the time. Although it was not malicious in intent, the Morris Worm was the first large attack on Internet security. The first type of firewall was the packet filter which looks at network addresses and ports of the packet, the first paper published on firewall technology was in 1988, when engineers from Digital Equipment Corporation developed filter systems known as packet filter firewalls. This fairly basic system was the first generation of what is now a highly involved, packet filters act by inspecting the packets which are transferred between computers on the Internet. If a packet does not match the packet filters set of filtering rules, conversely, if the packet matches one or more of the programmed filters, the packet is allowed to pass. This type of packet filtering pays no attention to whether a packet is part of a stream of traffic. Instead, it filters each packet based only on information contained in the packet itself, when the packet passes through the firewall, it filters the packet on a protocol/port number basis. For example, if a rule in the firewall exists to block telnet access, from 1989–1990 three colleagues from AT&T Bell Laboratories, Dave Presotto, Janardan Sharma, and Kshitij Nigam, developed the second generation of firewalls, calling them circuit-level gateways. Second-generation firewalls perform the work of their predecessors but operate up to layer 4 of the OSI model. This is achieved by retaining packets until enough information is available to make a judgement about its state, though static rules are still used, these rules can now contain connection state as one of their test criteria. Certain denial-of-service attacks bombard the firewall with thousands of fake connection packets in an attempt to overwhelm it by filling its connection state memory, Marcus Ranum, Wei Xu, and Peter Churchyard developed an application firewall known as Firewall Toolkit. In June 1994, Wei Xu extended the FWTK with the enhancement of IP filter
27.
Computer security
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A vulnerability is a system susceptibility or flaw. Many vulnerabilities are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database, an exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. They may exist for a number of reasons, including by original design or from poor configuration, denial of service attacks are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by-passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks, eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI, spoofing, in general, is a fraudulent or malicious practice in which communication is sent from an unknown source disguised as a source known to the receiver. Spoofing is most prevalent in communication mechanisms lack a high level of security. Tampering describes a malicious modification of products, so-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. So for example a computer user may be able to fool the system into giving them access to restricted data. Phishing is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, and it often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. Preying on a victims trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering and this is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically hijacking the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, a similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Social engineering aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. by, for example, impersonating a bank, a common scam involves fake CEO emails sent to accounting and finance departments. In early 2016, the FBI reported that the scam has cost US businesses more than $2bn in about two years, Computer security is critical in almost any industry which uses computers. However, computers can be protected through well built software and hardware, by having strong internal interactions of properties, software complexity can prevent software crash and security failure. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data, computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks
28.
Hacker group
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Hacker groups are informal communities that began to flourish in the early 1980s, with the advent of the home computer. Prior to that time, the hacker was simply a referral to any computer hobbyist. The hacker groups were out to names for themselves, and were often spurred on by their own press. This was a heyday of hacking, at a time there was much law against computer crime. Hacker groups provided access to information and resources, and a place to learn from other members, hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with an elite group. The names of hacker groups parody large corporations, governments, police and criminals, world is looking out for more hackers to increase security of systems. List of hacker groups Hacker group at DMOZ
29.
Glenn Greenwald
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Greenwald and the team he worked with won both a George Polk Award and a Pulitzer Prize for those reports. He has written several best-selling books, including No Place to Hide, before the Snowden file disclosures, Greenwald was widely considered one of the most influential opinion columnists in the United States. After working as a lawyer for 10 years, he began blogging on national security issues before becoming a Salon contributor in 2007. He currently writes for and co-edits The Intercept, which he founded in 2013 with Laura Poitras, Greenwald was born in New York City to Arlene and Daniel Greenwald. Greenwalds family moved to Lauderdale Lakes, Florida when he was an infant and he received a BA in Philosophy from George Washington University in 1990 and a JD from New York University School of Law in 1994. S. One of his cases was the representation of white supremacist Matthew F. Hale. In the early 2000s Greenwald was a partner in an LLC, in April 2006, the blog received the 2005 Koufax Award for Best New Blog. Brennan withdrew his name from consideration for the post after opposition centered in liberal blogs, brennan took up the leadership position at the CIA again, in March 2013. He was a columnist until October 2013, on October 15,2013, Greenwald announced and The Guardian confirmed that he was leaving to pursue a once-in-a-career dream journalistic opportunity that no journalist could possibly decline. Financial backing for the new venture was provided by Pierre Omidyar, Omidyar told media critic Jay Rosen that the decision was fueled by his rising concern about press freedoms in the United States and around the world. The venture is for-profit and it will be funded by Omidyar personally instead of through the Omidyar Network and that news organization, First Look Media, launched its first online publication, called The Intercept on February 10,2014. Greenwald serves as editor, alongside Laura Poitras and Jeremy Scahill, Greenwald has been a regular guest on the Hugh Hewitt Show and on PBSs Bill Moyers Journal. On September 15,2014, he was a speaker at Kim Dotcoms Moment of Truth town hall meeting held in Auckland. Greenwalds first book, How Would a Patriot Act, defending American Values From a President Run Amok, was published by Working Assets in 2006. It was a New York Times bestseller, and ranked #1 on Amazon. com both before its publication and for days after its release, ending its first week at #293. A Tragic Legacy, his book, examines the presidency of George W. Bush. Published in hardback by Crown on June 26,2007, and reprinted in an edition by Three Rivers Press on April 8,2008. His fourth book, With Liberty and Justice for Some, How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality, Greenwalds fifth book, No Place to Hide, Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U. S
30.
Chaos Computer Club
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The Chaos Computer Club is Europes largest association of hackers with 5,500 registered members. It is incorporated as an eingetragener Verein in Germany, with chapters in various cities in Germany. Some chapters in Switzerland are organized in the independent sister association Chaos Computer Club Schweiz instead, the CCC describes itself as a galactic community of life forms, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information. In general, the CCC advocates more transparency in government, freedom of information, supporting the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free universal access to computers and technological infrastructure. Members of the CCC have demonstrated and publicized a number of important information security problems, the CCC frequently criticizes new legislation and products with weak information security which endanger citizen rights or the privacy of users. Notable members of the CCC regularly function as expert witnesses for the German constitutional court, organize lawsuits and campaigns, the CCC hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, Europes biggest hacker gathering. When the event was held in the Hamburg congress center in 2013, for the 2016 installment,11,000 guests were expected. With additional viewers following the event via live streaming, every four years, the Chaos Communication Camp is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide. The CCC also held, from 2009 to 2013, a conference called SIGINT in Cologne which focused on the impact of digitalization on society. The SIGINT conference has been discontinued in 2014, another yearly CCC event taking place on the Easter weekend is the Easterhegg, which is more workshop oriented than the other events. The CCC publishes the irregular magazine Datenschleuder since 1984, the Berlin chapter produces a monthly radio show called Chaosradio which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hour talk radio show. The program is aired on a radio station named Fritz. Other programs have emerged in the context of Chaosradio, including radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups, many of the chapters of CCC participate in the volunteer project Chaos macht Schule which supports teaching in local schools. Its aims are to improve technology and media literacy of pupils, parents, the money was returned the next day in front of the press. Prior to the incident, the provider had failed to react to proof of the security flaw provided by the CCC. In 1987, the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to international headlines. This incident was portrayed in the movie 23, in April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of a GSM customer card, breaking the COMP128 encryption algorithm used at that time by many GSM SIMs. A follow up installation, Arcade, at the Bibliothèque nationale de France was the worlds biggest light installation, later in October 2008, CCCs Project Blinkenlights went to Toronto, Ontario, Canada with project Stereoscope
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Freedom of speech
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Freedom of speech is the right to articulate ones opinions and ideas without fear of government retaliation or censorship, or societal sanction. The term freedom of expression is used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas. The right to freedom of expression includes the right to take, concepts of freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents. Englands Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the right of freedom of speech in Parliament which is still in effect. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. The Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that, The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, Today, freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right not only the content. The right to freedom of speech and expression is related to other rights. As a general freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor. However greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved, the right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press is not necessarily enabling freedom of speech, lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle no money, no voice. Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy, the norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn and he argues that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary, in order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information, Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, eric Barendt has called this defense of free speech on the grounds of democracy probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies. Emerson expanded on this defense when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change, Freedom of speech acts as a safety valve to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution
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Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
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Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
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Leipzig
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Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
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Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
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Lock picking
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Lock picking is the art of unlocking a lock by manipulating the components of the lock device without the original key. Locks by definition secure or fasten something with the intention that access be possible only with the matching key, despite this, it is likely that criminal lock picking started with the first locks. Famed locksmith Alfred Charles Hobbs said in the mid 1800s. Rogues are very keen in their profession, Rogues knew a good deal about lock-picking long before locksmiths discussed it among themselves. Professional and recreational lock picking also has a long history, king Louis XVI of France was a keen designer, picker and manipulator of locks, and physicist Richard Feynman picked locks for fun in the 1940s while employed on the Manhattan Project. The tradition of student roof and tunnel hacking at MIT included lockpicking and it is generally made to conform to a generalized key shape relatively simpler than the actual key used to open the lock, this simpler shape allows for internal manipulations. The keys for warded locks only require the back end manipulating which is the end which opens the lock. The other parts are there to distinguish between different variation of their locks, additionally, a series of grooves on either side of the keys blade limit the type of lock the key can slide into. As the key slides into the lock through the keyway, the align with the grooves in the keys profile to allow or deny entry into the lock cylinder. Lever Tumbler Lock can be opened by a type of lockpick called Curtain Pick, the torsion wrench is always needed when picking a pin/tumbler or wafer lock, even with the use of a pick gun. It is used to apply torque to the plug of a lock in order to hold any picked pins in place, once all pins are picked, the torsion wrench is then used to turn the plug and open the lock. It is typically shaped like a letter L, although the part of the letter is elongated in comparison to the horizontal part. Other torsion tools, especially those for use with cars, resemble a pair of tweezers and these are commonly used with double-sided wafer locks. This versatile pick is included in all kits and is mainly used for picking individual pins. The triangular-shaped half-diamond is usually 2.5 to 12.2 millimeters long, the angles that form the base of the half-diamond can be either steep or shallow, depending on the need for picking without affecting neighboring pins, or raking as appropriate. A normal set comprises around three half-diamond picks and a full-diamond pick, the hook pick is similar to the half-diamond pick, but has a hook-shaped tip rather than a half-diamond shape. The hook pick is sometimes referred to as a feeler or finger and is not used for raking. This is the most basic lockpicking tool and is all that a professional will usually need if the lock is to be picked in the sense rather than opened by raking or using a pick gun. A variety of differently sized and shaped hooks are available in a normal set, the ball pick is similar to the half-diamond pick, except the end of the pick has a Half or full circle shape
