1.
Hackerspace
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Hackerspaces have also been compared to other community-operated spaces with similar aims and mechanisms such as Fab Lab, mens sheds, and commercial for-profit companies such as TechShop. In general, hackerspaces function as centers for peer learning and knowledge sharing, in the form of workshops, presentations and they usually also offer social activities for their members, such as game nights and parties. Many hackerspaces participate in the use and development of software, open hardware. Hackerspaces with open membership became common throughout Germany in the 1990s in the orbit of the German Chaos Computer Club, the concept, however, was limited to less than a dozen spaces within Germany, and did not spread beyond borders at first. Most likely this was because initial founding costs were prohibitive for small groups without the support of an organization like the CCC. In 2006, Paul Bohm came up with a strategy based on the Street Performer Protocol to build Metalab in Vienna, Austria. In 2007, he and others started Hackerspaces. org, a website that maintains a list of many hackerspaces and documents patterns on how to start. As of September 2015, the community list included 1967 hackerspaces with 1199 active sites and 354 planned sites, the advent of crowdfunding and Kickstarter has put the tools required to build hackerspaces within reach of an even wider audience. Those tools are for example used by Bilal Ghalib, who had worked on a hackerspace documentary. The first hackerspace in China, Xinchejian, opened in Shanghai in 2010, thereafter a network of hackerspaces emerged, nourishing an emerging maker culture. By designing open technologies and developing new businesses, Chinese makers make use of the system, make fun of it, altering it, DIY makers often bring and align contradictory ideas together, such as copycat and open source, manufacturing and DIY, individual empowerment and collective change. In doing so, they craft a subject position beyond the rhetoric that Chinese citizens lack creativity. As a site of individual empowerment, hackerspace and DIY making enable people to remake the very societal norms and material infrastructures that undergird their work, the specific tools and resources available at hackerspaces vary from place to place. They typically provide space for members to work on their individual projects, Hackerspaces may also operate computer tool lending libraries, or physical tool lending libraries. The building or facility the hackerspace occupies provides physical infrastructure that members need to complete their projects, in addition to space, most hackerspaces provide electrical power, computer servers, and networking with Internet connectivity. Specialized large-format printers, 3D printers, laser cutters, industrial sewing machines or water jet cutters may be available for members to use, some hackerspaces provide food storage and food preparation equipment, and may teach courses in basic or advanced cooking. The individual character of a hackerspace is determined by its members, many hackerspaces are governed by elected boards selected by active members in good standing. Membership fees are usually the main income of a hackerspace, some hackerspaces in the US have 5013 status, while others have chosen to forgo tax exempt status
2.
Hackathon
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Occasionally, there is a hardware component as well. Hackathons typically last between a day and a week, some hackathons are intended simply for educational or social purposes, although in many cases the goal is to create usable software. Hackathons tend to have a focus, which can include the programming language used, the operating system, an application, an API, or the subject. In other cases, there is no restriction on the type of software being created, the word hackathon is a portmanteau of the words hack and marathon, where hack is used in the sense of exploratory programming, not its alternate meaning as a reference to computer crime. The term seems to have been created independently by both the developers of OpenBSD and the team of Sun, these usages both first happened in 1999. Since then, a further 3-5 events per-year have occurred around the world to advance development, Hackathons typically start with one or more presentations about the event, as well as about the specific subject, if any. Then participants suggest ideas and form teams, based on individual interests, then the main work of the hackathon begins, which can last anywhere from several hours to several days. For hackathons that last 24 hours or longer, especially competitive ones, eating is often informal, with participants often subsisting on food like pizza, sometimes sleeping is informal as well, with participants sleeping on-site with sleeping bags. At the end of hackathons, there is usually a series of demonstrations in which each group presents their results, there is sometimes a contest element as well, in which a panel of judges select the winning teams, and prizes are given. At many hackathons, the judges are made up of organizers and sponsors, some hackathons focus on a particular platform such as mobile apps, a desktop operating system, web development or video game development. Mobile app hackathons like Over the Air, held at Bletchley Park, England, can see a large amount of corporate sponsorship and interest. Music Hack Day, a hackathon for music-related software and hardware applications, is a popular event, also Music Tech Fest, a three-day interdisciplinary festival for music ideas bringing together musicians with hackers, researchers and industry, features a hackathon. Similarly, Science Hack Day, a hackathon for making things with science, has held over 45 times in over 15 countries around the world since 2010. Hackathons have been held to develop applications that run on mobile device operating systems, such as Android, iOS. Hackathons have also held to develop video-based applications and computer games. Hackathons where video games are developed are sometimes called game jams, TV Hackfest events have been held in both London and San Francisco, focusing mainly on social television and second screen technologies. Hackathons have also used in the life sciences to advance the informatics infrastructure that supports research. The Open Bioinformatics Foundation ran two hackathons for its projects in 2002 and 2003, and since 2010 has held 2-day codefests preceding its annual conference
3.
Hackers on Planet Earth
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Hackers on Planet Earth conference series is sponsored by the hacker magazine 2600, The Hacker Quarterly and typically held at Hotel Pennsylvania, in Manhattan, New York City. Occurring biennially in the summer, there have been eleven conferences to date with the most recent occurring 22–24 July 2016, HOPE features talks, workshops and movie screenings. HOPE was significantly inspired by the quadrennial Hack-Tic events in the Netherlands which also inspired the annual Chaos Communication Congress held in Germany, summercon was also an influential predecessor. Held 13–14 August 1994 at the Hotel Pennsylvania, the first HOPE conference marked 2600, over 1,000 people attended, including speakers from around the world. Access to a 28.8 kbit/s local network was provided and this conference was visited and covered in the second episode of the This American Life radio show. The 8–10 August 1997 Beyond HOPE conference was held at the Puck Building, in Manhattan, bell Technology Group helped to support the hackers. A TAP reunion and a live broadcast of Off the Hook took place. A10 Mbit/s local network was provided to attendees, the 14–15 July 2000 HOPE returned to the Hotel Pennsylvania, where subsequent conferences have been held. The conference ran 24 hours a day, bringing in 2,300 attendees, Jello Biafra gave a keynote speech. In a cultural exchange between the punk rock icon/free speech activist and the community, Jello drew connections between the two communities, despite his lack of computer experience. The EFF also raised thousands of dollars, the conference provided a working Ethernet and a T1 link to the internet. H2K2, 12–14 July 2002, had a focused on U. S. Freedom Downtime premiered on Friday evening, the Fifth HOPE, 9–11 July 2004, had a theme on propaganda, and commemorated the anniversaries of both the H. O. P. E. Keynotes speakers were Kevin Mitnick, Steve Wozniak, and Jello Biafra, there was also a presentation members of the Phone Losers of America who celebrated their tenth-year anniversary. The Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective celebrated its twentieth anniversary at the conference, HOPE Number Six, 21–23 July 2006, included talks from Richard Stallman and Jello Biafra. Kevin Mitnick was scheduled to be at the conference but was unable to appear, hope Number Six had a 100-megabit Internet connection, the conference organizers claimed it was the fastest Internet connection to-date at any U. S. hacker conference. The events theme was based on the six and the The Prisoner. Notable occurrences, Steve Rambam, a private investigator heading Pallorium, the charges were eventually dropped and the talk was subsequently held in November 2006, long after the conference
4.
Chaos Computer Club
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The Chaos Computer Club is Europes largest association of hackers with 5,500 registered members. It is incorporated as an eingetragener Verein in Germany, with chapters in various cities in Germany. Some chapters in Switzerland are organized in the independent sister association Chaos Computer Club Schweiz instead, the CCC describes itself as a galactic community of life forms, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information. In general, the CCC advocates more transparency in government, freedom of information, supporting the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free universal access to computers and technological infrastructure. Members of the CCC have demonstrated and publicized a number of important information security problems, the CCC frequently criticizes new legislation and products with weak information security which endanger citizen rights or the privacy of users. Notable members of the CCC regularly function as expert witnesses for the German constitutional court, organize lawsuits and campaigns, the CCC hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, Europes biggest hacker gathering. When the event was held in the Hamburg congress center in 2013, for the 2016 installment,11,000 guests were expected. With additional viewers following the event via live streaming, every four years, the Chaos Communication Camp is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide. The CCC also held, from 2009 to 2013, a conference called SIGINT in Cologne which focused on the impact of digitalization on society. The SIGINT conference has been discontinued in 2014, another yearly CCC event taking place on the Easter weekend is the Easterhegg, which is more workshop oriented than the other events. The CCC publishes the irregular magazine Datenschleuder since 1984, the Berlin chapter produces a monthly radio show called Chaosradio which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hour talk radio show. The program is aired on a radio station named Fritz. Other programs have emerged in the context of Chaosradio, including radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups, many of the chapters of CCC participate in the volunteer project Chaos macht Schule which supports teaching in local schools. Its aims are to improve technology and media literacy of pupils, parents, the money was returned the next day in front of the press. Prior to the incident, the provider had failed to react to proof of the security flaw provided by the CCC. In 1987, the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to international headlines. This incident was portrayed in the movie 23, in April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of a GSM customer card, breaking the COMP128 encryption algorithm used at that time by many GSM SIMs. A follow up installation, Arcade, at the Bibliothèque nationale de France was the worlds biggest light installation, later in October 2008, CCCs Project Blinkenlights went to Toronto, Ontario, Canada with project Stereoscope
5.
Keystroke logging
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Keylogging can also be used to study human–computer interaction. Numerous keylogging methods exist, they range from hardware and software-based approaches to acoustic analysis and these are computer programs designed to work on the target computers software. Keyloggers are used in IT organizations to troubleshoot problems with computers. Families and business people use keyloggers legally to monitor network usage without their users direct knowledge, however, malicious individuals can use keyloggers on public computers to steal passwords or credit card information. Most keyloggers are not stopped by HTTPS encryption because that only protects data in transit between computers, thus the threat being from the users computer and it effectively becomes a virtual machine. Blue Pill is a conceptual example, kernel-based, A program on the machine obtains root access to hide itself in the OS and intercepts keystrokes that pass through the kernel. This method is both to write and to combat. Such keyloggers reside at the level, which makes them difficult to detect. They are frequently implemented as rootkits that subvert the system kernel to gain unauthorized access to the hardware. A keylogger using this method can act as a device driver, for example. API-based, These keyloggers hook keyboard APIs inside a running application, the keylogger registers keystroke events, as if it was a normal piece of the application instead of malware. The keylogger receives an event each time the user presses or releases a key, Windows APIs such as GetAsyncKeyState, GetForegroundWindow, etc. are used to poll the state of the keyboard or to subscribe to keyboard events. A more recent example simply polls the BIOS for pre-boot authentication PINs that have not been cleared from memory, Form grabbing based, Form grabbing-based keyloggers log web form submissions by recording the web browsing on submit events. This happens when the user completes a form and submits it and this type of keylogger records form data before it is passed over the Internet. Javascript-based, A malicious script tag is injected into a web page. Scripts can be injected via a variety of methods, including scripting, man-in-the-browser, man-in-the-middle. Memory injection based, Memory Injection -based keyloggers perform their function by altering the memory tables associated with the browser and other system functions. By patching the memory tables or injecting directly into memory, this technique can be used by authors to bypass Windows UAC
6.
Homebrew Computer Club
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Several very high-profile hackers and computer entrepreneurs emerged from its ranks, including the founders of Apple Inc. The open exchange of ideas that went on at its meetings. The Homebrew Computer Club has been called the crucible for an entire industry and it was started by Gordon French and Fred Moore who met at the Community Computer Center in Menlo Park. They both were interested in maintaining a regular, open forum for people to get together to work on making computers more accessible to everyone, Steve Wozniak credits that first meeting with inspiring him to design the Apple I. Subsequent meetings were held at an auditorium at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, others would convene at The Oasis, a bar and grill on El Camino Real in nearby Menlo Park, recalled years later by a member as Homebrews other staging area. Many of the members of the Homebrew Computer Club continue to meet, having formed the 6800 Club. Occasionally and variously renamed after the release of the 6800,6809, and other microprocessors, though the Homebrew members were hobbyists, most of them had an electronic engineering or computer programming background. They came to the meetings to talk about the Altair 8800 and other topics and to exchange schematics. Steve Inness was a designer of one of the early cell phone touch screens as well as a business partner with John Draper. The Homebrew Computer Clubs newsletter was one of the most influential forces in the formation of the culture of Silicon Valley, created and edited by its members, it initiated the idea of the personal computer, and helped its members build the original kit computers, like the Altair. One such influential event was the publication of Bill Gatess Open Letter to Hobbyists, the first issue of the newsletter was published on March 15,1975, and continued through several designs, ending after 21 issues in December 1977. The newsletter was published from a variety of addresses in the early days, hobby Computer Club,180 thousand members strong Dutch group Kilobaud Microcomputing was a magazine dedicated to the homebrew computer hobbyists with knowledge of electronics. West Coast Computer Faire Stephen Wozniak, Homebrew and How the Apple Came to Be in Steve Ditlea, ed
7.
Computer virus
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A computer virus is a type of malicious software program that, when executed, replicates by reproducing itself or infecting other computer programs by modifying them. Infecting computer programs can include as well, data files, or the sector of the hard drive. When this replication succeeds, the areas are then said to be infected with a computer virus. The term virus is also commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to types of malware. The majority of active malware threats are actually trojan horse programs or computer worms rather than computer viruses, the term computer virus, coined by Fred Cohen in 1985, is a misnomer. Virus writers use social engineering deceptions and exploit detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities to gain access to their hosts computers and computing resources. Computer viruses currently cause billions of dollars worth of damage each year, due to causing system failure, wasting computer resources, corrupting data, increasing maintenance costs. The work of von Neumann was later published as the Theory of self-reproducing automata, in his essay von Neumann described how a computer program could be designed to reproduce itself. Von Neumanns design for a computer program is considered the worlds first computer virus. In 1972, Veith Risak, directly building on von Neumanns work on self-replication, the article describes a fully functional virus written in assembler programming language for a SIEMENS 4004/35 computer system. In 1980 Jürgen Kraus wrote his diplom thesis Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen at the University of Dortmund, in his work Kraus postulated that computer programs can behave in a way similar to biological viruses. The Creeper virus was first detected on ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet, Creeper was an experimental self-replicating program written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies in 1971. Creeper used the ARPANET to infect DEC PDP-10 computers running the TENEX operating system, Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message, Im the creeper, catch me if you can. The Reaper program was created to delete Creeper, in fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton sci-fi movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimers character summarizes the problem by stating that. theres a pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process. To which the replies are stated, Perhaps there are similarities to disease and. In 1982, a program called Elk Cloner was the first personal computer virus to appear in the wild—that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created. Written in 1981 by Richard Skrenta while in the grade at Mount Lebanon High School near Pittsburgh, it attached itself to the Apple DOS3.3 operating system
8.
Computer security conference
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A computer security conference is a convention for individuals involved in computer security. They generally serve as meeting places for system and network administrators, hackers, common activities at hacker conventions may include, Presentations from keynote speakers or panels. Common topics include social engineering, lockpicking, penetration testing, hands-on activities and competitions such as capture the flag. Boot camps offering training and certification in Information Technology, general security conferences might be held by non-profit/not-for-profit/for-profit professional associations, individuals or informal group of individuals, or by security product vendor companies. ACM-CCS, security conference held since 1993, ACSAC, Annual Computer Security Applications Conference - oldest information security conference held annually. Black Hat, a series of conferences held annually in different cities around the world, Black Hat USA, held in Las Vegas immediately before DEF CON, is one of the largest computer security event in the world. BlueHat Conference, a twice a year, invitation-only Microsoft security conference aimed at bringing Microsoft security professionals, brucon, yearly conference, previously held in Brussels, since 2012 it is held in Ghent. Lasting 2 days, and preceded by a training, canSecWest, in Vancouver is held at the end of March and hosts the Pwn2Own hacking contest. CSS - International Conference on Cryptography and Security System in Poland, deepSec, in Vienna covers many security aspects of computing and electronic communications as well as security management and social aspects. DeepSec is visited by an international audience, academics, researchers, vendors, finance. Presentations are published on Vimeo and YouTube, department of Defense Cyber Crime Conference, an annual conference that focuses on the computer security needs of the United States federal government, military, and defense contractors. FSec - Croatian annual security conference held at the Faculty of organization, greHack. fr an annual conference held in Grenoble. Hackito Ergo Sum, Security conference pertaining to topics, with attendees. HITBSecConf / Hack In The Box, deep-knowledge security conference held in Malaysia, ICISSP International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy, IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, top-tier privacy & security conference. INFWARCON Beyond Information Warfare - Offensive Cyber Weapons and Technologies Training Congress, IP EXPO Europe, held annually at Londons ExCeL Centre IP EXPO Nordic, held annually at Stockholms Waterfront Congress Centre NDSS, annual security conference from Internet Society. NSPW, a workshop with new ideas in security, nullcon Security Conference held annually in Delhi and Goa. Open Web Application Security Project, Focuses on web application security, REcon REcon is a computer security conference with a focus on reverse engineering and advanced exploitation techniques. RSA Security Conference, Cryptography and information security-related conference held annually in the San Francisco Bay Area, ruhrSec, annual non-profit security conference at the Ruhr University Bochum
9.
Cybercrime
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Cybercrime, or computer related crime, is crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have used in the commission of a crime. Debarati Halder and K. Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nations security, there are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes, activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US, in 2016, a study by Juniper Research estimated that the costs of cybercrime could be as high as 2.1 trillion by 2019. Computer crime encompasses a range of activities. Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss, in this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by, Altering in an unauthorized way. A variety of scams, many based on phishing and social engineering, target consumers. Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems, cyberterrorism in general can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources. As such, a propaganda piece in the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers and these hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer protection. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pictures of 2014, the U. S. Department of Defense notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonias infrastructure in 2007, in August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states and these crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime and these crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have—which explains how unprepared society and the world in general is towards combating these crimes. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise, the damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible, making legal action against the variants more difficult
10.
Masters of Deception
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Masters of Deception was a New York-based group of hackers, most widely known in media for their exploits of telephone company infrastructure and later prosecution. They successfully remained underground using alternative handles to hide even their true hacker identities, acid Phreak founded the Masters of Deception with Scorpion and HAC. It could stand for Millions of Dollars just as easily as Masters of Deception and it is claimed that the mockery of the LOD name was a statement to the underground that LOD had lost its direction. Several LOD members were friends of MOD who had been raided and indicted by the government. The original Masters of Deception included, Mark Abene, Paul Stira, Elias Ladopoulos, HAC, John Lee and Julio Fernandez. Additional members who have remained anonymous include, Supernigger, Wing, Nynex Phreak, Billy_The_Kid, Crazy Eddie, The Plague, ZOD, Seeker, Red Knight, Lord Micro, n00gie, Masters of Deception operated differently in many respects to previous hacking groups. Although they openly shared information with other, they took a controversial view on sharing information outside the group. A demonstration of responsibility on the part of the initiate was required and this informal compartmentalized protection of more sensitive knowledge was a structure originally employed by LOD in the 1980s, rather successfully. According to Lex Luthor, I realized early on only certain people can be trusted with certain information. Giving out useful things to irresponsible people would lead to whatever thing it was being abused. I was very possessive of my information and frequently withheld things from my articles, as a result of a major nationwide investigation by a joint FBI/Secret Service task force, five of MODs members were indicted in 1992 in federal court. The case was prosecuted by the U. S. Attorneys Office for the Southern District of New York by Assistant U. S. Attorneys Stephen Fishbein, within the next six months, all five pleaded guilty and were sentenced to either probation or prison. After the sentencing of Abene,2600, The Hacker Quarterly, Masters of Deception have appeared in many magazine and newspaper articles, and the individual members have appeared on television numerous times. Singer/songwriter Poe referenced the MOD with the phrase MOD are you out there, josh Quittner, Masters of Deception, The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace Gang War in Cyberspace Wired 2.12 This American Life Nov.24,1995. Small Scale Sin Act Three profiles Eli Ladopoulos after his release from prison. @Large - The Strangest Case of the Worlds Biggest Internet Invasion The Book of MOD, Vol. III Computer Underground Digest, Volume 5, Wired 9.06 Michele Slatalla, Joshua Quittner. Masters of Deception, The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace
11.
Antivirus software
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Antivirus or anti-virus software, sometimes known as anti-malware software, is computer software used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software. Antivirus software was developed to detect and remove computer viruses. However, with the proliferation of other kinds of malware, antivirus software started to provide protection from other computer threats and this computer virus infected Digital Equipment Corporations PDP-10 mainframe computers running the TENEX operating system. The Creeper virus was deleted by a program created by Ray Tomlinson. The Creeper virus was followed by several other viruses, the first known that appeared in the wild was Elk Cloner, in 1981, which infected Apple II computers. In 1983, the computer virus was coined by Fred Cohen in one of the first ever published academic papers on computer viruses. Cohen used the computer virus to describe a program that. The first IBM PC compatible in the computer virus. From then, the number of viruses has grown exponentially, most of the computer viruses written in the early and mid-1980s were limited to self-reproduction and had no specific damage routine built into the code. That changed when more and more programmers became acquainted with computer virus programming, before internet connectivity was widespread, computer viruses were typically spread by infected floppy disks. Antivirus software came into use, but was updated relatively infrequently, during this time, virus checkers essentially had to check executable files and the boot sectors of floppy disks and hard disks. However, as internet usage became common, viruses began to spread online, there are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Possibly, the first publicly documented removal of an in the computer virus was performed by Bernd Fix in 1987. In 1987, Andreas Lüning and Kai Figge founded G Data Software, dubiously, they later also produced Virus Construction Kits. In 1987, the Ultimate Virus Killer was also released and this was the de facto industry standard virus killer for the Atari ST and Atari Falcon, the last version of which was released in April 2004. In 1987, in the United States, John McAfee founded the McAfee company and, at the end of that year, in the meanwhile, in Czechoslovakia, Peter Paško, Rudolf Hrubý and Miroslav Trnka created the first version of NOD antivirus. In 1987, Fred Cohen wrote that there is no algorithm that can detect all possible computer viruses. Finally, in the end of 1987, the first two heuristic antivirus utilities were released, Flushot Plus by Ross Greenberg and Anti4us by Erwin Lanting
12.
Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
