1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
2.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
3.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
4.
Orange, California
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Orange is a city located in Orange County, California. It is approximately 3 miles north of the county seat, Santa Ana, Orange is unusual in this region because many of the homes in its Old Town District were built prior to 1920. While many other cities in the region demolished such houses in the 1960s, the small affluent city of Villa Park is surrounded by the city of Orange. The population was 139,812 as of 2014, members of the Tongva and Juaneño/Luiseño ethnic group long inhabited this area. After the 1769 expedition of Gaspar de Portolà, an out of San Blas, Nayarit, Mexico, led by Father Junípero Serra. On November 1,1776, Mission San Juan Capistrano became the areas first permanent European settlement in Alta California, in 1801, the Spanish Empire granted 62,500 acres to José Antonio Yorba, which he named Rancho San Antonio. Yorbas great rancho included the lands where the cities of Olive, Orange, Villa Park, Santa Ana, Tustin, Costa Mesa, smaller ranchos evolved from this large rancho, including the Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana. Since at least 1864, Los Angeles attorneys Alfred Chapman and Andrew Glassell together and separately, water was the key factor for the location of their townsite. Glassell needed a spot he could irrigate, bringing water down from the Santa Ana Canyon, originally the community was named Richland, but in 1873 Richland got a new name. In the book, Orange, The City Round The Plaza by local historian Phil Brigandi, it states, In 1873 the town had large enough to require a post office. It was refused, however, as there was already a Richland, undaunted, the Richlanders proposed a new name – Orange. The small town was incorporated on April 6,1888, under the laws of the state of California. Orange was the city in Orange County to be planned and built around a plaza. Orange was the first developed town site to be served by the California Southern Railroad when the nations second transcontinental rail line reached Orange County. The town experienced its first growth spurt during the last decade of the 19th century, thanks to ever-increasing demands for California-grown citrus fruits, Southern Californias real estate boom of 1886–1888, fueled by railroad rate wars, also contributed to a marked increase in population. Like most cities in Orange County, agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, and growth thereafter was slow and steady until the 1950s. The city has an area of 25.2 square miles,24.8 square miles of which is land and 0.4 square miles of which is water. The total area is 1. 75% water, Southern California is well known for year-round pleasant weather, – On average, the warmest month is August
5.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
6.
Suburban
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
7.
Grey
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Grey or gray is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is a color without color and this means that there are equal components of red, green, and blue. The variations in intensity of these colors uniformly produce different shades of grey and it is the color of a cloud-covered sky, of ash and of lead. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. Grey is the dominant spelling in European and Commonwealth English, although remained in common usage in the UK until the second half of the 20th century. Gray has been the preferred American spelling since approximately 1825, although grey is an accepted variant, in Europe and the United States, surveys show that grey is the color most commonly associated with neutrality, conformity, boredom, uncertainty, old age, indifference, and modesty. Only one percent of respondents chose it as their favorite color, Grey comes from the Middle English grai or grei, from the Anglo-Saxon graeg, and is related to the Dutch grauw and grijs and German grau. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, grey was the color of undyed wool, and thus was the color most commonly worn by peasants and the poor. It was also the color worn by monks of the Franciscan order, Cistercian Order, Franciscan monks in England and Scotland were commonly known as the Grey friars, and that name is now attached to many places in Great Britain. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, grey began to play an important role in fashion, Black became the most popular color of the nobility, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and grey and white were harmonious with it. Grey was also used for the drawing of oil paintings. The painting would first be composed in grey and white, and then the colors, made with thin transparent glazes, the grisaille beneath would provide the shading, visible through the layers of color. Sometimes the grisaille was simply left uncovered, giving the appearance of carved stone, Grey was a particularly good background color for gold and for skin tones. It became the most common background for the portraits of Rembrandt Van Rijn and for many of the paintings of El Greco, the palette of Rembrandt was composed almost entirely of somber colors. Over this he put a layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre. Using these ingredients and many others, he made greys which had, according to art historian Philip Ball, the warm, dark and rich greys and browns served to emphasize the golden light on the faces in the paintings. Grey became a fashionable color in the 18th century, both for womens dresses and for mens waistcoats and coats
8.
Black panther
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A black panther is the melanistic color variant of any Panthera species. Black panthers in Asia and Africa are leopards and black panthers in the Americas are black jaguars, melanism in the jaguar is conferred by a dominant allele, and in the leopard by a recessive allele. Melanistic and non-melanistic animals can be littermates and it is thought that melanism may confer a selective advantage under certain conditions since it is more common in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Recently, preliminary studies also suggest that melanism might be linked to mutations in the immune system. The Javan leopard was described as being black with dark black spots. Black leopards are common in the equatorial rainforest of Malaya and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya, one was recorded in the equatorial forest of Cameroon. According to Funk and Wagnalls Wildlife Encyclopedia, captive black leopards are less fertile than spotted leopards, with litter sizes of 1.8 and 2.1. This is likely due to inbreeding depression, in the early 1980s, Glasgow Zoo acquired a 10-year-old black leopard, nicknamed the Cobweb Panther, from Dublin Zoo. She was exhibited for several years before being moved to the Madrid Zoo and this leopard had a uniformly black coat profusely sprinkled with white hairs as though draped with spider webs. The condition appeared to be vitiligo, as she aged, the became more extensive. Since then, other cobweb panthers have been reported and photographed in zoos, in jaguars, the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently, black jaguars may produce either black or spotted cubs, individuals with two copies of the allele are darker than ones with just one copy, whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than black. The black jaguar was considered a species by indigenous peoples. W H Hudson wrote, The jaguar is a beautiful creature and they scout the notion that their terrible black tiger is a mere melanic variation, like the black leopard of the Old World and the wild black rabbit. A black jaguar named Diablo was inadvertently crossed with a lioness named Lola at the Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary in Barrie, Ontario, the offspring were a charcoal black jaglion female and a tan-coloured, spotted jaglion male. It therefore appears that the jaguar melanism gene is dominant over normal lion colouration. In preserved, stuffed specimens, black leopards often fade to a rusty colour, there are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic cougars. Melanistic cougars have never been photographed or shot in the wild, unconfirmed sightings, known as the North American black panther, are currently attributed to errors in species identification by non-experts, and by the mimetic exaggeration of size
9.
Chapman University School of Law
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Chapman Universitys Dale E. Fowler School of Law, commonly referred to as Chapman University School of Law or Chapman Law School, is a private, non-profit law school located in Orange, California. The school offers the Juris Doctor degree, combined programs offering a JD/MBA and JD/MFA in Film & Television Producing, the school also offers emphasis options in Business Law, Criminal Law, Entertainment Law, Environmental Law, International Law, Trial Advocacy, and Taxation. Currently, the school has 74 full- and part-time faculty members, established in 1995 as part of Chapman University, Chapman Law gained provisional accreditation from the American Bar Association in 1998 and received full ABA accreditation in 2002. In 2013, the ABA again fully accredited the school until 2020, Chapman University School of Law is currently ranked 134th by the US News and World Reports annual law school rankings. Chapman University Dale E. Fowler School of Law offers an in-house Bar Preparation Program to complement traditional doctrinal law school coursework, Chapmans bar preparation program consists of two major components, for-credit courses and a supplemental bar preparation program. Chapman has beaten the California ABA Law School Pass Rate for first time takers of the July examination in five out of the past six years, information about Chapmans recent bar pass rates is available on the law schools website. The cost of tuition for full time JD students at the Chapman University Fowler School of Law for the 2016-2017 academic year is $50,076, Chapmans employment outcomes are reported on its website via annual ABA-required disclosures. Chapman offers need and merit-based scholarships for its students, information about scholarships is available at the law schools website. Matthew J. Parlow is the Dean and Donald P. Kennedy Chair in Law at Chapman University Fowler School of Law and he joined Chapman as dean in July 2016 after serving as Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and Professor of Law at Marquette University Law School. He previously taught at Chapman from 2005-2008, faculty members have published books and scholarly articles and are frequently called upon to share their expertise in the mainstream press and legal media. Professor Tom Campbell served as Dean of the Fowler School of Law from 2011 to 2016, other members of the Chapman Law faculty include Constitutional law and legal ethics scholar Ronald D. Rotunda and radio host Hugh Hewitt, who was a co-panelist in several of the 2016 presidential debates, visiting Professors have included international law scholar Richard A. Falk and W. H. Knight, Jr. a noted scholar and member of the American Law Institute. Chapmans Fowler School of Law publishes the Chapman Law Review, a scholarly journal. In addition to publishing the journal, the Chapman Law Review hosts a major symposium at the start of the spring semester each year
10.
Brandman University
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Brandman University is a private, non-profit regionally accredited institution that provides educational opportunities for working adults. There are over 25 campuses throughout California and Washington, and a virtual campus online, the university offers more than 50 degree, certificate, credential and professional programs in business, arts and sciences, health and education. Brandman is a separate, fully accredited university within the Chapman University System, gary Brahm is the appointed Chancellor of Brandman University. He previously spent 14 years as Executive Vice President and CFO at Chapman University, in 1958, Brandman was established by Chapman University in Orange, California that was founded in 1861. Formerly named Chapman University College, Brandman’s original purpose was delivering education to the former El Toro Marine Corps Air Station in Irvine, Brandman University is a separate accredited institution and has recently expanded to serve a larger and diverse student population, such as military and adult learners. Brandman offers more than 53 accredited undergraduate and graduate degrees, teaching credentials and extended education programs offered online, Brandman is regionally accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges and is a member of the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. Additionally, the School of Nursing and Health Professions follows the American Association of Colleges of Nursing standards and accredited by the Western Association of Schools, the undergraduate social work program is accredited by CSWE. U. S. News & World Reports Best Online Programs rankings have included Brandman University since the rankings began in 2012, the university consistently ranks well in undegraduate, graduate business, graduate education and MBA programs. Brandman is a “Military-Friendly School” according to G. I, jobs Magazine and Military. com and a Yellow Ribbon School. Brandman University offers reduced tuition rates for active military, their spouses, Brandman offers a curriculum model known as iDEAL. According to a study by the Lumina Foundation, iDEAL addresses both the flexibility and learning methodology preferred by adult learners, IDEAL combines traditional classroom instruction with e-learning activities. Courses are available as hybrid, fully online or comptency-based via Brandman MyPath, hanisch, DNP, APRN, FNP-c, the school’s vision encourages nurses to “inquire, innovate and inspire”. Hanisch received her MS in Community Health Nursing and DNP at Arizona State University, the school offers credential and masters degree programs, and has partnerships with school districts and colleges across the state of California. A former superintendent of three California school districts and published author of The Politically Intelligent Leader, Dealing with the Dilemmas of a High Stakes Educational Environment, founding Director of the Center for Instructional Innovation, Kimberly Greene, Ed. D. Author of a series of adult novels for pre-teen girls. Dean of the school, is a retired colonel from the U. S. Army Reserve with 37 years of active and reserve service. Dr. Worthington is a graduate of the U. S. Army War College and is a recipient of the Bronze Star Medal for meritorious service in Saudi Arabia and Iraq during Desert Storm. He has been on the Chapman and Brandman faculty for over 15 years, the School of Arts and Sciences offers degree programs in psychology, social science, sociology, social work, liberal studies, legal studies, and criminal justice
11.
Woodland, California
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The population was 55,468 at the 2010 census. Woodlands origins trace back to 1850 when California gained its statehood, since the town started growing in population and resources, it has not stopped. The area was well irrigated due to the efforts of James Moore, the endeavor was successful as people found the soil in the area very fertile. The city gained a federal post office and the year the county seat was moved from Washington to Woodland after Washington was flooded. The addition of a line, the close proximity to Sacramento. Before the settlement of the area by people of European descent, the Woodland area was inhabited by the Patwin, there are two main groups of Patwin, River and Coastal Patwin. Woodlands indigenous roots stem from the River Patwin who tended to stay closer to the Sacramento River, as opposed to the Coastal Patwin who lived in valleys in hills. The Yolotoi, a tribelet of the Patwin, occupied area near Woodland, although they didnt have a permanent settlement in present-day Woodland, it is believed that the River Patwin occupied the Woodland area in seasonal camps for hunting and seed gathering. The Yolotoi and their neighboring tribelets had a main trading trail which followed Cache Creek, however, it has been found that some of the first farm hands in the earliest farms in Woodland were the Patwin people. In 1851, the year after California became a state and Yolo County was formed, Uncle Johnny Morris settled in what is now the corner of First, two years later Henry Wyckoff arrived and built a store he named Yolo City. This new Yolo City might have stayed a singular store if Frank S. Freeman had not bought it, Freeman began to develop a town that he hoped would be a trading center for one of the richest crop-growing areas in America. He was giving land to anyone who would clear it and build their home on it, in 1859, Freeman suggested to the post office that the town be called Woodland and the post office accepted. Later, on July 5,1861, the Woodland Post Office was established and he lost no time in further developing the town by leasing or selling buildings for businesses to use. The 1860s were a time of opportunity for Woodland, the county seat was permanently moved to Woodland after Washington, California had flooded. Schools, homes, churches, and a cemetery were built at this time, the towns newspaper, the Daily Democrat, and a post office were established, and a rail line was built. In 1869, the California Pacific Railroad Company constructed a line between Davisville and Marysville with a Woodland station in the area of College Street and Lincoln Avenue, the rail line expanded and was eventually acquired by Southern Pacific Railroad. The track was relocated from College Street to East Street. The addition of the railroad is what led to the expansion of Woodland as a town, before the railroad came, people were building primarily on Main Street and northward
12.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
13.
Orange High School (Orange, California)
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Orange High School is a traditional four-year public high school located in the city of Orange, California. Orange High is part of the Orange Unified School District and competes in the Golden West League, Orange High School opened on September 21,1903 as Orange Union High School located at Palm Ave and Glassell St. Orange High was the countys fourth school. In its first year, it had an enrollment of 81 students, in 1953 the high school moved to the current site on Shaffer Street and Walnut St. The original high school eventually became the campus for Chapman University. Orange High School is the oldest high school in the Orange Unified School District, the schools athletic teams compete in the Golden West League. Orange High Schools baseball field was selected by the Baseball Tomorrow Fund, one high school in the United States is selected each year for this renovation depending on its proximity to the annual meeting of the groundskeeper group. Grass from Angel Stadium of Anaheim was removed for a concert and replanted in the Orange High School field
14.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
15.
OC Channel
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OC Channel is an Over-the-air, digital broadcast, television news network. The channel is broadcast on a sub channel of PBS member station KOCE in Huntington Beach. OC Channel began broadcasting on KOCEs digital sub channel in 2007, the channel is produced in a partnership between KOCE and Chapman University with programming consisting of Orange County news, local events information, weather and traffic. The remaining and larger portion of the screen provides viewers with local public affairs/news programs, the channel can be viewed in Orange County, Los Angeles County, Ventura County and portions of San Bernardino County & Riverside County to viewers able to receive digital broadcasts. The channel is available on Cox Communications in Orange County
16.
KOCE-TV
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KOCE-TV, virtual channel 50, is the primary PBS member television station serving Los Angeles, California, United States. Licensed to Huntington Beach, the station is owned by the KOCE-TV Foundation, KOCE-TVs studios are located at the South Coast Corporate Center in Costa Mesa, and its transmitter is located at the Southern California tower farm atop Mount Wilson. KOCE-TV is one of three PBS member stations serving Greater Los Angeles, the others being KVCR-DT, which serves the Inland Empire. A fourth public television station serving the area, KCET, ended its 40-year membership with PBS in 2010, kCETs departure from PBS makes KOCE-TV the successor flagship PBS station in Los Angeles. The station first signed on the air on November 20,1972 as the first television station licensed to Orange County and it broadcast its first telecourse in 1973. It was originally owned by the Coast Community College District, the station was originally based from studios located at Golden West College in Huntington Beach. For most of its history, KOCE-TV was a beta or secondary PBS station, in 2002, the Coast Community College District offered KOCE for sale in order to raise revenue for other programs. A bidding war ensued between the Daystar Television Network and members of the community who wanted to continue membership with PBS, the foundation outbid Daystar by $500,000, the religious broadcaster placed a bid of $25 million, which it intended to compensate in an all-cash payment. Daystar sued in court, stating that under the terms of the auction. On November 22,2005, an appeals panel reheard arguments in the case following a petition from KOCE, the KOCE Foundation. On May 25,2006, the court reaffirmed its decision. At the same time, Daystar also filed a lawsuit, alleging religious discrimination, civil rights violations. On May 1,2006, the District Court dismissed the racketeering claim, in June 2006, a state assembly bill that had previously been approved was changed to allow the Coast Community College District to sell KOCE below fair market value in order to keep it a PBS station. In June 2007, an agreement was reached in which the KOCE-TV Foundation would keep the station, as a result, KOCE-DT3 is reserved to broadcast Daystars national schedule without any local deviation. After KCET left PBS, KOCE entered into a broadcast agreement with KLCS, the PBS programming originally carried on KCET is now shared between the three stations. As a consequence, on December 31,2010 KOCE expanded its coverage into Santa Barbara. Both San Luis Obispo and Santa Maria, however, were not included in the cable coverage, in the spring of 2011, KOCE moved its administrative offices to a modern facility in Costa Mesa. On January 1,2011, PBS World moved from KCET-DT4 to KOCE-DT4
17.
George Argyros
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George Leon Argyros is a former United States Ambassador to Spain. He is also a real estate investor, and was the owner of Major League Baseballs Seattle Mariners from 1981 to 1989, George Argyros was born in Detroit, Michigan, and raised in Pasadena, California. Argyros is a second-generation American citizen, his grandparents emigrated from Greece, Argyros graduated from Chapman University in 1959 with a major in Business and Economics. He later served on the board of trustees of that university, the Chapman University, Argyros School of Business and Economics is named in his honor. He is a trustee of California Institute of Technology and also a board-member for the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington and he and his wife, Julia, have three grown children and seven grandchildren. Argyros made his fortune in real estate investments and he originally started his business career running a grocery store and moved on to buying and selling real estate to gas stations. He also was involved in buying and selling property in Southern California, from 1981 to 1989 he was the owner of the Seattle Mariners baseball team. He has been on the board of directors of many corporations, Argyros has done business through the real estate company Arnel & Affiliates. Arnel & Affiliates does business primarily in Southern California, through his business practices Argyros has achieved a net worth around $1 billion. He completed his term on the FreddieMac Board in March 1993, in 2001 Argyros was appointed Ambassador to Spain and Andorra. He was sworn in on November 21,2001, many viewed the appointment as a political reward for his fund raising efforts for the Republican Party. In 1981, Argyros bought the Seattle Mariners, the team had struggled from inception in 1977 as an expansion team. He ran the team on a budget and talked about moving the team elsewhere. Argyros sold the team to Jeff Smulyan in 1989, Argyros had openly tried to purchase the San Diego Padres in 1987 and to sell the Mariners, but a final deal was never consummated with Padres owner Joan Kroc. In October 2013, George and Julia Argyros announced two $1 million donations benefiting the arts in Julias hometown of Adrian, Michigan. One was to kick off a $3.5 million capital campaign for the Croswell Opera House. List of billionaires Appearances on C-SPAN
18.
The Princeton Review
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The Princeton Review is a college admission services company offering test preparation services, tutoring and admissions resources, online courses, and books published by Random House. The company has more than 4,000 teachers and tutors in the United States and Canada, the company is headquartered in Natick, Massachusetts, and is privately held. It is not associated with Princeton University, the Princeton Review was founded in 1981 by John Katzman, who—shortly after leaving college—taught SAT preparation to 15 students in New York City. He served as CEO until 2007, and was replaced by Michael Perik, in March 2010, Perik resigned and was replaced by John M. Connolly. In 2012, the company was acquired by Charlesbank Capital, an equity fund. On August 1,2014, the Princeton Review brand name and operations were bought for a sum by Tutor. com, an IAC company. The company is no longer affiliated with its parent, Education Holdings 1. The Princeton Review offers preparation courses for various tests at the Princeton Review website, The company offers courses worldwide through company-owned, test preparation providers have been criticized in the past on the grounds that their courses claim larger score increases than they deliver. College rankings, including those published by the Princeton Review, have criticized for failing to be accurate or comprehensive by assigning objective rankings formed from subjective opinions. Princeton Review officials counter that their rankings are unique in that they rely on student opinion, in 2002 an American Medical Association affiliated program, A Matter of Degree, funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, criticized the Princeton Review list of Best Party Schools. The editorial commended The Princeton Review for reporting the list, calling it a service for student applicants. Rankings for LGBT-related lists have also criticized as inaccurate due to outdated methodologies. The Princeton Review also publishes The Gay & Lesbian Guide to College Life, do parents know that when their underage kids enroll for exam prep or tutoring, personal information may be shared with hookup sites that could then target their kids to become customers. Asked one critic, who concluded that the company makes no guarantee that data sharing among its entities will not include those whose sole aim is to improve their grades
19.
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
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The prize was established in 1968 by a donation from Swedens central bank, the Swedish National Bank, on the banks 300th anniversary. Although it is not one of the prizes that Alfred Nobel established in his will in 1895, laureates are announced with the other Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony. Laureates in the Memorial Prize in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and it was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. An endowment in perpetuity from Sveriges Riksbank pays the Nobel Foundations administrative expenses associated with the prize, since 2012, the monetary portion of the Prize in Economics has totalled 8 million Swedish kronor. This is equivalent to the amount given for the original Nobel Prizes, the Prize in Economics is not one of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobels will. However, the process, selection criteria, and awards presentation of the Prize in Economic Sciences are performed in a manner similar to that of the Nobel Prizes. Laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. According to its website, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences administers a researcher exchange with academies in other countries and publishes six scientific journals. Members of the Academy and former laureates are also authorised to nominate candidates, all proposals and their supporting evidence must be received before February 1. The proposals are reviewed by the Prize Committee and specially appointed experts, before the end of September, the committee chooses potential laureates. If there is a tie, the chairman of the committee casts the deciding vote, next, the potential laureates must be approved by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Members of the Ninth Class of the Academy vote in mid-October to determine the next laureate or laureates of the Prize in Economics. The first prize in economics was awarded in 1969 to Ragnar Frisch, in 2009, Elinor Ostrom became the first woman awarded the prize. This makes it available to researchers in such topics as political science, psychology, moreover, the composition of the Economics Prize Committee changed to include two non-economists. This has not been confirmed by the Economics Prize Committee, the members of the 2007 Economics Prize Committee are still dominated by economists, as the secretary and four of the five members are professors of economics. Some critics argue that the prestige of the Prize in Economics derives in part from its association with the Nobel Prizes, among them is the Swedish human rights lawyer Peter Nobel, a great-grandson of Ludvig Nobel. Nobel criticizes the institution of misusing his familys name. He explaiend that Nobel despised people who cared more about profits than societys well-being and this does not matter in the natural sciences
20.
Vernon L. Smith
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Smith shared the 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Daniel Kahneman. C. In 2004 Smith was honored with a doctoral degree at Universidad Francisco Marroquín. Smith was born in Wichita, Kansas, where he attended Wichita North High School and Friends University. He received his bachelors degree in engineering from Caltech in 1949, an M. A. in economics from the University of Kansas in 1952. Smiths first teaching post was at the Krannert School of Management, Purdue University and it was there that his work in experimental economics began. As Smith describes it, In the Autumn semester,1955, I taught Principles of Economics, why/how could any market approximate a competitive equilibrium. Smith also taught as an associate professor at Stanford University and there made contact with Sidney Siegel. Smith moved with his family to Massachusetts and got a position first at Brown University, Smith also received appointments at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and Caltech. At Caltech, Charlie Plott encouraged Smith to formalize the methodology of experimental economics, in 1976, Experimental Economics, Induced Value Theory was published in the American Economic Review. It was the first articulation of the principle behind economic experiments, six years later, these principles were expanded in Microeconomic Systems as an Experimental Science, also in the AER. In Hurwiczs formulation, a system consists of an economic environment, an economic institution. The economic environment is simply the preferences of the people in the economy, the key insight in this formulation is that the economic outcome can be affected by the economic institution. There is a key contribution of his influential paper Microeconomic Systems as an Experimental Science. In his paper, Smith describes the technique of induced values, the used in controlled laboratory experiments in economics, political science. This technique is what allows experimental economists to create a replica of a market in a laboratory, subjects in an experiment are told that they can produce a commodity at a cost and then sell it to buyers. The seller earns the difference between the received and its cost. Buyers are told that the commodity has a value to them when they consume it, using the technique, Smith and his coauthors have examined the performance of alternative trading mechanisms in resource allocation. Much of the research that earned Smith the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was conducted at the University of Arizona between 1976 and 2001, in 2001, Smith left Arizona for George Mason University
21.
Laurence Iannaccone
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Laurence Robert Iannaccone is a Professor of Economics at Chapman University, Argyros School of Business and Economics, Orange County, California. Before moving to Chapman in 2009 he was a Koch Professor of Economics at George Mason University. He has established Religion, Economics, and Culture, an interdisciplinary Association for the Study of Religion, Economics, and Culture, and he is currently working on two books on the economics of religion. He is considered one of the pioneers of the field, iannaccones education includes an MS in Mathematics and a 1984 PhD in Economics from the University of Chicago. Eli Berman David Lehman, Rational Choice and the Sociology of Religion, chapter 8 in Bryan S
22.
Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
23.
Western Association of Schools and Colleges
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The Western Association of Schools and Colleges has jurisdiction over the U. S. Western Association of Schools and Colleges is divided into three groups, the Accrediting Commission for Schools accredits all schools below the college level. Included are elementary, junior high, middle, high and adult schools, whether public, private, the Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities accredits public and private senior colleges and universities. Council for Higher Education Accreditation List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning United States Department of Education WASC home page
24.
Dodge College of Film and Media Arts
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Dodge College of Film and Media Arts is one of ten schools constituting Chapman University, located in Orange, California,40 miles south of Los Angeles. Dodge College has approximately 1,500 students,1,000 in the undergraduate program, the School of Film and Television was created in 1996 with Robert Bassett as the founding dean. The school occupied a building on campus named for legendary filmmaker Cecil B. DeMille, in honor of support by CeCe Presley, DeMille’s granddaughter, dean Bassett subsequently led a campaign that ultimately raised $52-million to build and equip a new building. The school is housed within two buildings in Orange, CA, Marion Knott Studios, a 76, 000-square-foot building designed to replicate a working production studio. The DMAC is a working, industry-standard studio that rivals those of Pixar, Disney, Microsoft and it includes, A 32-workstation dual monitor digital arts computer lab with 22”HD cintiq drawing surface and ergotron extension arm. A 25-workstation digital arts computer lab with 22”HD cintiq drawing surface,10 private digital arts suites complete with 42” plasma preview monitor, large-format scanners, and 2d animation down-shooters for traditional hand-drawn animation. Natural sky-lit art studio, complete with 25 wood-bench stations for still art drawing or painting, screening room with tiered seating and a 4k stereoscopic projection system with a Fuse DCP projection system. Multiple laptop bars and student lounge area, complete with full size couches,1, 500-square-foot directing stage, complete with 2k projection and ceiling grid lighting. Outdoor patio with tables and seating, a full 65 blade render farm powered by both Quanta and IBM xeon-based computers. The render farm is located offsite at Marion Knott next door, a third building, Chapman Studios West, is under construction, and will open in phases throughout the 2016-2017 academic year. News and Documentary M. A. Film Studies M. F. A. Film and TV Producing M. B. A. /M. F. A Film and TV Producing Minors offered in Dodge College include Film Studies, Broadcast Journalism, Television, Advertising, and Public Relations. The Summer Film Academy offers two-week courses to students entering their junior or senior year in high school, Dodge College invites women who work in film as panelists, to show clips of their work and discuss the challenges facing women in the industry. Over the course of three days Dodge College hosts a showcase of contemporary and classic films and documentaries. The film festival includes Pan-Asian films selected directly from the Busan International Film Festival, Q & A sessions led by renowned film scholars guide the audiences in conversation with directors and actors who attend Busan West. The Sikh Film Festival is an annual three-day festival showcasing a diverse assortment of Sikh-centric films, books, art performance pieces, the next festival is scheduled for November 22–24,2013 at Marion Knott Studios. Select student films are screened for industry representatives at the Directors Guild of America in Los Angeles each fall, the Leo Freedman Foundation First Cut LA was held at the DGA complex on September 27,2013 and in New York on March 23,2013
25.
Irvine, California
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Irvine is an affluent city in Orange County, California, United States. It is a city, the Irvine Company started developing the area in the 1960s. Formally incorporated on December 28,1971, the 66-square-mile city had a population of 212,375 as of the 2010 census, a number of corporations, particularly in the technology and semiconductor sectors, have their national or international headquarters in Irvine. The Gabrieleño indigenous group inhabited Irvine about 2,000 years ago, gaspar de Portolà, a Spanish explorer, came to the area in 1769, which led to the establishment of forts, missions and cattle herds. The King of Spain parceled out land for missions and private use, after Mexicos independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government secularized the missions and assumed control of the lands. It began distributing the land to Mexican citizens who applied for grants, three large Spanish/Mexican grants made up the land that later became the Irvine Ranch, Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana, Rancho San Joaquin and Rancho Lomas de Santiago. In 1864, Jose Andres Sepulveda, owner of Rancho San Joaquin sold 50,000 acres to Benjamin and Thomas Flint, Llewellyn Bixby, in 1866, Irvine, Flint and Bixby acquired 47, 000-acre Rancho Lomas de Santiago for $7,000. After the Mexican-American war the land of Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana fell prey to tangled titles, in 1868, the ranch was divided among four claimants as part of a lawsuit, Flint, Bixby and Irvine. The ranches were devoted to sheep grazing, however, in 1870, tenant farming was permitted. In 1878, James Irvine acquired his partners interests for $150,000 and his 110,000 acres stretched 23 miles from the Pacific Ocean to the Santa Ana River. The ranch was inherited by his son, James Irvine, Jr. who incorporated it into The Irvine Company, James, Jr. shifted the ranch operations to field crops, olive and citrus crops. In 1888, the Santa Fe Railroad extended its line to Fallbrook Junction, north of San Diego, the town that formed around this station was named Myford, after Irvines son, because a post office in Calaveras County already bore the family name. The town was renamed Irvine in 1914, by 1918,60,000 acres of lima beans were grown on the Irvine Ranch. Two Marine Corps facilities, MCAS El Toro and MCAS Tustin, were built during World War II on ranch land sold to the government, James Irvine, Jr. died in 1947 at the age of 80. His son, Myford, assumed the presidency of The Irvine Company and he began opening small sections of the Irvine Ranch to urban development. The Irvine Ranch played host to the Boy Scouts of Americas 1953 National Scout Jamboree, Jamboree Road, a major street which now stretches from Newport Beach to the city of Orange, was named in honor of this event. David Sills, then a young Boy Scout from Peoria, Illinois, was among the attendees at the 1953 Jamboree, Sills came back to Irvine as an adult and went on to serve four terms as the citys mayor. The same year, the University of California asked The Irvine Company for 1,000 acres for a new university campus, the Irvine Company sold the requested land for $1 and later the state purchased an additional 500 acres
26.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
27.
Master of Laws
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The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
28.
Menas Kafatos
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Kafatos is an American physicist of Greek descent and a writer on spirituality and science. His publications include, The Nonlocal Universe and The Conscious Universe, Kafatos has written and lectured extensively promoting discourse between science, spirituality, and religion. He has held positions at institutions including Chapman University, George Mason University. Kafatos received his B. A. in Physics from Cornell University in 1967 and he currently is the director of the Center of Excellence in Earth Systems Modeling and Observations. Kafatos has authored books including The Conscious Universe, The Non-local Universe, Principles of Integrative Science, Kafatos research has focused on cosmology, astrophysics, quantum mechanics, quantum biology, natural hazards, climate change, Earth system science, and remote sensing. Kafatos lives in Marina Del Rey, CA with his wife Susan Yang, a scientist in the fields of biology, experimental biology. They met while working together at George Mason University and his brother, Fotis Kafatos, is a biologist and founder and Honorary President of the European Research Council. Kafatos has 3 children, Lefteris, Stefanos, and Alexios and he is the Chairman of the Board for the American Hellenic Council. The Non-Local Universe, The New Physics and Matters of the Mind, the Conscious Universe, Parts and Wholes in Physical Reality. Grandpierre, A. Kafatos, M. Genuine Biological Autonomy, gao, W. Kafatos, M. Murphy, R. E. Earth Science Satellite Remote Sensing, Science and Instruments Vol. I, & Data, Computational Processing, baysal, O. Kafatos, M. and Yang, R. Real-time Information Technology for Future Intelligent Earth Observing Satellites, Hierophantes, Pottstown, Pennsylvania, ISBN 0-9727940-0-X. You are The Universe by Deepak Chopra, Menas Kafatos, Random House, theise, ND, Kafatos, M. Complementarity in biological systems, a complexity view. Grandpierre, A. Chopra, D. Doraiswamy, Tanzi, Murali, P. Kafatos, a Multidisciplinary Approach to Mind and Consciousness. Theise, N. D. Kafatos, M. Sentience Everywhere, Complexity Theory, journal of Consciousness Exploration & Research. Sarafoglou, N. Kafatos, M. Beall, J. H. Simultaneity in the Scientific Enterprise, annual Patterns of Atmospheric Pollutions and Episodes over Cairo Egypt. Jaswal, A. K. Kumar, N. Prasad, A. K. Kafatos, M. Decline in horizontal surface visibility over India, list of physicists Official Chapman University website Official website
29.
Earth observation satellite
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Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude. Altitudes below 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided, though, because of the significant air-drag at such low altitudes making frequent orbit reboost maneuvres necessary. The Earth observation satellites ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat of European Space Agency as well as the MetOp spacecraft of EUMETSAT are all operated at altitudes of about 800 km. The Proba-1, Proba-2 and SMOS spacecraft of European Space Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km, the Earth observation satellites of UAE, DubaiSat-1 & DubaiSat-2 are also placed in Low Earth Orbits orbits and providing satellite imagery of various parts of the Earth. To get global coverage with a low orbit it must be a polar orbit or nearly so, spacecraft carrying instruments for which an altitude of 36000 km is suitable sometimes use a geostationary orbit. Such an orbit allows uninterrupted coverage of more than 1/3 of the Earth, three geostationary spacecraft at longitudes separated with 120 deg can cover the whole Earth except the extreme polar regions. This type of orbit is used for meteorological satellites. A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is used to monitor the weather. These meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems, weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. By monitoring vegetation changes over time, droughts can be monitored by comparing the current vegetation state to its long term average, anthropogenic emissions can be monitored by evaluating data of tropospheric NO2 and SO2. These types of satellites are almost always in Sun synchronous and frozen orbits, the Sun synchronous orbit is in general sufficiently close to polar to get the desired global coverage while the relatively constant geometry to the Sun mostly is an advantage for the instruments. The frozen orbit is selected as this is the closest to an orbit that is possible in the gravitational field of the Earth. Terrain can be mapped from space with the use of satellites, such as Radarsat-1 and TerraSAR-X. campevans. org/_CE/html/tiros1-2. html
30.
Natural hazard
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A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment. Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories, geophysical hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, wildfire, cyclonic storms, flood, drought, and coastal erosion. Biological hazards can refer to an array of disease and infestation. Many geophysical hazards are related, for example, submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis, floods and wildfires can result from a combination of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors. It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally correlated as well, an example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas living on a fault line is a hazard. An avalanche occurs when a large snow mass slides down a mountainside, an avalanche is an example of a gravity current consisting of granular material. In an avalanche, lots of material or mixtures of different types of fall or slide rapidly under the force of gravity. Avalanches are often classified by the size or severity of consequences resulting from the event, an earthquake is the sudden release of energy stored as lithospheric stress that radiates seismic waves. Many earthquakes happen each day, few of which are enough to cause significant damage. Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes as well as from events such as tropical cyclones or other severe storm events. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds and kill thousands of people and this is based on natural events. A landslide is a displacement of sediment, usually down a slope. A sinkhole is a depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings, a volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power, and the eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions occur in places like Kilauea in Hawaii, to megacolossal eruptions from supervolcanoes like Lake Taupo. Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high-temperature clouds of ash, a blizzard is a severe winter stormer icy and windy conditions characterized by low temperature, strong wind and heavy snow. Scientists warn that global warming and climate change may result in more extensive droughts in coming years and these extensive droughts are likely to occur within the African continent due to its very low precipitation levels and high climate. A hailstorm is a hazard where a thunderstorm produces numerous hailstones which damage the location in which they fall
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Wildfire
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A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area. Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago, wildfire’s occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems flora and fauna. Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen, widespread lightning. Wildfires can be characterised in terms of the cause of ignition, their properties, the combustible material present. Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth, however, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of such as available fuels, physical setting. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection and suppression have varied over the years, one common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning, permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimise the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation. Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, fuels may also be removed by logging, but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behaviour. Wildfires can also be started in communities experiencing shifting cultivation, where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility, forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors. The most common cause of wildfires throughout the world. In Canada and northwest China, for example, lightning operates as the source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor, in China and in the Mediterranean Basin, human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires. In the United States and Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales, Centralia, Pennsylvania and they can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. The spread of wildfires based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight, overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows, Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter
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Severe weather
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Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage, serious social disruption, or loss of human life. Types of severe weather phenomena vary, depending on the latitude, altitude, topography, regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards, snowstorms, ice storms, and duststorms. Meteorologists generally define severe weather as any aspect of the weather that poses risks to life, a narrower definition of severe weather is any weather phenomena relating to severe thunderstorms. According to the World Meteorological Organization, severe weather can be categorized into two groups, general severe weather and localized severe weather, noreasters, European wind storms, and the phenomena that accompany them form over wide geographic areas. These occurrences are classified as severe weather. Downbursts and tornadoes are more localized and therefore have a limited geographic effect. These forms of weather are classified as localized severe weather, the term severe weather is technically not the same phenomenon as extreme weather. Extreme weather describes unusual weather events that are at the extremes of the distribution for a given area. Organized severe weather occurs from the conditions that generate ordinary thunderstorms, atmospheric moisture, lift. A wide variety of conditions cause severe weather, several factors can convert thunderstorms into severe weather. For example, a pool of air aloft may aid in the development of large hail from an otherwise innocuous appearing thunderstorm. However, the most severe hail and tornadoes are produced by thunderstorms. Both of these types of storms tend to form in environments high in wind shear, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms are considered to be the most destructive weather-related natural disasters. Although these weather phenomena are all related to clouds, they form and develop under different conditions. The relationship between these events and their formation requirements are used to develop models to predict the most frequent. This information is used to notify affected areas and save lives, severe thunderstorms can be assessed in three different categories. These are approaching severe, severe, and significantly severe, approaching severe is defined as hail between 1⁄2 to 1 inch diameter or winds between 50 and 58 M. P. H. In the United States, such storms will usually warrant a Significant Weather Alert, severe is defined as hail 1 inch diameter or larger, winds 58 M. P. H. or stronger, or a tornado
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Floods
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A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. The European Union Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water, in the sense of flowing water, the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the flood plains of rivers. Some floods develop slowly, while others such as floods, can develop in just a few minutes. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, the word flood comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages. Deluge myths are stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution. Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when water is supplied by rainfall or snowmelt more rapidly than it can infiltrate or run off. The excess accumulates in place, sometimes to hazardous depths, surface soil can become saturated, which effectively stops infiltration, where the water table is shallow, such as a floodplain, or from intense rain from one or a series of storms. Infiltration also is slow to negligible through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paving, areal flooding begins in flat areas like floodplains and in local depressions not connected to a stream channel, because the velocity of overland flow depends on the surface slope. Endorheic basins may experience flooding during periods when precipitation exceeds evaporation. Floods occur in all types of river and stream channels, from the smallest ephemeral streams in humid zones to normally-dry channels in arid climates to the worlds largest rivers. When overland flow occurs on tilled fields, it can result in a flood where sediments are picked up by run off. Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, debris, slow-rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, the cause may be localized convective precipitation or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. In one instance, a flood killed eight people enjoying the water on a Sunday afternoon at a popular waterfall in a narrow canyon. Without any observed rainfall, the rate increased from about 50 to 1,500 cubic feet per second in just one minute. Two larger floods occurred at the site within a week
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Dust storm
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A dust storm is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand, fine particles are transported by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place and deposits it in another. Drylands around North Africa and the Arabian peninsula are the main sources of airborne dust. Also with some contributions from Iran, Pakistan and India into the Arabian Sea, the term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas. As the force of wind passing over loosely held particles increases, particles of sand first start to vibrate, as they repeatedly strike the ground, they loosen and break off smaller particles of dust which then begin to travel in suspension. At wind speeds above that which causes the smallest to suspend, there will be a population of dust grains moving by a range of mechanisms, suspension, saltation, a study from 2008 finds that the initial saltation of sand particles induces a static electric field by friction. Saltating sand acquires a negative charge relative to the ground which in turn loosens more sand particles which then begin saltating and this process has been found to double the number of particles predicted by previous theories. Particles become loosely held mainly due to drought or arid conditions, gust fronts may be produced by the outflow of rain-cooled air from an intense thunderstorm. S. Following the passage of a dry cold front, convective instability resulting from cooler air riding over heated ground can maintain the dust storm initiated at the front. In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, the vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates. In some cases, dust and sand may be confined to a shallow layer by a low-lying temperature inversion. In other instances, dust may be lifted as high as 20,000 feet high, drought and wind contribute to the emergence of dust storms, as do poor farming and grazing practices by exposing the dust and sand to the wind. One poor farming practice which contributes to dust storms is dryland farming, particularly poor dryland farming techniques are intensive tillage or not having established crops or cover crops when storms strike at particularly vulnerable times prior to revegetation. In a semi-arid climate, these practices increase susceptibility to dust storms, however, soil conservation practices may be implemented to control wind erosion. A sandstorm can transport and carry large volumes of sand unexpectedly, Dust storms can carry large amounts of dust, with the leading edge being composed of a wall of thick dust as much as 1.6 km high. Dust and sand storms which come off the Sahara Desert are locally known as a simoom or simoon, the haboob is a sandstorm prevalent in the region of Sudan around Khartoum, with occurrences being most common in the summer. The Sahara desert is a key source of dust storms, particularly the Bodélé Depression and an area covering the confluence of Mauritania, Mali, and Algeria. Saharan dust storms have increased approximately 10-fold during the half-century since the 1950s, causing loss in Niger, Chad, northern Nigeria
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Earthquake
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An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
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Remote sensing
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Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation. It may be split into active remote sensing and passive remote sensing, passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors, examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object. Remote sensing makes it possible to data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, military collection during the Cold War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, the basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. For a summary of major remote sensing satellite systems see the overview table, conventional radar is mostly associated with aerial traffic control, early warning, and certain large scale meteorological data. Other types of active collection includes plasmas in the ionosphere, interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain. Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a mile or so, by measuring the height and wavelength of ocean waves, the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions. Ultrasound and radar tide gauges measure sea level, tides and wave direction in coastal, light detection and ranging is well known in examples of weapon ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. Vegetation remote sensing is an application of LIDAR. Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely and they may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere. Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have been in use since the 1970s and these thematic mappers take images in multiple wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation and are usually found on Earth observation satellites, including the Landsat program or the IKONOS satellite. Landsat images are used by agencies such as KYDOW to indicate water quality parameters including Secchi depth, chlorophyll a density
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Geographic information system
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A geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries, in general, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries, analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems. GIS is a term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes. It is attached to operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis, GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should be relatable to one another and ultimately to a real physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry, the first known use of the term geographic information system was by Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning. Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the father of GIS, previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. The French geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color gradient according to the number of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants and this was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in epidemiology. The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for one layer for vegetation. This work was drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer mapping applications by the early 1960s, the year 1960 saw the development of the worlds first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. A rating classification factor was added to permit analysis. CGIS was an improvement over computer mapping applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement and it supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the father of GIS, CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada
