1.
Lost portrait of Charles Edward Stuart
–
Grosvenor said, Bonnie Prince Charlie is one of my heroes, and I always felt bad about debunking what used to be his most famous portrait. So Im delighted to have found the best possible replacement – a portrait painted from life on the eve of his invasion of England, so I expect you’ll wait no further call. I am, your most humble servant, John Stuart, Holyrood House 26th of October 1745. ”He also found a black and white photograph of the Ramsay portrait in the records of the National Portrait Gallery in London, although the artist was not given as Ramsay. This painting was at Gosford House, the home of the Earl of Wemyss, the painting was known to be of Charles but it was not known that Ramsay was the artist. Its hard to overstate the importance of finding a portrait of the prince painted in Scotland, a source at Gosford House said, We are currently in discussion as to where the portrait might be put on display at a future date.1 million. It will go on display at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery just before the 270th anniversary of the Battle of Culloden, the small painting, 12in by 10in, is the only one of Charles known to have been painted in Britain. The painting was intended to be taken to England and be both reproduced in engravings and used as the basis for a royal portrait once Charles had ascended to the throne. It becomes the key source for a lot of propaganda to support the Jacobite cause, which were widely distributed, not just in Scotland
Lost portrait of Charles Edward Stuart
–
The Lost Portrait of Charles Edward Stuart
Lost portrait of Charles Edward Stuart
–
Henry Benedict Stuart, by
de La Tour. This painting was thought to be of Charles Edward Stuart until Bendor Grosvenor showed in 2009 that it was of his brother.
2.
Allan Ramsay (artist)
–
Allan Ramsay was a prominent Scottish portrait-painter. Allan Ramsay was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, the eldest son of Allan Ramsay, poet and he later moved to London, where he was employed by the Duke of Bridgewater. His pleasant manners and varied culture, not less than his artistic skill and his only serious competitor was Thomas Hudson, with whom he shared a drapery painter, Joseph van Aken. In 1739 he married his first wife, Anne Bayne, the daughter of Alexander Bayne of Rires, Anne died on 4 February 1743, giving birth to their 3rd child, none of their children reached adulthood. One of his pupils was Margaret Lindsay, eldest daughter of Sir Alexander Lindsay of Evelick. He later eloped with her and on 1 March 1752 they married in the Canongate Kirk, Edinburgh, Ramsay already had to maintain a daughter from his previous marriage and his two surviving sisters, but told Sir Alexander that he could provide Margaret with an annual income of £100. Three children survived from their long and happy marriage, Amelia, Charlotte, Ramsay and his new wife spent 1754 to 1757 together in Italy, going to Rome, Florence, Naples and Tivoli, researching, painting and drawing old masters, antiquities and archaeological sites. He earned income painting Grand Tourists portraits and this and other trips to Italy involved more literary and antiquarian research than art. After their return, Ramsay in 1761 was appointed to succeed John Shackelton as Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III and he gave up painting in about 1770 to concentrate on literary pursuits. His health was shattered by a dislocation of the right arm. With unflinching pertinacity, he struggled until he had completed a likeness of the king upon which he was engaged at the time and he left a series of 50 royal portraits to be completed by his assistant Reinagle. For several years he lingered in the south, his constitution finally broken and he died at Dover on 10 August 1784. The portrait of his wife shows the influence of French art. The large collection of his sketches in the possession of the Royal Scottish Academy, Ramsay has paintings in the collection of a few British institutions including the National Gallery in London, Sheffield, Derby Art Gallery, Glasgow Museum and Newstead Abbey. Valdes suggests that copies of paintings were sent to the colonies to be used by abolitionists as a de facto support for their cause. Most historians question whether the 13th-century ancestor, referred to in various places as a Moor and Berber, was black African. In any event, they contend that the connection, nine and 15 generations removed, was too distant to consider Charlotte black in any cultural way, as her other ancestors were all European
Allan Ramsay (artist)
–
Allan Ramsay, self-portrait, c.1737–9 (
National Portrait Gallery)
Allan Ramsay (artist)
–
Ramsay's first wife, Anne Bayne, by Ramsay
Allan Ramsay (artist)
–
Ramsay's second wife
Margaret Lindsay, by Ramsay
Allan Ramsay (artist)
–
Portrait of
George III, circa 1762
3.
Holyrood Palace
–
The Palace of Holyroodhouse, commonly referred to as Holyrood Palace, is the official residence of the British monarch in Scotland. Queen Elizabeth spends one week in residence at Holyrood Palace at the beginning of each summer, Sir William Bruce designed the 3-storey plus attic Baroque palace for Charles II upon the restoration of the monarchy. The entry gateway is framed by massive coupled Roman Doric columns, with the carved Royal Arms of Scotland, the north and south fronts have symmetrical 3-storey facades that rise behind to far left and right of 2-storey range with regular arrangement of bays. The east front has 17 pilastered bays with superimposed columns at each floor, the ruins of the abbey church connect to the palace on the north-east corner. Architectural historian Dan Cruickshank selected the palace as one of his eight choices for the 2002 BBC book The Story of Britains Best Buildings, the rooms open to the public include the 17th-century former Kings apartments and Great Gallery, and the 16th-century apartments in the north-west tower. The Great Stair in the south-west corner of the quadrangle has a 17th-century Baroque ceiling featuring plaster angels holding the Honours of Scotland, the Italian paintings on the walls are fragments of frescoes painted circa 1550 by Lattanzio Gambara, illustrating scenes from Ovids Metamorphoses. They were bought by Prince Albert in 1856, and placed here in 1881, at the top of the stair is the Royal Dining Room, formerly part of the Queens apartments. The Adam style decoration dates from around 1800, when this was part of the Duke of Hamiltons apartment, the Kings apartments occupied the whole of the south and east sides of the quadrangle. Accessed from the Great Stair, the suite of rooms comprising a hall, presence chamber, privy chamber, antechamber, bedchamber. The level of privacy, as well as the richness of decoration, from the visit of George IV in 1822, the guard hall has been used as a throne room, and the order of rooms reversed. The Evening Drawing Room and Morning Drawing Room occupy the former presence chamber and privy chamber, the Morning Drawing Room is hung with French tapestries bought by Charles II, and is used for private ceremonies. The Kings Antechamber, Bedchamber and Closet are laid out along the east side of the palace, the Kings Bedchamber, at the centre of the east façade, has the finest of the 17th-century plaster ceilings, augmented by paintings of Hercules by Jacob de Wet II. The 17th-century bed was made for the Duke of Hamilton, although it was referred to as Queen Marys Bed when it occupied the older Queens rooms. The Great Gallery, the largest room in the palace, links the Kings Closet with the former Queens apartments in the west range, the gallery is decorated with 110 portraits of the Scottish monarchs, beginning with the legendary Fergus I, who supposedly ruled from 330 BC. The portraits were all completed between 1684 and 1686 by Jacob de Wet II and this collection celebrated the royal bloodline of Scotland which the Scots upheld for its continuity and antiquity as an important part of their national identity in the seventeenth century. After 1707, Scotlands representative peers were elected here to be sent to Westminster, bonnie Prince Charlie held evening balls in the gallery during his brief occupation, and it later became a Catholic chapel for the Comte dArtois. Today it is used for functions including investitures and banquets. These rooms were occupied by Lord Darnley in the 17th century, Queen Mary occupied an identical suite of rooms on the second floor of the tower, the bedchambers are linked by a private spiral stair
Holyrood Palace
–
Palace front with the abbey ruins and 16th-century north-west tower on the left. The rest dates from the 17th century. The forecourt fountain on the far right is a Victorian addition.
Holyrood Palace
–
The quadrangle designed by Sir William Bruce, drawn in the 1850s.
Holyrood Palace
–
The landing of the Great Stair
Holyrood Palace
–
Royal Dining Room
4.
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
Edinburgh
–
Clockwise from top-left: View from
Calton Hill,
Old College,
Old Town from Princes Street,
Edinburgh Castle,
Princes Street from Calton Hill
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh, showing Arthur's Seat, one of the earliest known sites of human habitation in the area
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh in the 17th century
Edinburgh
–
A painting showing Edinburgh characters (based on
John Kay 's caricatures) behind
St Giles' Cathedral in the late 18th century
5.
Earl of Wemyss
–
Earl of Wemyss and Earl of March are two titles in the Peerage of Scotland, created in 1633 and 1697 respectively, that have been held by a joint holder since 1826. The Scottish Wemyss family had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fife since the 12th century, in 1625 John Wemyss was created a Baronet, of Wemyss in the County of Fife, in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia. He later supported the Scottish parliament against Charles I, and died in 1649 and he was succeeded by his son, the second Earl. In 1672 he resigned his peerages to the Crown in return for a new patent with original precedency, Lord Wemyss had no male issue and on his death in 1679 the baronetcy became extinct. He was succeeded in the according to the new patent by his daughter Margaret. She married as her first husband her third cousin twice removed Sir James Wemyss and he was the son of General Sir James Wemyss of Caskieberry, grandson of James Wemyss, younger brother of Sir John Wemyss, great-grandfather of the first Earl of Wemyss. She was succeeded by her son from her first marriage, David and he served as Lord High Admiral of Scotland and sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish Representative Peer from 1707 to 1710. Lord Wemyss married Lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William Douglas, 1st Duke of Queensberry and sister of William Douglas, on his death the titles passed to his second but eldest surviving son James, the fifth Earl. He married the great heiress Janet Charteris, daughter of Colonel Francis Charteris and their eldest son David, Lord Elcho, was implicated in the Jacobite rising of 1745, and was consequently attainted. On his fathers death in 1756 he was not allowed to succeed to the peerages, Lord Elcho died childless and the peerages would have but for the attainder devolved upon his younger brother Francis, the soi disant seventh Earl, who nevertheless assumed the title. He assumed the surname of Charteris in lieu of Wemyss on being made heir his maternal grandfather Colonel Charteriss estate and his successor was his grandson Francis, the soi disant eighth Earl. On his accession to these titles he assumed the surname of Charteris-Wemyss-Douglas, in 1821 he was created Baron Wemyss, of Wemyss in the County of Fife, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In 1826 he also obtained a reversal of the attainder of the earldom of Wemyss and he was succeeded by his son, the ninth Earl of Wemyss and fifth Earl of March. He served as Lord-Lieutenant of Peeblesshire from 1853 to 1880, when he died the titles passed to his son, the tenth Earl. He represented Gloucestershire and Haddingtonshire in the House of Commons for many years and he was succeeded by his fifth but eldest surviving son, the eleventh Earl. He sat as Conservative Member of Parliament for Haddingtonshire and Ipswich, as of 2014 the titles are held by the thirteenth Earl of Wemyss and ninth Earl of March, who succeeded in 2008. He is also Chief of Clan Charteris, several other members of the Wemyss, later Charteris, family, have also gained distinction. William Wemyss, son of the Hon. James Wemyss, third son of the fifth Earl, was a Lieutenant-General in the Army, William Wemyss, younger son of the aforementioned William Wemyss, was a Lieutenant-General in the Army
Earl of Wemyss
–
Neidpath Castle
Earl of Wemyss
–
Elcho Castle
6.
Gosford House
–
Gosford House is the family seat of the Charteris family and is situated near Longniddry in East Lothian, Scotland. It was recently the home of the late Rt, hon. David Charteris, 12th Earl of Wemyss and 8th Earl of March, chief of the name and arms of Charteris. Gosford was built by the 7th Earl of Wemyss between 1790 and 1800 and it was built to plans by the architect Robert Adam, who died before the house was completed. The 7th Earl is buried in the Wemyss Mausoleum on the estate, the 8th Earl inherited Gosford House and knocked down the wings, and his grandson, the 10th Earl, rebuilt them in 1891 to designs by the architect William Young. The south wing contains the marble hall, Gosford is built in the neoclassical style. During World War II, the British Army occupied the house, subsequent dry rot led to the roof being partly removed. It was re-roofed in 1987, and restoration of the block is an ongoing process. The ponds in the policies were restored by James Charteris, 13th Earl of Wemyss who took over the family estate. Gosford can be seen from Edinburgh on a clear day and it is open to the public in the summer. The grounds contain an unusual and rare example of a Scottish curling house, the interior and exterior of Gosford House were used in the 2000 film House of Mirth, directed by Terence Davies and based on the novel by Edith Wharton. List of places in East Lothian List of castles in Scotland Gosford House - official site Visiting information - Historic Houses Association
Gosford House
–
Gosford House in 2011
7.
Jacobitism
–
The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May
Jacobitism
–
David Morier 's depiction of the
Battle of Culloden in 1746
Jacobitism
–
Representation of The Jacobite 1745 flag.
Jacobitism
–
Detail of the monument in the Vatican
Jacobitism
–
"Jacobites" by
John Pettie: romantic view of Jacobitism
8.
James Francis Edward Stuart
–
James Francis Edward, Prince of Wales, nicknamed the Old Pretender, was the son of the deposed James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland. As such, he claimed the English, Scottish and Irish thrones from the death of his father in 1701, following his death in 1766, he was succeeded by his son Charles Edward Stuart in the Jacobite Succession. Had his father not been deposed, Great Britain might have had two monarchs during his lifetime, his father and himself. Instead there were seven, his father, William III, Mary II, Anne, George I, George II and their attempts are remembered in history as Jacobitism. Prince James Francis Edward was born 10 June 1688, at St. Jamess Palace. He was the son of King James II of England and Ireland, and his Roman Catholic second wife, Mary of Modena, Mary and her younger sister Princess Anne, had been raised as Protestants. As long as there was a possibility of one of them succeeding him, in an attempt to scotch this myth, James published the testimonies of over seventy witnesses to the birth. On 9 December, in the midst of the Glorious Revolution, Mary of Modena disguised herself as a laundress, young James was brought up at the château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which Louis XIV had turned over to the exiled James II. Both the ex-king and his family were held in consideration by the French king and they were frequent visitors at Versailles where Louis XIV. On his fathers death in 1701, James was recognised by King Louis XIV of France, spain, the Papal States and Modena also recognized him as King James III of England and VIII of Scotland and refused to recognise William III, Mary II or Anne as legitimate sovereigns. As a result of his claiming his fathers lost thrones, James was attainted for treason in London on 2 March 1702, though delayed in France by an attack of measles, James attempted invasion, trying to land at the Firth of Forth on 23 March 1708. The fleet of Admiral Sir George Byng intercepted the French ships, James served for a time in the French army, as his father had done during the inter-regnum. A year later however the British government pushed for Jamess expulsion from France as a precondition for a treaty with France. In accordance with the Treaty of Utrecht, Harley and Lord Bolingbroke, Queen Anne became severely ill at Christmas 1713, and seemed close to death. In January 1714, she recovered but clearly had not much longer to live, through de Torcy and his London agent, Abbé François Gaultier, Harley kept up the correspondence with James, and Bolingbroke had also entered into a separate correspondence with him. They both stated to James that his conversion to Protestantism would facilitate his restoration, however James, a devout Catholic, replied to Torcy, I have chosen my own course, therefore it is for others to change their sentiments. In March, came Jamess refusal to convert, following which Harley and Bolingbroke reached the opinion that Jamess restoration was not feasible, though they maintained their correspondence with him. As a result, in August 1714, Jamess second cousin, the Elector of Hanover, George of Hanover, in the following year Scottish Jacobites started The Fifteen Jacobite rising in Scotland, aimed at putting James III and VIII on the throne
James Francis Edward Stuart
–
James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender"
James Francis Edward Stuart
–
James Francis Edward, about 1703, portrait in the
Royal Collection attributed to
Alexis Simon Belle
James Francis Edward Stuart
–
The Old Pretender lands in Scotland after Sheriffmuir. An 18th-century engraving.
James Francis Edward Stuart
–
Coloured portrait of James as young man
9.
Henry Benedict Stuart
–
Unlike his father, James Francis Edward Stuart, and brother, Charles Edward Stuart, Henry made no effort to seize the throne. After Charless death in January 1788 the Papacy did not recognise Henry as the ruler of England, Scotland, and Ireland. At the time of his death he was one of the longest serving Cardinals in the Churchs history, in his youth, Henrys father made him Duke of York, and it was by this title that he was best known. His father was James Francis Edward Stuart, known to his opponents as the Old Pretender and his mother was the Princess Maria Klementyna Sobieska, granddaughter of the Polish King and Lithuanian Grand-Duke, John III Sobieski. Henry went to France in 1745 to help his brother, Prince Charles Edward Stuart prepare the Jacobite rising of 1745, after its defeat, Henry Stuart returned to Italy. On 30 June 1747 Pope Benedict XIV conferred him with tonsure, on 27 August 1747 he was promoted to the four minor orders by the Pope. He received the subdiaconate on 18 August 1748 and diaconate on 25 August 1748 and he was ordained priest on 1 September 1748 and consecrated titular Archbishop of Corinth on 2 October 1758. He was advanced to the order of Cardinal Priest in 1748, in 1752 he transferred to the titulus of Ss. He was made Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati on 13 July 1761, and eventually succeeded to the See of Ostia and he lived and worked in Frascati for many years, descending each afternoon in his carriage to Rome, where his position as vice-chancellor entitled him to the Palazzo della Cancelleria. His revenues from the many ecclesiastical preferments he enjoyed were enormous and his income from abbeys and other pluralities in Flanders, Spain, Naples and France amounted to 40,000 Pounds in British money at the time. He also held sinecure benefices yielding revenues in Spanish America and he owned territory in Mexico, which contributed largely to his income. Henry was the last claimant to the British throne to touch for the Kings Evil, at the time of the French Revolution, he lost his French Royal benefices and sacrificed many other resources to assist Pope Pius VI. This, in addition to the seizure of his Frascati property by the French, the British Minister in Venice arranged for Henry to receive an annuity of £4,000 from King George III of Great Britain. Although the British government represented this as an act of charity, Henry, Henry returned to Frascati in 1803. In September of that year he became the Dean of the College of Cardinals and hence Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri and he died there on 13 July 1807, aged 82. Historians have drawn upon contemporary perceptions to explore the suggestion that Henry was homosexual and these accounts include the writings of Hester Lynch Thrale, and the diplomat and writer Giuseppe Gorani. Gorani admitted to having gathered evidence insufficient to confirm his suspicions either way, the historian Andrew Lang alluded to Jamess comment that his younger son would never marry although many marriages had been planned for him. The writer Gaetano Moroni provides the lengthiest account of Henrys close attachment with his majordomo Monsignor Giovanni Lercari and this closeness led to serious tensions between the cardinal and his father who in 1752 eventually tried to have Lercari dismissed from service and sent from Rome
Henry Benedict Stuart
–
Henry Benedict Stuart, "Cardinal Duke of York"
Henry Benedict Stuart
–
Henry Benedict Stuart, age 13, by Louis Gabriel Blanchet (1738)
Henry Benedict Stuart
–
A young Henry Benedict Stuart (painted ca. 1729–1732), bearing a striking resemblance to his elder brother
Charles Edward Stuart
Henry Benedict Stuart
–
Henry Benedict Stuart by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour (1746/47),
long thought to be of Charles Edward Stuart
10.
Palazzo Muti
–
The Palazzo Muti is a large townhouse in the Piazza dei Santi Apostoli, Rome, Italy, built in 1644. Together with the neighboring Palazzo Muti Papazzurri, it formed part of a complex of adjoining palazzi. During the 18th century this range of buildings was, by courtesy of the Pope. They were recognised by the Catholic Church as the kings of Great Britain. The Palazzo Muti should not be confused with the Palazzo Muti Papazzurri in the Piazza della Pilotta which was designed by Mattia de Rossi in 1660, the Palazzo Muti stands on a street corner, and is constructed on four floors. The architect was Mattia de Rossi who had commissioned to build a residence for Giovanni Battista Muti Papazzurri. The size of the courtyard, dictated by the rectangular dimensions of the palazzo is in reality little more than an open lightwell. The entrance itself is flanked by columns, once surmounted by a Baroque pediment. The architrave of the entrance has engraved upon it the name Balestra, the top floor is concealed from sight by a broad cornice. The top floor is interesting, although hidden from sight at street level its three windows are divided by double pilasters. That such an architectural feature should be hidden insinuates that the facade may at one stage in its history been of a more ornate design than is apparent today. An 18th-century drawing of the shows the top floor was originally lower. In addition to their palazzi in Rome the family owned a villa in the Province of Viterbo The Muti Papazurri became extinct with the death of Raffaele Muti Papazurri in 1816. The palazzo then passed through female descent into the family of the Marchese Livio Savorelli and this phenomena was acknowledged by a papal decree in 1797. Thereafter the statue known as Madonna dellArchetto. The image had been painted circa 1690 by Domenico Muratori for the Marchesa Savorelli Papazzurri who lived at the Palazzo, by 1850 the painting (sometimes called the Mater Misericordiae had overcome her distress at the invasion of the Vatican states and was now performing miracles involving divine intervention. Today this is Romes smallest functioning church, the Muti Papazzurri are buried in Rome at the Church of San Marcello al Corso, where their Baroque tombs and memorials still exist. The Popes Clement XI and Innocent XIII considered the couple to be the rightful and, more importantly, Catholic King, the cousin of Pope Innocent XIII, Francesco Maria Conti, from Siena, was here the Gentiluomo di Camera in the little Roman Jacobite court
Palazzo Muti
–
Palazzo Muti (ochre-coloured building) with (right) the arcaded Basilica dei Santi Apostoli where the Stuarts regularly worshipped
Palazzo Muti
–
Henry Benedict Stuart, one of the palazzo's notable residents
Palazzo Muti
–
The south elevation of the Palazzo Mutti. With its central doorway, it was probably intended as the principal facade. However, the narrow street makes an architectural appreciation impossible.
Palazzo Muti
–
Palazzo Muti. Stairs leading from the courtyard to the
piano nobile.
11.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
12.
States of the Church
–
The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
States of the Church
–
The
Quirinal Palace, papal residence and home to the civil offices of the Papal States from the
Renaissance until their annexation
States of the Church
–
Flag in 1870
States of the Church
–
Antichristus (1521) by
Lucas Cranach the Elder is a woodcut of the Papal States at war during the Renaissance.
States of the Church
–
The Breach of Porta Pia, on the right, in 1870.
13.
Louise of Stolberg-Gedern
–
Princess Louise Maximilienne Caroline Emmanuele of Stolberg-Gedern was the wife of the Jacobite claimant to the English and Scottish thrones Charles Edward Stuart. She is commonly called Countess of Albany, when she was only four years old, her father was killed at the Battle of Leuthen. When she was seven, she was sent to be educated at the attached to the convent of St. Waudru in Mons. The mission of this convent was to provide a home for ladies of the nobility who had insufficient financial means to live unmarried in the world. In 1766 the Empress Maria Theresa arranged for the convent to give to Louise one of its endowed prebends, although technically Louise was a canoness, she was not required to stay in the convent cloister and was still allowed to travel in society. Indeed, for most of the canonesses, the acceptance of a prebend was merely a temporary stage until they found appropriate noble husbands, in 1771 Louises younger sister married the Marquess of Jamaica, only son of the 3rd Duke of Berwick. Although King Louis XV of France recognised the succession of the House of Hanover, he hoped that the legitimate Stuart line would not die out. The negotiations were delicate since Louises family had no money of its own, on 28 March 1772 Louise was married by proxy to Charles Edward at Paris. The couple met for the first time on 14 April 1772 when they renewed their vows in person in the town of Macerata. Louise was henceforward recognised by Jacobites as Queen Louise of England, Scotland, France, Charles and Louise spent the first two years of their married life in Rome. In spite of the difference in their ages, the couple were at first happy together, but there were several shadows on the relationship. There was no sign of Louise conceiving a child, Charles had been encouraged in the belief that, if he married, the pope would recognise him as King of England and Scotland, and France might provide funds for another Jacobite rising. Louise had virtually been promised that she would be treated as a queen, instead Charles found his hopes both of a son and of diplomatic recognition disappointed, while Louise found herself married to an old prince with no prospects. In 1774 Charles and Louise moved to Florence and it was there that they began to use the title Count and Countess of Albany. In 1776 the Italian poet Count Vittorio Alfieri was presented at their palace, in Rome Louise had had several young men pay court to her, but these relationships had probably not been adulterous. But sometime in 1778 Louise and Alfieri became lovers, meanwhile, Louises husband Charles had become a drunkard again as he had been a number of years before. In December 1780 Louise left Charles and took refuge in a convent and she claimed, and it is widely believed to be true, that Charles had become physically abusive to her. Within a few weeks Louise moved back to Rome and she lived briefly at the Ursuline Convent before moving to her brother-in-laws official residence, the Palazzo della Cancelleria
Louise of Stolberg-Gedern
–
Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern, oil on canvas by
François-Xavier Fabre
14.
Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany
–
Charlotte Stuart, styled Duchess of Albany was the illegitimate daughter of the Jacobite pretender Prince Charles Edward Stuart and his only child to survive infancy. Her mother was Clementina Walkinshaw, who was mistress to the Prince from 1752 until 1760, after years of abuse, Clementina left him, taking Charlotte with her. Charlotte spent most of her life in French convents, estranged from a father who refused to make any provision for her, unable to marry, she herself became a mistress with illegitimate children, taking Ferdinand de Rohan, Archbishop of Bordeaux, as her lover. She was finally reconciled with her father in 1784, when he legitimised her and she left her own children with her mother, and became her fathers carer and companion in the last years of his life, before dying less than two years after him. Charlotte Stuart was born on 29 October 1753 at Liège to Charles and his mistress Clementina Walkinshaw, Clementina was the youngest of the ten daughters of John Walkinshaw of Barrowhill. The Walkinshaws owned the lands of Barrowfield and Camlachie, and her father had become a wealthy Glasgow merchant, in 1717, he had been pardoned by the British Government and returned to Glasgow, where his youngest daughter was born probably at Camlachie. However, Clementina was largely educated on the Continent, and later converted to Roman Catholicism, in 1746, she was living at the home of her uncle Sir Hugh Paterson at Bannockburn, near Stirling. The Prince came to Sir Hughs home in early January 1746 where he first met Clementina, given that she was living under her uncles protection, it is not thought the two were lovers at this time. After the defeat of the Princes rebellion at Culloden in April 1746, in the following years, he had a scandalous affair with his 22-year-old first cousin Louise de Montbazon and then with the Princess of Talmont, who was in her 40s. Goring, who described Clementina as a bad woman, complained of being used as no better than a pimp, however, by November 1752, Clementina was living with Charles, and was to remain as his mistress for the following eight years. The couple moved to Liège where Charlotte, their child, was born on 29 October 1753. The relationship between prince and mistress was disastrous, often away from home on jaunts, he seldom referred to his daughter, and when he did, it was as ye cheild. During a temporary move to Paris, the Princes lieutenants record ugly public arguments between the two, and that his drunkenness and temper were damaging his reputation, by 1760, they were in Basel, and Clementina had had enough of Charless intoxication and their nomadic lifestyle. She contacted his staunchly Roman Catholic father, James Stuart, and expressed a desire to secure a Catholic education for Charlotte and she left a letter for Charles expressing her devotion to him but complaining she had had to flee in fear of her life. A furious Charles circulated descriptions of both, but it was to no avail. For the next years, Clementina and Charlotte continued to live in various French convents. Charles never forgave Clementina for depriving him of ye cheild, Henry gave them an allowance of 5,000 livres, but in return extracted a statement from Clementina that she had never been married to Charles – a statement she later tried to retract. This lower amount forced them to find lodgings in the convent of Notre Dame at Meaux-en-Brie
Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany
–
Charlotte Stuart by
Hugh Douglas Hamilton,
Scottish National Portrait Gallery
Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany
–
Prince Charles Edward 1745
Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany
–
Clementina Walkinshaw c. 1760 – Charlotte's abused mother
Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany
–
Cardinal Henry Stuart, Charlotte's uncle
15.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
16.
House of Stuart
–
The House of Stuart, originally Stewart and, in Gaelic, Stiùbhart was a European royal house that originated in Scotland. The dynastys patrilineal Breton ancestors had held the office of High Steward of Scotland since the 12th century, the royal Stewart line was founded by Robert II, and they were Kings and Queens of Scots from the late 14th century until the union with England in 1707. Mary I, Queen of Scots was brought up in France and her son, James VI of Scotland, inherited the thrones of England and Ireland upon the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. Except for the period of the Commonwealth, 1649–1660, the Stuarts were monarchs of England, Scotland and Ireland until 1707, then of Great Britain and Ireland, in total, nine Stewart/Stuart monarchs ruled Scotland alone from 1371 until 1603. James VI of Scotland then inherited the realms of Elizabeth I of England, following the Glorious Revolution in 1688, two Stuart queens ruled the isles, Mary II and Anne. Both were the Protestant daughters of James VII and II by his first wife, during the reign of the Stuarts, Scotland developed from a relatively poor and feudal country into a prosperous, modern and centralised state. They ruled during a time in European history of transition from the Middle Ages, through the Renaissance, monarchs such as James IV were known for sponsoring exponents of the Northern Renaissance such as the poet Robert Henryson, and others. The name Stewart derives from the position of office similar to a governor. It was originally adopted as the surname by Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland. Prior to this, family names were not used, but instead they had patronyms defined through the father, the gallicised spelling was first borne by John Stewart of Darnley after his time in the French wars. During the 16th century, the French spelling Stuart was adopted by Mary, Queen of Scots, the FitzAlan family quickly established themselves as a prominent Anglo-Norman noble house, with some of its members serving as High Sheriff of Shropshire. It was the great-grandson of Alan named Walter FitzAlan who became the first hereditary High Steward of Scotland, another supporter of Matilda was her uncle David I of Scotland from the House of Dunkeld. After Matilda was pushed out of England into the County of Anjou, essentially failing in her legitimist attempt for the throne, many of her supporters in England fled also. It was then that Walter followed David up to the Kingdom of Scotland, where he was granted lands in Renfrewshire, the next monarch of Scotland, Malcolm IV, made the High Steward title a hereditary arrangement. While High Stewards, the family were based at Dundonald, South Ayrshire between the 12th and 13th centuries. The sixth High Steward of Scotland, Walter Stewart, married Marjorie, daughter of Robert the Bruce, in 1503, James IV attempted to secure peace with England by marrying King Henry VIIs daughter, Margaret Tudor. The birth of their son, later James V, brought the House of Stewart into the line of descent of the House of Tudor, and the English throne. Margaret Tudor later married Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, and their daughter, Margaret Douglas, was the mother of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
House of Stuart
–
Tombstone of the last members of the House of Stuart in the
St. Peter's Basilica – Work of
Antonio Canova.
House of Stuart
–
Last armorial of the Stuart monarch for use in Great Britain, 1707 to 1714
House of Stuart
–
James I of Scotland
House of Stuart
–
James IV of Scotland
17.
Maria Clementina Sobieska
–
She was born on 18 July 1702 in Ohlau, Silesia, Holy Roman Empire. Her parents were James Louis Sobieski, the eldest son of King John III and her older sister Maria Karolina was the Duchess of Bouillon by marriage. Being one of Europes wealthiest heiresses, she was betrothed to James Francis Edward Stuart, King George I of Great Britain was opposed to the marriage because he feared that the union might produce heirs to James Francis Edwards claim to his thrones. To placate him, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI arrested Maria Clementina while on her way to Italy to marry James Francis Edward. Maria Clementinas father, James Louis Sobieski, approved her escape, declaring that, as she engaged to James Francis Edward, she ought to follow his fortune. Maria Clementina and James Francis Edward were formally married on 3 September 1719 in the chapel of the palace of Montefiascone, Italy. The Pope provided them with a guard of troops and gave them the Palazzo Muti in the Piazza dei Santi Apostoli in Rome to live in. The Catholic Church also provided them with an allowance of 12,000 crowns out of the papal treasury. The married life of James and Maria Clementina proved turbulent and unhappy, reportedly, James initially had a favorable impression of her because of her beauty, while she disliked him because of his lack of it, as well as his passive nature. She befriended the governess of her son, a Mrs Sheldon, on the other hand, she disliked the influence of James favourite John Hay of Cromlix and his wife Marjorie, and reportedly, she suspected James of having an affair with Marjorie Hay. In 1725, soon after their childs birth, James fired Sheldon. She left him and went to live in convent of St. Cecilia in Rome with her favorite Sheldon and she accused her husband of adultery, while he said it was sinful to leave him and her children. Upon the advice of Cardinal Alberoni, who claimed it was her chance to gain support against her husband. In April 1726, James granted her sons permission to visit her, the whole affair was seen as a scandal in Europe and reported about by anti-Jacobite agents in Rome. In May 1727, through the mediation of the duke of Liria, James removed the Hay couple from his court, and in January 1728, Maria Clementina and James reconciled in Bologna. In practice, however, Maria Clementina and James lived the rest of their marriage separated, James preferred to reside in Albano, while Maria Clementina lived in the Palazzo Muti in Rome. Her sexual relations to James soon discontinued, they dined together. Maria Clementina did perform the ceremonial functions she had as Jacobite queen, in June 1729, for example and her favourite Mrs Sheldon did not officially reside at the Jacobite court, but she provided her with a residence close to it, and kept her as a confidante
Maria Clementina Sobieska
–
Maria Clementina by
Francesco Trevisani
Maria Clementina Sobieska
–
Memorial in St. Peter's, Rome
Maria Clementina Sobieska
–
Maria Clementina by Pierre Imbert Drevet.
Maria Clementina Sobieska
–
"Pompe funebre" for Maria Clementina at Rome.
18.
Pretender
–
Most often, it refers to a former monarch, or descendant thereof, whose throne is occupied or claimed by a rival or has been abolished. The term claimant is sometimes preferred, but the term pretend in itself is not pejorative in this context, the original meaning of the English word pretend comes from the French word prétendre, and originally meant to put forward, to profess or claim. A pretender was, therefore, simply one who put forward or professed a claim to a title or, in modern terms, only later did the word acquire its modern sense of professing or claiming falsely. The term pretender applies to claimants with arguably genuine rights and it can also be used for those possessing an arguable right to a position who do not actively claim it, as well as impostors with wholly fabricated claims. People in the category often assume the identities of deceased or missing royalty to support their claim. A Papal pretender is called an Antipope, ancient Rome knew many pretenders to the offices making up the title of Roman Emperor, especially during the crisis of the Third Century. The Loeb translation of the chapter of the Augustan History therefore represents the Latin triginta tyranni by Thirty Pretenders to avoid this artificial. Not all of them were afterwards considered pretenders, several were successful in becoming Emperor at least in part of the Empire for a brief period. Disputed successions to the Roman Empire long continued at Constantinople, at times, some of these states and titles were subjected to multiple claims. Following the defeat and death of King James III King of Cyprus in 1474, his younger and illegitimate brother, Eugène Matteo de Lusignan, also styled dArménie removed to Sicily, then to Malta. He was acknowledged as heir to the thrones of Cyprus, Armenia, Jerusalem. The title of Barone de Baccari was created in 1508 for Jacques Matteo dArmenia with the remainder to his descendants in perpetuity, the claimant to the throne of the last Greek kingdom is Constantine II, who reigned as king from 1964 to 1973. He belongs to the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a branch of the House of Oldenburg. His designated heir is his son Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece, the establishment of the First Republic and the execution of Louis XVI in 1793 led to the kings son becoming pretender to the abolished throne, styled as Louis XVII. As Louis XVII was a child and imprisoned in Paris by the revolutionaries, his uncle, after Louis XVII died in 1795, the Comte de Provence became pretender himself, as Louis XVIII. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne in 1814, and was succeeded by his brother Charles X in 1824, Charles X was, however, forced into exile by the July Revolution. For most of the July Monarchy, the legitimists, as supporters of the senior line came to be known, were uncertain of whom to support. On his uncles death, Bordeaux proclaimed himself king as Henry V, but remains known to history by his title of pretense, the Count of Chambord
Pretender
–
"The Young Pretender",
Charles Edward Stuart, Bonnie Prince Charlie, pretender to the Scottish, Irish and English thrones
19.
Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
Kingdom of England
–
The dominions of
Cnut the Great (1014–1035)
Kingdom of England
–
Flag
Kingdom of England
–
King John signs
Magna Carta at
Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.
Kingdom of England
–
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the
Battle of Agincourt.
20.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown
Kingdom of Scotland
–
James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ireland created a dynastic union in 1603
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Flag
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Coronation of
Alexander III of Scotland at
Scone Abbey; beside him are the
Mormaers of Strathearn and
Fife while his genealogy is recited by a royal poet.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The
Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of Scots law.
21.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
–
Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
–
Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
–
Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
22.
Kingdom of Ireland
–
The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
Kingdom of Ireland
–
Location of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1789.
23.
James VII and II
–
James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
James VII and II
–
Portrait by
Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1684
James VII and II
–
Turenne, James's commander in France
James VII and II
–
James and Anne Hyde in the 1660s, by Sir
Peter Lely
James VII and II
–
Mary of Modena, James's second wife
24.
Jacobite Rising of 1745
–
The Jacobite rising of 1745 was the attempt by Charles Edward Stuart to regain the British throne for the exiled House of Stuart. The rising occurred during the War of the Austrian Succession when most of the British Army was on the European continent, the march south began with an initial victory at Prestonpans near Edinburgh. The Jacobite army, now in bold spirits, marched onwards to Carlisle, the Battle of Culloden ended with the final defeat of the Jacobite cause, and with Charles Edward Stuart fleeing with a price on his head, before finally sailing to France. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 resulted in the Roman Catholic Stuart king, James II of England and VII of Scotland, James daughter and her husband, who was also Jamess nephew, ascended the British throne as joint sovereigns William and Mary. In 1690 Presbyterianism was established as the religion of Scotland. The Act of Settlement 1701 settled the succession of the English throne on the Protestant House of Hanover, the Scottish Act of Security 1704 required that Queen Annes successor be Protestant, and the Act of Union 1707 applied the Act of Settlement to Scotland. With the death of Queen Anne in 1714, the Elector of Hanover, George I, James IIs son, James Francis Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender, attempted to gain the British throne in 1715 but failed to do so. The accession of George I ushered in the Whig supremacy, with the Tories deprived of all political power, George II succeeded his father in 1727. In February 1742 Sir Robert Walpole resigned as Prime Minister after nearly 21 years, thereafter, the Whig Henry Pelham was Prime Minister until 1754. In 1743 war broke out between Britain and France, as part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession and it was signed by the Duke of Beaufort, Lord Barrymore, Lord Orrery, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, Sir John Hynde Cotton and Sir Robert Abdy. Amelot replied that the French government would need proof of English support for Jacobitism before it could act. The Tory leaders had requested 10,000 French soldiers and arms for 10,000 of the officers on half pay and unemployed soldiers. The French were to land in Maldon in Essex, a section of coast not patrolled by the Royal Navy, obviating a crossing of the River Thames and counting on support from Jacobite sentiment there. They advised that Maurice of Saxony should command the French army because he was known to most of them and was a Protestant. A parallel expeditionary force for a Scottish landing under the command of Lord Marischal was requested as well, James Butler, Louis XVs Master of Horse, toured England ostensibly for purchasing bloodstock but in reality to gauge the health of Jacobitism in England. Before he left for England the French king briefed him personally to assure the Tory leaders that all of their demands would be met and he reported back that they showed great zeal for a revolution. John Sample, a spy for Walpole, told the Duke of Newcastle that plans for a French invasion had been orchestrated by Wynn, Butler returned to France in October and had an audience with Louis XV, who said he was satisfied. The next month Amelot told Sempill officially that Louis XV was resolved to restore the House of Stuart, the Declaration of King James was signed by James Francis Edward Stuart on 23 December 1743 and was to be published in the event of a successful French landing
Jacobite Rising of 1745
–
The Battle of Culloden by David Morier.
Jacobite Rising of 1745
–
James Francis Edward Stuart
Jacobite Rising of 1745
–
The Duke of Newcastle,
Secretary of State for the Southern Department in the British government
Jacobite Rising of 1745
–
Louis XV of France, 2nd cousin once removed to "Bonnie Prince Charlie" and supporter of the Jacobite cause
25.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Lord Clive meeting
Mir Jafar after the
Battle of Plassey, by
Francis Hayman (c. 1762)
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Flag
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Pitt addressing the
Commons in 1793
26.
Battle of Culloden
–
The Battle of Culloden was the final confrontation of the Jacobite rising of 1745 and part of a religious civil war in Britain. On 16 April 1746, the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart were decisively defeated by loyalist troops commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, queen Anne died in 1714, with no living children, she was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. The conflict was the last pitched battle fought on British soil, Charles Stuarts Jacobite army consisted largely of Catholics and Episcopalians, mainly Scots but with a small detachment of Englishmen from the Manchester Regiment. The Jacobites were supported and supplied by the Kingdom of France from Irish, between 1,500 and 2,000 Jacobites were killed or wounded in the brief battle. Government losses were lighter with 50 dead and 259 wounded although recent geophysical studies on the government burial pit suggest the figure for deaths to be nearer 300. Charles Edward Stuart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender and he successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen, and slipped past the Hanoverian stationed in Scotland and defeated a force of militiamen at the Battle of Prestonpans. The British government recalled forces from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the rebellion, after a lengthy wait, Charles persuaded his generals that English Jacobites would stage an uprising in support of his cause. He was convinced that France would launch an invasion of England as well and his army of around 5,000 invaded England on 8 November 1745. They advanced through Carlisle and Manchester to Derby and a position where they appeared to threaten London, the Jacobites met only token resistance. There was, however, little support from English Jacobites, the armies of Field Marshal George Wade and of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, were approaching. In addition to the militia, London was defended by nearly 6,000 infantry,700 horse and 33 artillery pieces, the Jacobite general, Lord George Murray, and the Council of War insisted on returning to join their growing force in Scotland. On 6 December 1745, they withdrew, with Charles Edward Stuart leaving command to Murray, on the long march back to Scotland, the Highland Army wore out its boots and demanded all the boots and shoes of the townspeople of Dumfries as well as money and hospitality. The Jacobites reached Glasgow on 25 December, there they reprovisioned, having threatened to sack the city, and were joined by a few thousand additional men. They then defeated the forces of General Henry Hawley at the Battle of Falkirk Muir, the Duke of Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on 30 January to take over command of the government army from General Hawley. He then marched north along the coast, with the army being supplied by sea, six weeks were spent at Aberdeen training. The Kings forces continued to pressure Charles and he retired north, losing men and failing to take Stirling Castle or Fort William. But he invested Fort Augustus and Fort George in Inverness-shire in early April, Charles then took command again, and insisted on fighting a defensive action. Hugh Rose of Kilravock entertained Charles Edward Stuart and the Duke of Cumberland respectively on 14 and 15 April 1746, Charles manners and deportment were described by his host as most engaging
Battle of Culloden
–
An incident in the rebellion of 1745, by
David Morier
Battle of Culloden
–
A private and corporal of a Highland regiment, circa 1744. The Highland units of the Jacobite army would have worn something very similar to the private illustrated, particularly the
belted plaid.
Battle of Culloden
–
Soldiers of the 8th and 20th Regiments, circa 1742
Battle of Culloden
–
Panorama of the battlefield, circa 2007. The flag on the left side indicates the Jacobite lines, the flag on the right side shows the location of the Government lines.
27.
Roman Catholics
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholics
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholics
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholics
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholics
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
28.
Divine right of kings
–
The divine right of kings, divine right, or Gods mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, the king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm. It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose, dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and it is only an implication and the Bible states Iron sharpens iron, referring to accountability to each other. It also implies the higher accountability of Monarchs to implement policies in line with Christs commandment to Love one another and it is often expressed in the phrase by the Grace of God, attached to the titles of a reigning monarch. In the pagan world, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers or perhaps even being divine beings themselves. However, the Christian notion of a right of kings could be traced to the biblical story found in 1 Samuel. And the anointing is to such an effect that the monarch became inviolable, adomnan of Iona is one of the earliest Christian proponents of this concept of kings ruling with divine right. He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaills assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch, the same angel then visited Columba on three successive nights, and then finally Columba agreed and Aedan came to receive ordination. Adomnans writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well, pepin the Shorts coronation may have also come from the same influence. The Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors also influenced all subsequent western ideas of kingship, the immediate author of the theory was Jean Bodin, who based it on the interpretation of Roman law. With the rise of nation-states and the Protestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the kings authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of James I of England, louis XIV of France strongly promoted the theory as well. The Scots textbooks of the right of kings were written in 1597–98 by James VI of Scotland before his accession to the English throne. James I based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, the state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth, for kings are not only Gods lieutenants upon earth and sit upon Gods throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. There be three principal that illustrate the state of monarchy, one out of the word of God. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the Divine power, Kings are also compared to fathers of families, for a king is truly parens patriae, the politic father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of man, jamess reference to Gods lieutenants is apparently a reference to the controversial text in Romans 13, where Paul refers to Gods ministers. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God, the powers that be are ordained of God
Divine right of kings
–
Louis XIV of France depicted as the Sun King.
Divine right of kings
–
Antichristus, a woodcut by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a ruler contributing generously to the Catholic Church
Divine right of kings
–
Charles I, being crowned by a hand from a cloud, possibly by God
Divine right of kings
–
The
Emperor of Japan rules as a divine descendant of the sun goddess
Amaterasu
29.
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)
–
A French invasion of Great Britain was planned to take place in 1759 during the Seven Years War, but due to various factors was never launched. The French planned to land 100,000 French soldiers in Britain to end British involvement in the war, the invasion was one of several abandoned attempts during the 18th century to invade the British Isles. Fighting broke out between France and Britain in 1754, but war was formally declared in 1756 when France went to war with a British ally. From 1757 the British government was dominated by William Pitt, who orchestrated a series of British military expeditions to attack French colonies such as Senegal, Martinique, and New France. Pitt saw the war in Europe primarily as a holding action, French strategy was entirely the opposite. The French concentrated the bulk of their efforts on Continental Europe, by late 1758 they had made numerous advances against the Prussians, who they believed were only kept from collapse by British support. The invasion was planned by the Duc de Choiseul who became French foreign minister in December 1758 and he wanted to launch a bold initiative that would knock Britain out of the war with one stroke. French pride had been stung the previous year by the ease with which the British had captured Louisbourg and launched raids on the French coast during 1758. British financial subsidies and military aid to her only ally Prussia had kept that country afloat since 1756, choiseuls brief as foreign minister was to overturn this situation. Choiseul was interested in the concept of a French invasion of Britain and he perceived that Britain’s strength was its naval power. He saw that if a large French force managed to cross the Channel without being intercepted, Choiseul initially ignored perceived wisdom that any invasion would have to involve French warships. He believed that trying to bring out of the blockaded port at Brest would cause unnecessary delays. A mixed force as he saw it would suffer the fate as the Spanish Armada. A previous attempt by France in 1744 had to be abandoned, an essential component of the plan was speed. The French would wait for a wind and cross the Channel quickly. Once they landed, they believed they would easily overpower the small army Britain retained on home soil, Choiseul managed to overcome opposition in the French cabinet and the invasion was approved as the cornerstone of French strategy for 1759 along with an attempt to capture Hanover. A secret meeting was arranged with Charles Stuart in Paris in February 1759, Charles turned up late and drunk, and proved surly and uncooperative. Convinced that the Jacobites were of material help, Choiseul dropped them from the plan
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)
–
Battle of Quiberon Bay which ended the invasion plans
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)
–
The
Duc de Choiseul was the principal author of the invasion plan, with which he hoped to end the war against Britain with a single masterstroke.
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)
–
William Pitt was the British war leader, and mobilised Britain's defences against the invasion threat.
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)
–
French Fleet with French and Imperial German troops in Brest, 1759
30.
Pope Clement XI
–
Pope Clement XI, born Giovanni Francesco Albani, was Pope from 23 November 1700 to his death in 1721. Clement XI was a patron of the arts and of science and he was also a great benefactor of the Vatican Library, his interest in archaeology is credited with saving much of Rome’s antiquity. He authorized expeditions which succeeded in rediscovering various ancient Christian writings and he was of Italian and Albanian origin. Giovanni Francesco Albani was born in 1649 in Urbino to a distinguished family, Albani was educated at the Collegio Romano in Rome from 1660 onwards. He became a very proficient Latinist and gained a doctorate in canon and civil law. He was one of those who frequented the academy of Queen Christina of Sweden and he would serve as a papal prelate under Pope Alexander VIII and was appointed by Pope Innocent XII as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura. Throughout this time, he served as the governor of Rieti, Sabina. He was then ordained to the priesthood in September 1700 and celebrated his first Mass in Rome on 6 October 1700, after the death of Pope Innocent XII in 1700, a conclave was convoked to elect a successor. Albani was regarded as a fine diplomat known for his skills as a peacemaker and he agreed to the election after three days of consultation. Having accepted election after some hesitation, he was ordained a bishop on 30 November 1700, cardinal protodeacon Benedetto Pamphili crowned him on 8 December 1700 and he took possession of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran on 10 April 1701. Soon after his accession to the pontificate, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out, in 1713 Clement issued the bull Unigenitus in response to the spread of the Jansenist heresy. There followed great upheaval in France, where apart from theological issues, the resistance of many French ecclesiastics and the refusal of the French parlements to register the bull led to controversies extending through the greater part of the 18th century. Clement XI also was key in the decision to allow cats back into Christian homes after they were seen as overtly Pagan symbols. Clement XI extended the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary to the Universal Church in 1716, Clement XI confirmed the cultus of Ceslas Odrowaz, Jakov Varingez, John of Perugia, Peregrine Laziosi, Peter of Sassoferrato, Buonfiglio Monaldi, Pope Gregory X and Humbeline of Jully. He formally beatified a number of individuals, Alexis Falconieri, Bartholomew degli Amidei and Benedict Dellantella, in his book Journal of a Soul, while he was preparing for the Second Vatican Council, Pope John XXIII resolved to pray the Universal Prayer and recommends it. Clement XI died in Rome on 19 March 1721 and was buried in the pavement of St. Peters Basilica rather than in a tomb like those of his predecessors. Pope Clement XI shunned nepotism and though his nephew Annibale was appointed a cardinal and he established a committee, overseen by his favourite artists, Carlo Maratta and Carlo Fontana, to commission statuary of the apostles to complete the decoration of San Giovanni in Laterano. He also founded a painting and sculpting academy in the Campidoglio and he also enriched the Vatican library with numerous Oriental codices and patronaged the first archaeological excavations in the Roman catacombs
Pope Clement XI
–
Pope Clement XI
Pope Clement XI
–
Medal depicting Clement XI.
Pope Clement XI
–
The younger Albani.
Pope Clement XI
–
The tomb of Pope Clement XI.
31.
Divine Right of Kings
–
The divine right of kings, divine right, or Gods mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, the king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm. It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose, dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and it is only an implication and the Bible states Iron sharpens iron, referring to accountability to each other. It also implies the higher accountability of Monarchs to implement policies in line with Christs commandment to Love one another and it is often expressed in the phrase by the Grace of God, attached to the titles of a reigning monarch. In the pagan world, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers or perhaps even being divine beings themselves. However, the Christian notion of a right of kings could be traced to the biblical story found in 1 Samuel. And the anointing is to such an effect that the monarch became inviolable, adomnan of Iona is one of the earliest Christian proponents of this concept of kings ruling with divine right. He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaills assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch, the same angel then visited Columba on three successive nights, and then finally Columba agreed and Aedan came to receive ordination. Adomnans writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well, pepin the Shorts coronation may have also come from the same influence. The Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors also influenced all subsequent western ideas of kingship, the immediate author of the theory was Jean Bodin, who based it on the interpretation of Roman law. With the rise of nation-states and the Protestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the kings authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of James I of England, louis XIV of France strongly promoted the theory as well. The Scots textbooks of the right of kings were written in 1597–98 by James VI of Scotland before his accession to the English throne. James I based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, the state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth, for kings are not only Gods lieutenants upon earth and sit upon Gods throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. There be three principal that illustrate the state of monarchy, one out of the word of God. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the Divine power, Kings are also compared to fathers of families, for a king is truly parens patriae, the politic father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of man, jamess reference to Gods lieutenants is apparently a reference to the controversial text in Romans 13, where Paul refers to Gods ministers. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers, for there is no power but of God, the powers that be are ordained of God
Divine Right of Kings
–
Louis XIV of France depicted as the Sun King.
Divine Right of Kings
–
Antichristus, a woodcut by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a ruler contributing generously to the Catholic Church
Divine Right of Kings
–
Charles I, being crowned by a hand from a cloud, possibly by God
Divine Right of Kings
–
The
Emperor of Japan rules as a divine descendant of the sun goddess
Amaterasu
.svg)
.jpg)
