1.
Province of Silesia
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As a Prussian province, Silesia became part of the German Empire during the Prussian-led unification of Germany in 1871. The territory on both sides of the Oder river formed the part of the Prussian kingdom. It furthermore included the part of Upper Lusatia around Görlitz and Lauban. In the northeast, Upper Silesia bordered on remaining Congress Poland, the incorporated Upper Lusatian strip of land in the west touched the remaining territory of the Saxon kingdom. Immediately after the coronation of Maria Theresa as Bohemian queen regnant, King Frederick the Great of Prussia had invaded Silesia, attempts by Maria Theresa to regain the crown land in the Second Silesian War failed and she ultimately had to relinquish her claims by the Treaty of Dresden. As the lands had been part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806, the character of the provinces eastern third, Upper Silesia, had been much lesser shaped by the medieval German Ostsiedlung. According to the census of 1905, about three-quarters of the Silesian inhabitants were German–speaking, the Upper Silesian Industrial Region was the second largest industrial agglomeration of the German Empire after the Ruhr area. Ethnic tensions rose on the eve of World War I, with politicians like Wojciech Korfanty separating from the Centre Party, after the war, the parts remaining in Weimar Germany were re-organized into the two provinces of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia in 1919. Further, in 1920 the Hlučín Region was ceded to Czechoslovakia according to the Treaty of Versailles, after the Nazi Germany conquest of Poland in late 1939, the Province of Silesia was extended when a part of Poland was merged into that province. In 1941, the Province was divided again, the German-speaking population left or was expelled following World War II, though a minority remains. A smaller western part of the former Silesia Province lies within modern German states of Saxony, coats of arms of Upper Silesian towns while part of the Province of Silesia Administrative subdivision and population breakdown of the Province of Silesia in 1900/1900
Province of Silesia
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Flag
2.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
Kingdom of Prussia
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Prussian territorial acquisitions in the 18th century
Kingdom of Prussia
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Flag
Kingdom of Prussia
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Prussia (orange) and its territories lost after the
War of the Fourth Coalition (other colours).
Kingdom of Prussia
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Prussian King's Crown (
Hohenzollern Castle Collection)
3.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
Poland
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Reconstruction of a
Bronze Age,
Lusatian culture settlement in
Biskupin, c. 700 BC
Poland
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Flag
Poland
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Earliest known contemporary depiction of a Polish ruler; King
Mieszko II Lambert of Poland being presented with a
Liturgical book by
Matilda of Swabia, 1025–1031
Poland
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Drawing of the
Battle of Grunwald, which was fought against the
German Order of Teutonic Knights, 15 July 1410
4.
Schenectady, New York
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Schenectady /skᵻˈnɛktədi/ is a city in Schenectady County, New York, United States, of which it is the county seat. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 66,135, the name Schenectady is derived from a Mohawk word skahnéhtati meaning beyond the pines. The city was founded on the side of the Mohawk River by Dutch colonists in the 17th century. They were prohibited from the fur trade by the Albany monopoly, residents of the new village developed farms on strip plots along the river. Connected to the west via the Mohawk River and Erie Canal, by 1824 more people worked in manufacturing than agriculture or trade, and the city had a cotton mill, processing cotton from the Deep South. Numerous mills in New York had such ties with the South, the city was part of emerging technologies, with GE collaborating in the production of nuclear-powered submarines and, in the 21st century, working on other forms of renewable energy. The city is in eastern New York, near the confluence of the Mohawk and it is in the same metropolitan area as the state capital, Albany, which is about 19 miles southeast. In December 2014, the announced that the city was one of three sites selected for development of off-reservation casino gambling, under terms of a 2013 state constitutional amendment. The project would redevelop an ALCO brownfield site in the city along the waterfront, with hotels, housing, when first encountered by Europeans, the Mohawk Valley was the territory of the Mohawk nation, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, or Haudenosaunee. They had occupied territory in the region since at least 1100 AD, in the 1640s, the Mohawk had three major villages, all on the south side of the Mohawk River. The easternmost one was Ossernenon, located about 9 miles west of present-day Auriesville, about 3200 acres of this unique ecosystem are now protected as the Albany Pine Bush. Eventually, this word entered the lexicon of the Dutch settlers, the settlers in Fort Orange used skahnéhtati to refer to the new village at the Mohawk flats, which became known as Schenectady. In 1661 Arent van Curler, a Dutch immigrant bought a big piece of land on the side of the Mohawk River. Other colonists were given grants of land by the government in this portion of the flat fertile river valley. The settlers recognized that these bottomlands had been cultivated for maize by the Mohawk for centuries, Van Curler took the largest piece of land, the remainder was divided into 50-acre plots for the other first fourteen proprietors. As most early colonists were from the Fort Orange area, they may have anticipated working as fur traders, the settlers here turned to farming. Their 50-acre lots were unique for the colony, laid out in strips along the Mohawk River, with the narrow edges fronting the river and they relied on rearing livestock and wheat. From the early days of interaction, early Dutch traders in the valley had unions with Mohawk women and their children were raised within the Mohawk community, which had a matrilineal kinship system, considering children born into the mothers clan
Schenectady, New York
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Nott Memorial Hall, Union College
Schenectady, New York
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Former GE headquarters building
Schenectady, New York
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Proctor's Theatre
Schenectady, New York
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An accordion-playing guide welcomes visitors to a restored Dutch home in the Schenectady Stockade District
5.
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Vale Cemetery is the largest cemetery in Schenectady, New York. It opened on 21 October 1857 when the Rev. Julius Seely dedicated what was termed the Vale. It has tripled its size since opening and today it holds the remains of some of the most notable persons in Upstate New York. In 1973, a 35-acre tract of unused and abandoned cemetery land around the ponds of Coehorn Creek was sold to the city of Schenectady to form Vale Park, the cemetery and park were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. By 1850 the old burying ground on Green and Front streets was being overrun with weeds and was described as being unsanitary. The Common Council resolved on 2 July 1856 to develop the grounds of the old Hospital Farm on Nott Terrace as a 38-acre public cemetery, on 16 June 1857, Mayor Benjamin V. S. Vedder appointed a committee to oversee the work, to provide access from a main street, Dr Eliphalet Nott, the President of Union College donated an avenue from Nott Terrace into the grounds. Later in 1863, two pieces of land were purchased from the college, creating what is now known as Vale Park, the entrance on State Street was a donation from the First Reformed Church in 1867. The cemetery was planned by Burton Thomas as a rural cemetery and it featured many winding paths and he had more than 1,000 trees planted, Cowhorn Creek was dammed to create a lake within the grounds. The cemetery has expanded and covers approximately 100 acres and holds some 33,000 burials. The cemetery includes the historic African-American Burying Ground, in February 1858, the Common Council declared that it could not continue to run the cemetery at the taxpayers expense and that the cemetery must be taken up by private owners. Fourteen of the lot holders formed the Vale Cemetery Association and bought the 38 acres from the Common Council and they paid the sum of $800, and announced that some land, known as the Potters Field, would be set aside for the burial of the poor. In 2007 as part of the Schenectady Colonial celebrations, the Association held a dinner to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the cemetery, in late 2006, interest in mapping the cemetery was indicated by several people connected with the cemetery. They developed the Vale mapping project, the project started in spring 2007, using GPS and techniques used in England and Scotland to locate each grave. The group intends to map all the graves and document them, the information on notable burials has been extracted and précised from Katherine Olney Delains Biographies of Notables at Vale Cemetery. Ernst Alexanderson — came to the United States in 1901 to meet electrical wizard Charles Steinmetz, developed the Alexanderson alternator, the first radio transmitter used to broadcast the human voice. Dr. Alexanderson was also instrumental in the development of television, over his lifetime, Dr. Alexanderson received 344 patents, the last awarded in 1973 at age 94. Ellis Family — The father and two sons were presidents of Schenectady Locomotive Works, later to become American Locomotive Company, ernst Julius Berg — mathematician and electro-physicist
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Menu cover from the 150th anniversary dinner
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Veterans plot, February 2007
Vale Cemetery and Vale Park
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Westinghouse Family memorial, February 2007
6.
Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
Mathematician
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Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, known as the "Father of Geometry"
Mathematician
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In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians
Mathematician
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Archimedes, c. 287 – 212 BC
Mathematician
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Brahmagupta, c. 598 - 670
7.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineers design complex power systems...
Electrical engineering
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... and electronic circuits.
Electrical engineering
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The discoveries of
Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor technology
Electrical engineering
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Thomas Edison, electric light and (DC) power supply networks
8.
Alternating current
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Alternating current, is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, whereas direct current flows only in one direction. A common source of DC power is a cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, the usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information encoded onto the AC signal and these currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in power transmission. Electrical energy is distributed as alternating current because AC voltage may be increased or decreased with a transformer, use of a higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient transmission of power. The power losses in a conductor are a product of the square of the current and this means that when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the current is halved, the power loss will be four times less. Power is often transmitted at hundreds of kilovolts, and transformed to 100–240 volts for domestic use, high voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe handling. In a power plant, energy is generated at a convenient voltage for the design of a generator, near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer voltages vary somewhat depending on the country and size of load, the voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is standardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which equipment is expected to operate. Standard power utilization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the different mains power systems found in the world, high-voltage direct-current electric power transmission systems have become more viable as technology has provided efficient means of changing the voltage of DC power. HVDC systems, however, tend to be expensive and less efficient over shorter distances than transformers. Three-phase electrical generation is very common, the simplest way is to use three separate coils in the generator stator, physically offset by an angle of 120° to each other. Three current waveforms are produced that are equal in magnitude and 120° out of phase to each other, if coils are added opposite to these, they generate the same phases with reverse polarity and so can be simply wired together. In practice, higher pole orders are commonly used, for example, a 12-pole machine would have 36 coils. The advantage is that lower rotational speeds can be used to generate the same frequency, for example, a 2-pole machine running at 3600 rpm and a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the same frequency, the lower speed is preferable for larger machines. If the load on a system is balanced equally among the phases. Even in the worst-case unbalanced load, the current will not exceed the highest of the phase currents
Alternating current
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High voltage transmission lines deliver power from
electric generation plants over long distances using alternating current. These particular lines are located in eastern
Utah.
Alternating current
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Alternating current (green curve). The horizontal axis measures time; the vertical, current or voltage.
Alternating current
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The prototype of ZBD. transformer is on display at the Széchenyi István Memorial Exhibition,
Nagycenk,
Hungary
Alternating current
9.
Electric power industry
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The electric power industry is the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electric power to the general public. The electrical industry started with introduction of lighting in 1882. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, growing economic and safety concerns lead to the regulation of the industry, once an expensive novelty limited to the most densely populated areas, reliable and economical electric power has become a requirement for normal operation of all elements of developed economies. Since the 1990s, many regions have opened up the generation and distribution of power to provide a more competitive electricity market. However, transmission and distribution are harder problems since returns on investment are not as easy to find, in 1831, Michael Faraday devised a machine that generated electricity from rotary motion, but it took almost 50 years for the technology to reach a commercially viable stage. In 1878, in the US, Thomas Edison developed and sold a commercially viable replacement for gas lighting and heating using locally generated and distributed direct current electricity. The worlds first public electricity supply was provided in late 1881 and this system was powered from a water wheel on the River Wey, which drove a Siemens alternator that supplied a number of arc lamps within the town. This supply scheme also provided electricity to a number of shops, additionally, Robert Hammond, in December 1881, demonstrated the new electric light in the Sussex town of Brighton in the UK for a trial period. The ensuing success of this installation enabled Hammond to put this venture on both a commercial and legal footing, as a number of shop owners wanted to use the new electric light, thus the Hammond Electricity Supply Co. was launched. Whilst the Godalming and Holborn Viaduct Schemes closed after a few years the Brighton Scheme continued on, in time he had supplied a number of local consumers with electric light. The method of supply was direct current and it was later on in the year in September 1882 that Edison opened the Pearl Street Power Station in New York City and again it was a DC supply. It was for this reason that the generation was close to or on the premises as Edison had no means of voltage conversion. The voltage chosen for any system is a compromise. For a given amount of power transmitted, increasing the voltage reduces the current, unfortunately it also increases the danger from direct contact and increases the required insulation thickness. Furthermore, some types were difficult or impossible to make work with higher voltages. The overall effect was that Edisons system required power stations to be within a mile of the consumers, while this could work in city centres, it would be unable to economically supply suburbs with power. The mid to late 1880s saw the introduction of alternating current systems in Europe, increasing the voltage reduced the current in the transmission and distribution lines and hence the size of conductors and distribution losses. This made it economical to distribute power over long distances
Electric power industry
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Electric power is transmitted on
overhead lines like these, and also on underground
high voltage cables.
Electric power industry
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Bolsward Substation, the Netherlands
Electric power industry
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Transmission lines in
Romania of which the nearest is a Phase Transposition Tower
Electric power industry
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High tension line in
Montreal,
Quebec,
Canada
10.
Hysteresis
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Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a magnetic field. Plots of a component of the moment often form a loop or hysteresis curve. This history dependence is the basis of memory in a disk drive. Hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, as well as in the deformation of rubber bands and shape-memory alloys, in natural systems it is often associated with irreversible thermodynamic change such as phase transitions and with internal friction, and dissipation is a common side effect. Hysteresis can be found in physics, chemistry, engineering, biology and economics and it is incorporated in many artificial systems, for example, in thermostats and Schmitt triggers, it prevents unwanted frequent switching. Hysteresis can be a lag between an input and an output that disappears if the input is varied more slowly, this is known as rate-dependent hysteresis. However, phenomena such as the magnetic hysteresis loops are mainly rate-independent, systems with hysteresis are nonlinear, and can be mathematically challenging to model. The term hysteresis is derived from ὑστέρησις, an ancient Greek word meaning deficiency or lagging behind and it was coined around 1890 by Sir James Alfred Ewing to describe the behaviour of magnetic materials. Some early work on describing hysteresis in mechanical systems was performed by James Clerk Maxwell, subsequently, hysteretic models have received significant attention in the works of Ferenc Preisach, Louis Néel and D. H. Everett in connection with magnetism and absorption. A more formal theory of systems with hysteresis was developed in the 1970s by a group of Russian mathematicians led by Mark Krasnoselskii. One type of hysteresis is a lag between input and output. A simple example is a sinusoidal input X that results in a sinusoidal output Y and this kind of hysteresis is often referred to as rate-dependent hysteresis. If the input is reduced to zero, the continues to respond for a finite time. This constitutes a memory of the past, but a limited one because it disappears as the output decays to zero, the phase lag depends on the frequency of the input, and goes to zero as the frequency decreases. When rate-dependent hysteresis is due to effects like friction, it is associated with power loss. Systems with rate-independent hysteresis have a persistent memory of the past that remains after the transients have died out, the future development of such a system depends on the history of states visited, but does not fade as the events recede into the past. If an input variable X cycles from X0 to X1 and back again, the values of Y depend on the path of values that X passes through but not on the speed at which it traverses the path
Hysteresis
–
Electric displacement field D of a
ferroelectric material as the
electric field E is first decreased, then increased. The curves form a hysteresis loop.
11.
Induction motor
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An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans, although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump, squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. Tesla applied for U. S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888, in April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant, Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889. Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891, by 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out full significance of the i to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in complex number analysis of AC problems. GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including in terms now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7. 5-horsepower motor in 1897. In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motors stator creates a field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the rate as the stator field. The induction motor stators magnetic field is changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces a current in the induction motors rotor, in effect the motors secondary winding. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, the currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field
Induction motor
–
Three-phase totally enclosed fan-cooled (
TEFC) induction motor with end cover on the left, and without end cover to show cooling fan. In TEFC motors, interior losses are dissipated indirectly through enclosure fins mostly by forced air convection.
Induction motor
–
Cutaway view through stator of
TEFC induction motor. Note rotor air circulation vanes.
Induction motor
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A model of Tesla's first induction motor, in Tesla Museum, Belgrade.
Induction motor
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Early squirrel cage rotor
12.
Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant
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Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant is a 18. 3-acre national historic district located at Mechanicville in Saratoga County, New York. The listing included one contributing building and three contributing structures, the district dates to 1897 and includes notable Queen Anne architecture. The district includes the powerhouse, an embankment, a concrete non-overflow dam. They were built in 1897–1898 by the Hudson River Power Transmission Company and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. The station was designed to produce 5000 kilowatts from seven hydraulic turbine-generator units, extensive renovations starting in 2003 have turned the plant into a working museum. Robert Newton King, president of the Stillwell-Bierce & Smith-Vaile Company of Ohio, selected the site for its potential and proximity to industrial areas of Albany, Troy. Hudson River Power Transmission was the company formed to develop the project, the Hudson River watershed runs to the Adirondack Mountains and covers 4,600 square miles. Construction started July 1897 but was delayed by a storm in November. The original five turbines were completed by August 1898, the initial design of the plant used seven horizontal Francis-type turbines manufactured by Kings SB&SV company, each equipped with four runners 41 inches in diameter, producing 1000 HP. These turbines drove a 750 kW generator at 114 rpm, the generators produced 12,000 volts three-phase power at 38 Hz. Generators and controls were designed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz, only five of the initial turbines had been completed when all seven units were replaced with new turbines in 1902. The new turbines were made by the S. Morgan Smith company and were now rated at 1,250 horsepower and 125 rpm, the water passage for the turbines was modified and the operating frequency of the generators raised to 40 Hz. At the same time, a reciprocating Corliss steam engine was installed in the plant to provide supplemental capacity during low water flow and this was only kept for 5 years. One turbine failed in 1932 and has not been replaced, each of the turbines has three water-lubricated lignum vitae wood bearings in the turbine chamber and an oil-bath bearing in the generator hall. Up until about 1950, the speed of the turbines was regulated by a hydraulic governor, the project consists of a spillway 900 feet feet long, an earth embankment dam about 900 feet long and 20 feet high, and a powerhouse. The powerhouse is 220 feet wide and 50 feet long, made of reinforced concrete, the horizontally mounted turbines in upstream water passages drive shafts running through packing boxes on the upstream headwall which is 6-foot thick concrete. The arrangement of horizontal runners, packing box and generators was patented at the time, most of the power generated by the Mechanicville plant was sent to the General Electric plant in Schenectady. Some 40 Hz power was used locally for lighting and motors until 1949, from 1935 through to the end of WWII, the HVDC Mechanicville–Schenectady DC transmission system sent power to the GE plant and also served to convert from 40 Hz to 60 Hz
Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant
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Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant
Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant
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Exterior of the Mechanicville New York Hydroelectric plant in 1898.
13.
Metal-halide lamp
–
It is a type of high-intensity discharge gas discharge lamp. Developed in the 1960s, they are similar to mercury vapor lamps, but contain additional metal halide compounds in the arc tube. The most common metal halide compound used is sodium iodide, once the arc tube reaches its running temperature, the sodium dissociates from the iodine, adding orange and reds to the lamps spectrum from the sodium D line as the metal ionizes. Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours, as one of the most efficient sources of high CRI white light, metal halides as of 2005 were the fastest growing segment of the lighting industry. They operate at a pressure between 4 and 20 atmospheres, and require special fixtures to operate safely, as well as an electrical ballast, metal atoms produce most of the light output. They require a period of several minutes to reach full light output. Because of their spectrum and good efficiency they are used for indoor growing applications and are quite popular with reef aquarists. Like other gas-discharge lamps such as the very-similar mercury-vapor lamps, metal-halide lamps produce light by ionizing a mixture of gasses in an electric arc. In a metal-halide lamp, the arc tube contains a mixture of argon or xenon, mercury. The particular mixture of metal halides influences the color temperature. When started, the gas in the lamp is ionized first. The arc-tube operates at anywhere from 5–50 atm or more and 1000–3000 °C, about 24% of the energy used by metal-halide lamps produces light, making them substantially more efficient than incandescent bulbs, which typically have efficiencies in the range 2–4%. Metal-halide lamps consist of an arc tube with electrodes, a bulb. Inside the fused quartz arc tube, two tungsten electrodes doped with thorium are sealed into each end and an AC voltage is applied to them through molybdenum foil seals fused in silica and it is the arc between the two electrodes where the light is actually created. Besides mercury vapor, the lamp contains iodides or bromides of different metals, iodine and bromine are of the halogen group of the periodic table, and so are termed halides when ionized. Scandium and sodium are also used in some types, with thallium, indium, more recent types use dysprosium for high color temperature and tin for lower color temperature. Holmium and thulium are used in high power movie lighting models. Gallium or lead are used in special high UV-A models for printing purposes, the mixture of the metals used defines the color of the lamp
Metal-halide lamp
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Metal halide lamp bulb (type /O with arc tube shield.)
Metal-halide lamp
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Metal halide streetlight
Metal-halide lamp
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Metal halide floodlights at a baseball field
Metal-halide lamp
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150 watt metal-halide bulb in fixture, about halfway through warmup
14.
Network synthesis filters
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Network synthesis is a method of designing signal processing filters. It has produced several important classes of filter including the Butterworth filter, the Chebyshev filter and it was originally intended to be applied to the design of passive linear analogue filters but its results can also be applied to implementations in active filters and digital filters. The essence of the method is to obtain the component values of the filter from a rational function representing the desired transfer function. The method can be viewed as the problem of network analysis. Network analysis starts with a network and by applying the various electric circuit theorems predicts the response of the network, network synthesis on the other hand, starts with a desired response and its methods produce a network that outputs, or approximates to, that response. Network synthesis was originally intended to produce filters of the formerly described as wave filters. That is, filters whose purpose is to pass waves of certain wavelengths while rejecting waves of other wavelengths, network synthesis starts out with a specification for the transfer function of the filter, H, as a function of complex frequency, s. In a digital implementation of a filter, H can be implemented directly, the advantages of the method are best understood by comparing it to the filter design methodology that was used before it, the image method. The image method considers the characteristics of a filter section in an infinite chain of identical sections. The filters produced by this method suffer from inaccuracies due to the theoretical termination impedance, with network synthesis filters, the terminations are included in the design from the start. The image method also requires an amount of experience on the part of the designer. The designer must first decide how many sections and of type should be used. This may not be what is required and there can be a number of iterations, the network synthesis method, on the other hand, starts out with the required function and generates as output the sections needed to build the corresponding filter. In general, the sections of a network synthesis filter are of identical topology, both methods make use of low-pass prototype filters followed by frequency transformations and impedance scaling to arrive at the final desired filter. The class of a filter refers to the class of polynomials from which the filter is mathematically derived, the order of the filter is the number of filter elements present in the filters ladder implementation. Generally speaking, the higher the order of the filter, the steeper the cut-off transition between passband and stopband, filters are often named after the mathematician or mathematics on which they are based rather than the discoverer or inventor of the filter. Butterworth filters are described as flat, meaning that the response in the frequency domain is the smoothest possible curve of any class of filter of the equivalent order. The Butterworth class of filter was first described in a 1930 paper by the British engineer Stephen Butterworth after whom it is named, the filter response is described by Butterworth polynomials, also due to Butterworth
Network synthesis filters
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Low-pass filter implemented as a ladder (Cauer) topology
15.
Analogue filter
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This article is about the history and development of passive linear analogue filters used in electronics. For linear filters in general see Linear filter, for electronic filters in general see Electronic filter. Analogue filters are a building block of signal processing much used in electronics. Analogue filters are most often used in wave filtering applications, that is, analogue filters have played an important part in the development of electronics. It should come as no surprise, therefore, that the development of filters was intimately connected with transmission lines. Transmission line theory gave rise to filter theory, which took a very similar form. However, the arrival of network synthesis techniques greatly enhanced the degree of control of the designer, wherever possible, and especially at low frequencies, analogue filters are now implemented in a filter topology which is active in order to avoid the wound components required by passive topology. It is possible to design linear analogue mechanical filters using mechanical components which filter mechanical vibrations or acoustic waves. While there are few applications for such devices in mechanics per se, they can be used in electronics with the addition of transducers to convert to, indeed, some of the earliest ideas for filters were acoustic resonators because the electronics technology was poorly understood at the time. There are three stages in the history of passive analogue filter development, Simple filters. The frequency dependence of electrical response was known for capacitors and inductors from very early on, the resonance phenomenon was also familiar from an early date and it was possible to produce simple, single-branch filters with these components. Although attempts were made in the 1880s to apply them to telegraphy, image filter theory grew out of transmission line theory and the design proceeded in a similar manner to transmission line analysis. For the first time filters could be produced that had precisely controllable passbands and these developments took place in the 1920s and filters produced to these designs were still in widespread use in the 1980s, only declining as the use of analogue telecommunications has declined. Their immediate application was the important development of frequency division multiplexing for use on intercity. The mathematical bases of network synthesis were laid in the 1930s and 1940s, after the end of World War II network synthesis became the primary tool of filter design. Network synthesis put filter design on a mathematical foundation, freeing it from the mathematically sloppy techniques of image design. The essence of network synthesis is that it produces a design that will reproduce the response originally specified in black box terms. Throughout this article the letters R, L and C are used with their meanings to represent resistance, inductance and capacitance
Analogue filter
–
Hutin and Leblanc's multiple telegraph filter of 1891 showing the use of resonant circuits in filtering.
Analogue filter
–
A 1915 example of an early type of resonant circuit known as an
Oudin coil which uses Leyden jars for the capacitance.
16.
Phasor measurement unit
–
A phasor measurement unit is a device which measures the electrical waves on an electricity grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time synchronization allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote measurement points on the grid, the resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor. PMUs are considered to be one of the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems, a PMU can be a dedicated device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device. In 1893, Charles Proteus Steinmetz presented a paper on simplified mathematical description of the waveforms of alternating current electricity, Steinmetz called his representation a phasor. With the invention of phasor measurement units in 1988 by Dr. Arun G. Phadke and we therefore refer to synchronized phasor measurements as synchrophasors. Early prototypes of the PMU were built at Virginia Tech, with the growth of increasingly more distributed energy resources on the power grid, more observability and controls systems will be needed to monitor power flow. Historically, power has been delivered in a uni-directional fashion through passive components to customers, a PMU can measure 50/60 Hz AC waveforms typically at a rate of 48 samples per cycle. The analog AC waveforms are digitized by a converter for each phase. A phase-locked oscillator along with a Global Positioning System reference source provides the needed high-speed synchronized sampling with 1 microsecond accuracy, however, PMUs can take in multiple time sources including non-GPS references as long as they are all calibrated and working synchronously. The resultant time-stamped phasors can be transmitted to a local or remote receiver at rates up to 120 samples per second, historically, only small numbers of PMUs have been used to monitor transmission lines with acceptable errors of around 1%. These were simply coarser devices were installed to prevent catastrophic blackouts, now, with the invention of micro-synchronous phasor technology, many more of them are desired to be installed on distribution networks where power can be monitored at a very high degree of precision. This high degree of precision creates the ability to improve system visibility and implement smart. No longer are PMUs just required at sub-stations, but are required at several places in the network including tap-changing transformers, complex loads, a phasor is a complex number that represents both the magnitude and phase angle of the sine waves found in electricity. Phasor measurements that occur at the time are called synchrophasors. While it is commonplace for the terms PMU and synchrophasor to be used interchangeably they actually represent two separate technical meanings, a synchrophasor is the metered value whereas the PMU is the metering device. Synchrophasor technology provides a tool for system operators and planners to measure the state of the electrical system, PMUs measure voltages and currents at principal intersecting locations on a power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and current phasors. Because these phasors are truly synchronized, synchronized comparison of two quantities is possible in real time and these comparisons can be used to assess system conditions-such as, frequency changes, MW, MVARs, kVolts, etc. The monitored points are preselected through various studies to make extremely accurate phase angle measurements to indicate shifts in system stability, the phasor data is collected either on-site or at centralized locations using Phasor Data Concentrator technologies
Phasor measurement unit
–
Using a PMU, it is simple to detect abnormal waveform shapes. A waveform shape described mathematically is called a phasor.
17.
Steinmetz solid
–
In geometry, the Steinmetz solid is the solid body generated by the intersection of two or three cylinders of equal radius at right angles. It is named after Charles Proteus Steinmetz, though these solids were known long before Steinmetz studied them, if two cylinders are intersected, the overlap is called a bicylinder or mouhefanggai. It can be seen topologically as a square hosohedron, if three cylinders are intersected, then the overlap is called a tricylinder. The bicylinder is topologically equivalent to the square hosohedron, Archimedes and Zu Chongzhi calculated the volume of a bicylinder in which both cylinders have radius r. It is 163 r 3 The volume of the two intersecting cylinders can be calculated by subtracting the volume of the overlap from the volume of the two cylinders added together, deriving the volume of a bicylinder can be done by packing it in a cube. A plane intersecting the bicylinder forms a square and its intersection with the cube is a larger square, the difference between the areas of the two squares is the same as 4 small squares. Moving the plane through the whole bicylinder describes a total of 8 pyramids, the volume of the cube minus the volume of the eight pyramids is the volume of the bicylinder. The surface of the consists of four cylindrical patches, separated by four curves each of which is half of an ellipse. The four patches and four separating curves all meet at two opposite vertices, a bisected bicylinder is called a vault, and a cloister vault in architecture has this shape. The tricylinder has fourteen vertices connected by elliptical arcs in a pattern combinatorially equivalent to the rhombic dodecahedron and its volume is r 3 and its surface area is 3 r 2. The surface area of the bicylinder and Archimedes Method, moore, M. Symmetrical intersections of right circular cylinders. A 3D model of Steinmetz solid in Google 3D Warehouse Weisstein, Eric W. Steinmetz Solid
Steinmetz solid
–
Zu Chongzhi's method (similar to
Cavalieri's principle) for calculating a sphere's volume includes calculating the volume of a bicylinder.
18.
Transmission line
–
This article covers two-conductor transmission line such as parallel line, coaxial cable, stripline, and microstrip. Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current, such as power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second. However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the frequency range, above about 30 kHz, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves. Radio frequency currents tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints. These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power from reaching the destination, Transmission lines use specialized construction, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses. Types of transmission line include parallel line, coaxial cable, and planar transmission lines such as stripline, the higher the frequency of electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter the wavelength of the waves. Transmission lines become necessary when the length of the cable is longer than a significant fraction of the transmitted frequencys wavelength. At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive, and waveguides are used instead, some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line, however, this article will not include them. At even higher frequencies, in the terahertz, infrared and light range, waveguides in turn become lossy, mathematical analysis of the behaviour of electrical transmission lines grew out of the work of James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Oliver Heaviside. In 1855 Lord Kelvin formulated a model of the current in a submarine cable. The model correctly predicted the performance of the 1858 trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cable. In 1885 Heaviside published the first papers that described his analysis of propagation in cables, in many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can for the most part be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a time can be assumed to be the same at all points. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important when the signal frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable to or less than the length of the wire. A common rule of thumb is that the cable or wire should be treated as a line if the length is greater than 1/10 of the wavelength. If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is described by a single parameter called the characteristic impedance. This is the ratio of the voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z0 are 50 or 75 ohms for a cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires
Transmission line
–
One of the most common types of transmission line,
coaxial cable.
Transmission line
–
A simple example of stepped transmission line consisting of three segments.
Transmission line
–
The impedance transformation circle along a transmission line whose characteristic impedance Z 0,i is smaller than that of the input cable Z 0. And as a result, the impedance curve is off-centred towards the -x axis. Conversely, if Z 0,i > Z 0, the impedance curve should be off-centred towards the +x axis.
Transmission line
–
A type of transmission line called a cage line, used for high power, low frequency applications. It functions similarly to a large coaxial cable. This example is the antenna
feedline for a
longwave radio transmitter in
Poland, which operates at a frequency of 225 kHz and a power of 1200 kW.
19.
Wireless power
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Wireless power is a generic term that refers to a number of different power transmission technologies that use time-varying electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic fields. Wireless transmission is useful to power devices in cases where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous. Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories, non-radiative and radiative, a current focus is to develop wireless systems to charge mobile and handheld computing devices such as cellphones, digital music players and portable computers without being tethered to a wall plug. In far-field or radiative techniques, also called power beaming, power is transferred by beams of electromagnetic radiation and these techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar power satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft, an important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of people and other living things to potentially injurious electromagnetic fields. Wireless power transfer is a term that refers to a number of different technologies for transmitting energy by means of electromagnetic fields. At the transmitter the input power is converted to an electromagnetic field by some type of antenna device. A similar antenna or coupling device at the receiver converts the oscillating fields to an electric current, an important parameter that determines the type of waves is the frequency f in hertz of the oscillations. The frequency determines the wavelength λ = c/f of the waves carry the energy across the gap. In wireless communication technologies, generally, only tiny amounts of power reach the receiver, in contrast, with wireless power the amount of energy received is the important thing, so the efficiency is the more significant parameter. For this reason, wireless technologies are likely to be more limited by distance than wireless communication technologies. These are the different wireless power technologies, Electric and magnetic fields are created by charged particles in such as electrons. A stationary charge creates a field in the space around it. A steady current of charges creates a magnetic field around it. The above fields contain energy, but cannot carry power because they are static, however time-varying fields can carry power. Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in a current of electrons in a wire. These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in an antenna, causing them to move back. These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields surrounding moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance Drange from the antenna
Wireless power
–
Inductive charging pad for LG smartphone, using the
Qi system, an example of near-field wireless transfer. When the phone is set on the pad, a coil in the pad creates a magnetic field which induces a current in another coil, in the phone, charging its battery.
Wireless power
–
(left) Modern inductive power transfer, an electric toothbrush charger. A coil in the stand produces a magnetic field, inducing an AC current in a coil in the toothbrush, which is rectified to charge the batteries. (right) A light bulb powered wirelessly by induction, in 1910.
Wireless power
Wireless power
–
Prototype inductive electric car charging system at 2011 Tokyo Auto Show
20.
Elliott Cresson Medal
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The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
Elliott Cresson Medal
–
Elliott Cresson Medal given to
Emile Berliner in 1913
21.
Union College
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Union College is a private, non-denominational liberal arts college located in Schenectady, New York, United States. Founded in 1795, it was the first institution of higher learning chartered by the New York State Board of Regents, in the 19th century, it became the Mother of Fraternities, as three of the earliest such organizations were established there. After 175 years as a traditional institution, Union College began enrolling women in 1970. The college offers an arts curriculum across some 21 academic departments, as well as opportunities for interdepartmental majors. Approximately 25% of students major in the sciences, 10% in psychology, 11% in engineering, 10% in biology, 9% in history. By the time they graduate, about 60% of Union students will have engaged in some form of study or study abroad. Places of higher learning were few in the days of the Americas. Officially chartered in 1795, Union can trace its beginnings to 1779, by 1799, another 16 surviving colleges had been chartered or founded in the United States, to bring the total to 25 at the end of the 18th century. But, in the years between the American Revolution and Civil War, the foundations of 182 permanent colleges were laid in the United States. Hundreds more were born but proved short-lived, largely because of financial limitations, of the 182 colleges and universities founded in those years, well over a hundred appeared outside the original thirteen colonies. Union College, like many of these, was founded in what was nearly a wilderness, in the town of Schenectady, New York on the Mohawk River, at the time, the town had fewer than 4,000 residents. The cities of Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo did not yet exist, and western New York was very sparsely settled, Unions charter was 16 years in the making. Even before the Revolution had ended, a new rising democratic tide was overtaking the colonists, the old ways, and in particular the old purposes and structure of higher education, were being pushed aside. Practical education for the new man of commerce and politics was the new desire, not just classical education for the professions, every hamlet and rude settlement aspired to become an Athens of the West, and Schenectady was no exception. The Mohawk and Hudson River regions were for the most part dominated by the Dutch in those years, Queens College, while intended in part to provide a classical education, had also been founded specifically to train ministers in the Dutch Reformed Church. This has been said by some to be the first expression in America of a demand for higher education. This petition, along with a one in 1782, failed in its purpose. In the meantime, the Dutch Church continued to show an interest in establishing an academy or college under its control in Schenectady
Union College
–
The Schenectady Academy (Old Union College), 1795
Union College
–
Seal of Union College
Union College
–
The Seal of
Union University (New York) on the Exterior Wall of the
University Club of New York in Manhattan
Union College
–
Minerva as the Patroness of American Liberty (1791) by
Giuseppe Ceracchi
22.
Electrical machine
–
In electrical engineering, electric machine is a general term for electric motors and electric generators and other electromagnetic machines. They are electromechanical energy converters, an electric motor converts electricity to power while an electric generator converts mechanical power to electricity. The moving parts in a machine can be rotating or linear, electric machines, in the form of generators, produce virtually all electric power on Earth, and in the form of electric motors consume approximately 60% of all electric power produced. Electric machines were developed beginning in the mid 19th century and since that time have been a component of the infrastructure. Developing more efficient electric machine technology is crucial to any global conservation, green energy, when classifying electric machines it is reasonable to start with physical principle for converting electric energy to mechanical energy. If the controller is included as a part of the machine all machines can be powered by alternating or direct current. Classification is complicated by the possibilities of combining physical principles when constructing an electrical machine and it can, for example, be possible to run a brushed machine as a reluctance machine if the rotor iron has the correct shape. Generally, electric machines can be turned out, so that rotor and stator exchange roles. All rotating electric machines have an equivalent linear electric machine where the moves along a straight line instead of rotating. The opposite—linear to rotary dual—is not always the case, electric machines can be synchronous meaning that the magnetic field set up by the stator coils rotates with the same speed as the rotor, or asynchronous, meaning that there is a speed difference. PM machines and reluctance machines are always synchronous, induction machines are usually asynchronous, but can be synchronous, if there are superconductors in the rotor windings. An electric generator is a device that converts energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons to flow through an electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a pump, which creates a flow of water. The two main parts of a machine can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms. In mechanical terms, the rotor is the part. In electrical terms, the armature is the component and the field is the magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, the magnetic field can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator
Electrical machine
–
Electric generator.
Electrical machine
–
Electric motor.
Electrical machine
–
Transformer.
23.
Mohawk River
–
The Mohawk River is a 149-mile-long river in the U. S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River, the Mohawk flows into the Hudson in the Capital District, a few miles north of the city of Albany. The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy and it is a major waterway in north-central New York. The river and its canal, the Erie Canal, connect the Hudson River and port of New York with the Great Lakes at Buffalo. The lower part of the Mohawk River has five permanent dams, nine movable dams, Schoharie Creek and West Canada Creek are the principal tributaries of the Mohawk River. Both of these tributaries have several significant dams including the Hinckley Dam on the West Canada, the Gilboa Dam, which was completed in 1926 as part of the New York City water supply system, is the subject of an active and aggressive rehabilitation project. The Mohawk Valley allowed easier passage than going over the mountains to the north or south of the valley, as a result, it was strategically important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, and a number of important battles were fought here. The fertile Mohawk Valley also attracted early settlers, in the early nineteenth century water transport was a vital means of transporting both people and goods. A corporation was formed to build the Erie Canal off the Mohawk River to Lake Erie, the canal cut shipping costs to Lake Erie by 95%. It also simplified and reduced the difficulties of westward settler migration, the Mohawk Valley still plays an important role in transportation. Railroads followed the Water Level Route, as did major east-west roads such as Route 5, the Mohawk River Heritage Corridor Commission was created to preserve and promote the natural and historic assets of the Mohawk River. This commission was created by the NY State Legislature in 1997 to improve historic preservation along the river, the Mohawk watershed drains a large section of the Catskill Mountains, the Mohawk Valley proper, and a section of the southern Adirondack Mountains. All three regions have distinct geology, and the underlying rocks become progressively younger to the south. Overall, this part of New York is represented by lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that overlie the Grenville-aged metamorphic rocks of the Adirondacks. In the watershed, these rocks are only significant in the headwaters of the West Canada Creek, much of the main trunk of the Mohawk River sits in Cambro-Ordovician carbonates and Middle Ordovician sandstones and shales. The southern tributaries are underlain by a sequence of Devonian limestones that are overlain by a thick sequence of sandstones and shale of the Catskill Delta. During the Pleistocene, the watershed was extensively modified by continental glaciation, as a result of glacial scour and deposition, the surficial deposits in much of the watershed are poorly sorted boulder- and clay-rich glacial till. During deglaciation, several glacial lakes left varved clay deposits, in the final stages of deglaciation, approximately 13,350 years ago, the catastrophic draining of Glacial Lake Iroquois, a pro-glacial lake, was through what would become the modern Mohawk Valley
Mohawk River
–
Cohoes Falls, near the eastern end of the Mohawk River in
Cohoes,
New York
Mohawk River
–
Hudson River watershed map showing the Mohawk River
Mohawk River
–
As the
Laurentian Glacier retreated, it blocked the outflow of
Glacial Lake Iroquois. Instead of flowing down the
St Lawrence Valley it flowed down the Mohawk River.
24.
Prussia
–
Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
Prussia
–
... during the
Renaissance period
Prussia
–
Flag (1892–1918)
Prussia
–
... according to the design of 1702
Prussia
–
Prussian King's Crown (
Hohenzollern Castle Collection)
25.
Gymnasium (school)
–
In its current meaning, it usually refers to secondary schools focused on preparing students to enter a university for advanced academic study. In the US, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of universities such as the University of Michigan as a model for their undergraduate college programs. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men, in the Polish educational system the gimnazjum is a middle school for pupils aged 13 to 16. The same applies in the Greek educational system, with the option of Εσπερινό Γυμνάσιο for adults. The gymnasium is a school which prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out at about the age of 10–13, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some gymnasiums provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro indicates that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. The term was derived from the classical Greek word gymnasion, which was applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with. This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, in 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered that all schools which had the right to send their students to the university should bear the name of gymnasia, by the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires. In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of three empires. In Albania a gymnasium education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with an aptitude test called Matura Shtetërore. The final test is standardized at the level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. There are both public and private schools in these countries. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, in Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin, the Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages
Gymnasium (school)
–
Stiftsgymnasium Melk, oldest Austrian school
Gymnasium (school)
–
Archdiocesan Classical Gymnasium in
Zagreb,
Croatia
Gymnasium (school)
–
New campus of
Serbian Orthodox Secondary School "Kantakuzina Katarina Branković" in
Zagreb,
Croatia
Gymnasium (school)
–
Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren – picture showing church and courtyard
26.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
Mathematics
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by
Raphael in this detail from
The School of Athens.
Mathematics
–
Greek mathematician
Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the
Pythagorean theorem
Mathematics
–
Leonardo Fibonacci, the
Italian mathematician who established the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World
Mathematics
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
27.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
28.
Socialism
–
Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
Socialism
–
Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker
Socialism
–
The celebration of the election of the Commune, 28 March 1871. The
Paris Commune was a major early implementation of socialist ideas
Socialism
–
G. D. H. Cole, English socialist theorist who was a member of the
Fabian Society as well as the main theorist of
guild socialism
Socialism
–
Leon Trotsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Lev Kamenev at the Second Communist Party Congress, 1919.
29.
Proteus
–
In Greek mythology, Proteus is an early sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic bodies of water, one of several deities whom Homer calls the Old Man of the Sea. Some who ascribe to him a specific domain call him the god of sea change. He can foretell the future, but, in a familiar to several cultures, will change his shape to avoid having to. From this feature of Proteus comes the adjective protean, with the meaning of versatile, mutable, capable of assuming many forms. Protean has positive connotations of flexibility, versatility and adaptability, Proteus name suggests the first, as protogonos is the primordial or the firstborn. It is not certain to what this refers, but in myths where he is the son of Poseidon, it refers to his being Poseidons eldest son, older than Poseidons other son. The first attestation of the name, although it is not certain whether it refers to the god or just a person, is in Mycenaean Greek, the attested form, in Linear B, is
Proteus
–
Characters
Proteus
–
Proteus as envisioned by
Andrea Alciato
30.
Odyssey
–
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the Odyssey is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second-oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad is the oldest. Scholars believe the Odyssey was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the poem mainly focuses on the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. In his absence, it is assumed Odysseus has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of suitors, the Mnesteres or Proci. The Odyssey continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into languages around the world. Many scholars believe the poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode. The details of the ancient oral performance and the conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a dialect of Greek—a literary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek. Among the most noteworthy elements of the text are its non-linear plot, in the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which was not written by Homer and it was usually attributed in antiquity to Cinaethon of Sparta. In one source, the Telegony was said to have stolen from Musaeus by either Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene. The Odyssey begins ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War, and Odysseus has still not returned home from the war. Odysseus protectress, the goddess Athena, requests to Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Odysseus enemy, then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, they observe the suitors dining rowdily while the bard Phemius performs a poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius theme, the Return from Troy, because it reminds her of her missing husband and that night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompanied by Athena, he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos
Odyssey
–
Charles Gleyre,
Odysseus and
Nausicaä
Odyssey
–
Greek text of the Odyssey' s opening passage
Odyssey
–
Odysseus Overcome by
Demodocus ' Song, by
Francesco Hayez, 1813–15
Odyssey
–
Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of the
Siren Painter, ca. 480-470 BC, (
British Museum)
