1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
Airline hub
–
Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
Airline hub
–
Frankfurt Airport serves as a hub city for
Lufthansa and receives flights from
Star Alliance carriers, among other airlines.
3.
Air France
–
Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
Air France
–
The inauguration of the Aérogare des Invalides on 21 August 1951
Air France
–
Air France
Douglas DC-3 at
Manchester Airport in 1952
Air France
–
Lockheed Super Constellation of Air France at London (Heathrow) Airport in April 1955
Air France
–
Passengers disembarking from a Sud-Est SE-161
4.
Focus city
–
In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
Focus city
–
Kuala Lumpur is
AirAsia 's hub, with
Kota Kinabalu,
Penang, and
Kuching as mini hubs or focus cities.
5.
Vueling
–
Vueling Airlines, S. A. is a Spanish low-cost airline based at El Prat de Llobregat in Greater Barcelona with hubs in Barcelona–El Prat Airport and Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport in Rome, Italy. Its name comes from the Spanish word vuelo, which means flight, there are thirteen additional bases at A Coruña, Alicante, Amsterdam, Bilbao, Brussels, Florence, Madrid, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca, Paris-Orly, Santiago de Compostela, Seville and Valencia. A fifteenth summer seasonal base is located at Ibiza, Vueling serves over 100 destinations in Africa, Asia and Europe and is currently the second largest airline in Spain. In 2014, the airline carried more than 17.2 million passengers, Vueling was established in February 2004 and commenced operations on 1 July 2004 with a flight between Barcelona and Ibiza. The initial fleet consisted of two Airbus A320 aircraft, based in Barcelona serving Brussels, Ibiza, Palma de Mallorca, the name Vueling was formed by combining the Spanish word vuelo with the English gerund suffix -ing. Initially, major shareholders of Vueling Airlines were Apax Partners, Inversiones Hemisferio, Vuelings management team, during its nascent stages, the companys general manager was Lázaro Ros, while Carlos Muñoz was CEO. In November 2007, Vueling appointed managing director of Spanair Lars Nygaard as CEO to replace Carlos Muñoz, Madrid was added as the airlines second base in 2005, followed by its first base outside Spain at Paris Charles de Gaulle in 2007. 2007 was a year for Vueling, Apax Partners sold its then-21% stake in the carrier in June of that year. Two company directors and the chairman resigned shortly before the second warning, citing differences over commercial strategy. Shares in the company were also temporarily suspended and this led to Barbara Cassani, former Chief Executive of UK low-cost airline Go, joining Vueling as chairman of the board in September 2007. The airline then embarked on an exercise and posted its first profit in mid-2009. In June 2008, Vueling and rival Spanish low cost airline Clickair announced their intention to merge, the merger was designed to create a carrier better able to compete in the competitive Spanish airline market and mitigate high fuel costs with Iberia as the main industrial partner. While the new company would trade under the Vueling name, Clickairs Alex Cruz was named as chief executive, the deal was subject to scrutiny and approval by European competition regulators, who were concerned that the merged airline would have a significant competitive advantage on around 19 routes. The regulators demanded the release of slots at Barcelona and other European airports as a condition of the merger, on 15 July 2009 the merger of Vueling and Clickair was completed. The new merged airline operates under the Vueling brand, with Clickair flights and it became the second largest Spanish carrier flying 8.2 million passengers in 2009, to almost 50 destinations. In 2009, Vueling for the year running co-operated with MTV during the summer season. Two of Vuelings A320 aircraft were re-painted into MTV liveries with some MTV styling on-board too, the designs of both liveries were created by Custo Dalmau and both liveries were removed at the end of 2009. In November 2010, Vueling announced a new base at Toulouse Airport in France from April 2011, followed in December 2010 by the announcement of a new base in Amsterdam, the Toulouse base opened on 23 April 2011, but has since closed
Vueling
–
Vueling's head office in El Prat de Llobregat, Spain
Vueling
–
Vueling
Vueling
–
MTV Livery
Airbus A320-214 at
Paris-Charles de Gaulle, France (2008)
Vueling
–
Vueling A320-232 with
Sharklets takes off from
Rome-Fiumicino, Italy (2013)
6.
Norwegian Air Shuttle
–
The airline is known for its distinctive livery of white with a red nose, with individual portraits of noteworthy Scandinavians on the tail fins of its aircraft. Norwegian launched its operation in May 2013. Norwegian Air Shuttle was founded on 22 January 1993 to take over the regional airline services produced by Busy Bee for Braathens in Western Norway, Busy Bee, founded in 1966, was a subsidiary of Braathens that operated a fleet of Fokker 50 aircraft on charter services. This included the network of services between cities on the west coast of Norway operated on wet lease for the mother company. The company was established and owned by former Busy Bee employees and it was based in Bergen, but later established a technical base in Stavanger. From 1 April 1994, the airline began service from Bergen to Ålesund Airport. In 1995, the received its fourth Fokker 50s, and had a revenue of NOK86.6 million. By 1999, the company had six Fokker 50s and flew 500,000 passengers on 20,000 flights, the company had a revenue of NOK172 million and a profit of NOK13 million. On 2 June 2000, NAS bought the helicopter operator Lufttransport from Helikopter Service, in 2000, the NAS fleet was expanded to seven Fokker 50s. From 2 January 2001, several Braathens routes were terminated, including the NAS-operated services from Kristiansund to Trondheim, the route from Bergen to Haugesund, and Bergen–Molde–Trondheim were reduced. On 7 January 2002, NAS took over the responsibility for the route from Stavanger to Newcastle and this was the first route on which the airline did not wet lease the aircraft to Braathens, but instead operated the route in its own right. NAS had an 18-month cancellation period in its contract with Braathens, however this was not respected by SAS, from 1 September 2002, the airline re-branded as Norwegian. The airline opened its hub at Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport in Poland. There were two Boeing 737 operating from Warsaw, the base was closed in 2010. Norwegian Air Shuttle ASA announced 24 April 2007 that it had bought 100% of the Swedish low-cost airline FlyNordic from Finnair plc, as payment for the shares in FlyNordic, Finnair received a 5% share stake in Norwegian. On 30 August 2007, Norwegian ordered 42 new Boeing 737-800 aircraft, with options for 42 more and this order was later increased by six aircraft in November 2009. In July 201015 of the options were converted to orders, additionally, Norwegian introduced leased Boeing 737-800 aircraft into the fleet. The first leased 737-800 arrived at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, Norway, in April 2010, Norwegian started flights from Oslo-Gardermoen and Stockholm to Helsinki-Vantaa Airport
Norwegian Air Shuttle
–
A
Fokker 50 operated by Norwegian Air Shuttle in 1999
Norwegian Air Shuttle
–
The routes operated on behalf of Braathens in Western Norway during the 1990s
Norwegian Air Shuttle
–
Boeing 737-300 taxiing to the runway, with Henrik Ibsen fin
Norwegian Air Shuttle
–
Norwegian previously operated seven
McDonnell Douglas MD-80 inherited from
FlyNordic
7.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
8.
Runway
–
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
Runway
–
A runway at
Brussels Airport
Runway
–
Runway of
Chennai International Airport,
Chennai, India
Runway
–
Runways at
Stockholm-Arlanda Airport
Runway
–
Runway sign at
Madrid-Barajas Airport, Spain
9.
Asphalt
–
Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
Asphalt
–
Natural asphalt/bitumen from the
Dead Sea
Asphalt
–
refined asphalt/bitumen
Asphalt
–
The University of Queensland
pitch drop experiment, demonstrating the
viscosity of asphalt/bitumen
Asphalt
–
Bituminous outcrop of the Puy de la Poix,
Clermont-Ferrand, France
10.
International airport
–
An international airport is an airport that offers customs and immigration facilities for passengers travelling between countries. International airports often also host domestic flights, some, such as Frankfurt Airport in Germany are very large, others such as Faaā International Airport in Tahiti, are quite small. Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid 20th century, detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of passengers and flights are among the most complex. In August 1919, Hounslow Heath Aerodrome, in London, England was the first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services and it was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920. In the United States, Douglas Municipal Airport in Arizona became the first international airport of the Americas in 1928, the precursors to international airports were airfields or aerodromes. In the early days of international flights, there was limited infrastructure, four-engined land planes being unavailable for over-water operations to international destinations, thus/therefore flying boats became part of the solution. At the far end of the longest international route, on-water landing areas were found in such as Surabaya. In Sydney, Rose Bay, New South Wales, was chosen as the landing area. International airports sometimes serve military as well as commercial purposes and their viability is also affected by technological developments, other international airports, such as Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong, have been decommissioned and replaced when they reached capacity or technological advances rendered them inadequate. Airports may also be regarded as emblematic of national pride and so the design may be architecturally ambitious, an example is the planned New Mexico City international airport, intended to replace an airport that has reached capacity. Airports can be towered or non-towered, depending on air traffic density, because of high capacity and busy airspace, many international airports have air traffic control located on site. Construction of the expressway included the construction of two bridges and the Ma Wan viaduct on Ma Wan island to connect the bridges, each bridge carries rail and automobile traffic. International airports have commercial relationships with and provide services to airlines, many also serve as hubs, or places where non-direct flights may land and passengers may switch planes, while others serve primarily direct point-to-point flights. This affects airport design factors, including the number and placement of terminals as well as the flow of passengers, an airport specializing in point-to-point transit can have international and domestic terminals, each in their separate building equipped with separate baggage handling facilities. In a hub airport, however, spaces and services are shared, technical standards for safety and operating procedures at international airports are set by international agreements. The International Air Transport Association, formed in 1945, is the association of the airline companies, the International Civil Aviation Organization is a body of the United Nations succeeding earlier international committees going back to 1903. These two organizations served to create regulations over airports which the airports themselves had no authority to debate and this eventually sparked an entire subject of air travel politics
International airport
–
An aerial photograph of
San Francisco International Airport at night, showing departure gates radiating out from the
terminal building,
aerobridges,
apron and parked planes (2005)
International airport
–
Qantas Empire Airways International flying boat services arriving at
Rose Bay, Sydney (c.1939)
International airport
–
Airports have to be designed to fit into the landscape (
Nouméa Magenta Airport)
International airport
–
A
flight information display system screen at
Charles de Gaulle Airport 's Terminal 2 showing flight arrivals
11.
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles de Gaulle in 1961
Charles de Gaulle
–
De Gaulle's birth house in
Lille, now a national museum
Charles de Gaulle
–
A plaque in
Dinant commemorating the place where Charles de Gaulle, then an infantry lieutenant, was wounded while crossing the
Meuse in 1914
Charles de Gaulle
–
Charles de Gaulle (far right) with
Andrew McNaughton,
Władysław Sikorski, and
Winston Churchill
12.
Free France
–
It was set up in London in June 1940 and also organised and supported the Resistance in occupied France. On 27 October 1940, the Empire Defense Council was constituted to organise the rule of the territories in central Africa and it was replaced on 24 September 1941 by the French National Committee. After the reconquest of North Africa, this was in turn merged with de Gaulles rival general Henri Girauds command in Algiers to form the French Committee of National Liberation. Exile officially ended with the capture of Paris by the 2nd Armoured Free French Division and Resistance forces on 25 August 1944, the Free French fought Axis and Vichy regime troops and served on battlefronts everywhere from the Middle East to Indochina and North Africa. The Free French Navy operated as a force to the Royal Navy and, in the North Atlantic. Free French units also served in the Royal Air Force, Soviet Air Force, the French Army of Africa switched allegiance to Free France, and this caused the Axis to occupy Vichy in reaction. On 1 August 1943, LArmée dAfrique was formally united with the Free French Forces to form LArmée française de la Liberation. By mid-1944, the forces of this army numbered more than 400,000, and they participated in the Normandy landings, the Free French government re-established a provisional republic after the liberation, preparing the ground for the Fourth Republic in 1946. Historically, an individual became Free French by enlisting in the military units organised by the CFN or by employment by the arm of the Committee. In many sources, Free French describes any French individual or unit that fought against Axis forces after the June 1940 armistice, postwar, to settle disputes over the Free French heritage, the French government issued an official definition of the term. Under this ministerial instruction of July 1953, only those who served with the Allies after the Franco-German armistice in 1940, between 27 May and 4 June, around 200,000 British soldiers and 140,000 French troops were evacuated from the beaches to safety in England. General Charles de Gaulle was a minister in the French cabinet during the Battle of France, as France was overwhelmed by the stunning German victory, he found himself part of a small group of politicians who argued against a negotiated surrender to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. That same day, the new French President of the Council, former First World War Marshal Philippe Pétain, De Gaulle briefly travelled to Bordeaux to continue the fight but, realising that Pétain would surrender, he returned to London on 17 June. On 18 June, General de Gaulle spoke to the French people via BBC radio, urging French soldiers, sailors and airmen to join in the fight against the Nazis and she has a great empire behind her. Together with the British Empire, she can form a bloc that controls the seas and she may, like England, draw upon the limitless industrial resources of the United States. In Vichys case those reasons were compounded with ideas of a Révolution nationale about stamping out Frances republican heritage. On 22 June 1940, Marshall Pétain signed an armistice with Germany, followed by a one with Italy on 24 June. After a parliamentary vote on 10 July, Pétain became leader of the newly established authoritarian regime known as Vichy France, despite de Gaulles call to continue the struggle, few French forces, at least initially, pledged their support
Free France
–
Commemorative medal for voluntary service in Free France
Free France
–
Flag
Free France
–
Charles de Gaulle was an armoured division commander and a minister in the
Reynaud government during the
Battle of France.
Free France
–
In
Occupied France during the war, reproductions of the
18 June appeal were distributed through underground means as pamphlets and plastered on walls as posters by supporters of the
Résistance. This could be a dangerous activity.
13.
French Fifth Republic
–
The Fifth Republic, Frances current republican system of government, was established by Charles de Gaulle under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic on 4 October 1958. De Gaulle, who was the first president elected under the Fifth Republic in December 1958, believed in a head of state. The Fifth Republic is Frances third-longest political regime, after the hereditary and feudal monarchies of the Ancien Régime, the trigger for the collapse of the French Fourth Republic was the Algiers crisis of 1958. France was still a power, although conflict and revolt had begun the process of decolonization. French West Africa, French Indochina, and French Algeria still sent representatives to the French parliament under systems of limited suffrage in the French Union, Algeria in particular, despite being the colony with the largest French population, saw rising pressure for separation from the Metropole. The situation was complicated by those in Algeria, such as white settlers, the Algerian War was not just a separatist movement but had elements of a civil war. Further complications came when a section of the French Army rebelled, Charles de Gaulle, who had retired from politics a decade before, placed himself in the midst of the crisis, calling on the nation to suspend the government and create a new constitutional system. The Fourth Republic suffered from a lack of consensus, a weak executive. With no party or coalition able to sustain a parliamentary majority, De Gaulle and his supporters proposed a system of strong presidents elected for seven-year terms. The President under the constitution would have executive powers to run the country in consultation with a prime minister whom he would appoint. These plans were approved by more than 80% of those who voted in the referendum of 28 September 1958, the new constitution was signed into law on 4 October 1958. Since each new constitution established a new republic, France moved from the Fourth to the Fifth Republic, the new constitution contained transitional clauses extending the period of rule by decree until the new institutions were operating. René Coty remained President of the Republic until the new president was proclaimed, on 21 December 1958, Charles de Gaulle was elected President of France by an electoral college. The provisional constitutional commission, acting in lieu of the Constitutional Council, the new president began his office on that date, appointing Michel Debré as Prime Minister. The 1958 constitution also replaced the French Union with the French Community,1960 became known as the Year of Africa because of this wave of newly independent states. Algeria became independent on 5 July 1962, the president was initially elected by an electoral college, but in 1962 de Gaulle proposed that the president be directly elected by the citizens, and held a referendum on the change. Although the method and intent of de Gaulle in that referendum were contested by most political groups except for the Gaullists, the Constitutional Council declined to rule on the constitutionality of the referendum. Two major changes occurred in the 1970s regarding constitutional checks and balances, traditionally, France operated according to parliamentary supremacy, no authority was empowered to rule on whether statutes passed by Parliament respected the constitutional rights of the citizens
French Fifth Republic
–
Charles de Gaulle 1890–1970 served 1959–1969
French Fifth Republic
–
Flag
French Fifth Republic
–
Alain Poher 1909–1996 served 1969, 1974 (as interim)
French Fifth Republic
–
Georges Pompidou 1911–1974 served 1969–1974
14.
President of France
–
The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
President of France
–
Presidential emblem
President of France
President of France
–
Incumbent
François Hollande since 15 May 2012
15.
Communes of France
–
The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them
Communes of France
–
Road sign marking the end of the village of
Y in the
Somme department of
Picardy
Communes of France
–
Map of the 36,569 communes of metropolitan France
Communes of France
–
Mittelhausbergen in
Alsace
Communes of France
–
Vacqueyras in
Provence, showing double French/
Provençal name
16.
SkyTeam
–
Founded in June 2000, SkyTeam was the last of the three major airline alliances to be formed, the first two being Star Alliance and Oneworld. As of March 2014, SkyTeam consists of 20 carriers from five continents and it also operates a cargo alliance named SkyTeam Cargo, which partners ten carriers, all of them SkyTeam members. Its centralised management team, SkyTeam Central, is based at the World Trade Center Schiphol Airport on the grounds of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Haarlemmermeer, Netherlands. In terms of passengers, with 665.4 million carried passengers, SkyTeam has grown and is now the largest alliance in the world ahead of Star Alliance. In 2004, the alliance had its biggest expansion when Continental Airlines, Northwest Airlines, garuda Indonesia entered the alliance in March 2014. As of March 2014, SkyTeam flies to more than 1,000 destinations in 178 countries and operates some 15,700 daily flights with a fleet of over 4,400 aircraft. The alliance and its members have a workforce of 459,781, furthermore. On 22 June 2000, representatives of Aeroméxico, Air France, Delta Air Lines and these became the four founding carriers of SkyTeam. Upon its formation, SkyTeam would offer its customers a total of 6,402 daily flights to 451 destinations in 98 countries, in September 2000, the alliance established a cargo alliance, SkyTeam Cargo. The groups inaugural members were Aeromexpress, Air France Cargo, Delta Air Logistics, the following month, the newly established airline alliance announced its intentions to incorporate CSA Czech Airlines as the 5th member in April the following year. The alliance saw the joining of CSA Czech Airlines on 25 March 2001, Alitalia entered SkyTeam on 27 July the same year, on 30 September 2001, the alliance received KLMs application for membership, following the airlines plans to create a leading airline group with Air France. In 2003, Deltas subsidiary, Delta Express, was replaced by Song and that same year, SkyTeam also launched an improved website focused on providing passengers with more information, increased interactivity and other resources. On 24 May 2004, Aeroflot, the carrier and principal airline of Russia. The event took place in Kremlin following the airlines application earlier in the year for membership, SkyTeam expressed that Aeroflot has not met the consortiums standards, but that the airlines large hub networks made it ideal for the alliance, and made up for its deficiencies. On 28 August, China Southern Airlines, the largest carrier in the Peoples Republic of China, on 13 September, Continental Airlines, KLM and Northwest Airlines joined the alliance. Their simultaneous entry was the largest expansion event in airline alliance history, every associate adopted a frequent-flyer program of a full member, Copa Airlines already used Continentals OnePass, Kenya Airways and Air Europa used Air France–KLMs Flying Blue. Following a 23-month joining process since May 2004, Aeroflot joined on 14 April 2006 and it was the first Russian airline to be associated with any airline alliance. Aeroflot has increased its operational standards, passing International Air Transport Associations Operational Safety Audit, Deltas subsidiary Song continued to operate as Delta Air Lines
SkyTeam
–
Schiphol World Trade Center, where SkyTeam has its head office
SkyTeam
–
SkyTeam
SkyTeam
–
Aeroflot Airbus A330 departs
London Heathrow Airport, (2014)
SkyTeam
–
Garuda Indonesia
Airbus A330-300 in SkyTeam special livery
17.
Delta Air Lines
–
Delta Air Lines, Inc. is a major American airline, with its headquarters and largest hub at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia. Regional service is operated under the brand name Delta Connection, One of the five remaining legacy carriers, Delta is the sixth-oldest operating airline by foundation date, and the oldest airline still operating in the United States. The companys history can be traced back to Huff Daland Dusters, founded in 1924 in Macon, Georgia as a crop dusting operation. The company moved to Monroe, Louisiana, and was later renamed Delta Air Services, in reference to the nearby Mississippi Delta region, among predecessors of todays Delta Air Lines, Western Airlines and Northwest Airlines began flying passengers in 1926 and 1927, respectively. In 2013, Delta Air Lines was the worlds largest airline in terms of scheduled passengers carried, Delta Air Lines began as a crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Incorporated. The company was founded on May 30,1924 in Macon, Georgia and they flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. Collett E. Woolman, one of the directors, purchased the company on September 13,1928. Service began on June 17,1929 with the flight between Dallas, Texas and Jackson, Mississippi. Delta moved its headquarters to its current location in Atlanta in 1941, and continued to grow through the addition of routes and they replaced propeller planes with jets in the 1960s and entered international competition to Europe in the 1970s and across the Pacific in the 1980s. Deltas more recent history is marked by its emergence from bankruptcy on April 25,2007, the merger was announced April 14,2008, and was set to create the worlds largest airline. After approval of the merger on October 29,2008, Northwest continued to operate as an owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31,2009 when both carriers operating certificates were merged. Delta completed the integration with Northwest on January 31,2010 when their reservation systems and websites were combined, Delta Air Lines as it exists today is the result of numerous mergers over its history. Predecessor carriers forming the current Delta Air Lines include, Chicago, Delta flew under the carrier name of Delta-C&S for the following two years. After successfully introducing 50-seat planes into the United States, it was acquired by Delta in October 1999, Comair became the main carrier of Delta Connection and operated over 400 daily flights from Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport throughout the U. S. Mexico, and Caribbean. Comair ceased operations on September 29,2012, and was folded into Delta Connection operations, Delta Express began service in October 1996 in an attempt by Delta to compete with low cost airlines on leisure-oriented routes. Its main base of operations was Orlando International Airport and it used Boeing 737–200 aircraft and it ceased operations in November 2003 after Song was established. Song began service on April 15,2003 as an airline operated by Delta to compete directly with JetBlue Airways from both airlines hub at New York–JFK. While the brand was considered an addition to the Northeast-to-Florida market
Delta Air Lines
–
Restored Huff-Daland Duster
Delta Air Lines
–
Delta
Douglas DC-7 circa 1955
Delta Air Lines
–
Delta
Boeing 747-100 at
London Heathrow Airport in 1973.
Delta Air Lines
–
A
Northwest Airlines Airbus A330-300, shortly before the merger with Delta in 2008
18.
List of the busiest airports in Europe
–
This is a list of the 100 busiest airports in Europe, ranked by total passengers per year, including both terminal and transit passengers. Data is for 2016 from a variety of sources, normally the national aviation authority statistics, the tables also show the percentage change in total passengers for each airport over the last year. Data is sourced individually for each airport and normally originates from national aviation authority statistics, lists of the rankings for 2015,2014,2013,2012,2011 and 2010 are also presented. European airports are defined as those that are within the airspace of the member and candidate states of The Council of Europe
List of the busiest airports in Europe
–
London Heathrow Airport - Terminal 5, serving
London, United Kingdom
List of the busiest airports in Europe
–
Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport serving
Paris, France
List of the busiest airports in Europe
–
Frankfurt Airport serving
Frankfurt, Germany
List of the busiest airports in Europe
–
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol serving
Amsterdam, Netherlands
19.
London Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
London Heathrow Airport
–
Aerial view of Heathrow Airport
London Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport Heathrow
London Heathrow Airport
–
A
Qantas Boeing 747-400 on approach to London Heathrow 27L runway.
London Heathrow Airport
–
Central waiting area in Terminal 5
20.
Busiest airports in Europe
–
This is a list of the 100 busiest airports in Europe, ranked by total passengers per year, including both terminal and transit passengers. Data is for 2016 from a variety of sources, normally the national aviation authority statistics, the tables also show the percentage change in total passengers for each airport over the last year. Data is sourced individually for each airport and normally originates from national aviation authority statistics, lists of the rankings for 2015,2014,2013,2012,2011 and 2010 are also presented. European airports are defined as those that are within the airspace of the member and candidate states of The Council of Europe
Busiest airports in Europe
–
London Heathrow Airport - Terminal 5, serving
London, United Kingdom
Busiest airports in Europe
–
Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport serving
Paris, France
Busiest airports in Europe
–
Frankfurt Airport serving
Frankfurt, Germany
Busiest airports in Europe
–
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol serving
Amsterdam, Netherlands
21.
Frankfurt Airport
–
Frankfurt Airport is a major international airport located in Frankfurt, the fifth-largest city of Germany and one of the worlds leading financial centres. It is operated by Fraport and serves as the hub for Lufthansa including Lufthansa CityLine and Lufthansa Cargo as well as Condor. The airport is also the 12th busiest worldwide by number of passengers in 2015, with 61.032 million passengers using the airport in 2015. It also had a throughput of 2.076 million metric tonnes in 2015 and is the busiest airport in Europe by cargo traffic. As of summer 2017, Frankfurt Airport serves 293 destinations, making it the airport with the most direct routes in the world, in 2016 passengers at the airport fell 0. 4% to 60,792,308 down from 61.032 million in 2015. Frankfurt Airport lies 12 km southwest of central Frankfurt, near the Autobahn intersection Frankfurter Kreuz, the airport grounds, which form a city district of Frankfurt named Frankfurt-Flughafen, are surrounded by the Frankfurt City Forest. The southern portion of the airport grounds extend partially into the cities of Rüsselsheim am Main and Mörfelden-Walldorf, and a western portion of the grounds lie within the city of Kelsterbach. Thereby, along with a rail and motorway connection, the airport serves as a major transport for the greater region. That section of Rhein-Main later became the base for the Graf Zeppelin, its sister ship LZ-130, the airships were dismantled and their huge hangars demolished on 6 May 1940 during conversion of the base to military use. Luftwaffe engineers subsequently extended the runway and erected hangars and other facilities for German military aircraft. During World War II the Luftwaffe used the field sporadically as a fighter base, on 16 November 1909, the worlds first airline was founded in Frankfurt am Main, The Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft. DELAG then built the first airport in Frankfurt, called Airship Base at Rebstock and it opened in 1912 and was extended after World War I, but in 1924 an experts report already questioned the possibility of further expansions at this location. With the foundation of Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926 a rapid boom of civilian air travel started, plans for a new and larger airport located in the Frankfurt City Forest south-west of Schwanheim were approved in 1930, but were not realised due to the Great Depression. After the Machtergreifung in 1933 the government revived the plans and started the construction of the new airport, on the northern part of the airport originated in 1935 a two-storey station building with a six-storey tower, and other operating and outbuildings for maintenance and storage of aircraft. The approximately 100 hectares runway received a grass cover, the official opening of the new Flug- und Luftschiffhafen Rhein-Main took place on July 8,1936. The first plane that landed was a Ju 52/3m, Six days later,1936800 tons of cargo and 58,000 passengers were transported, in 193770,000 passengers and 966 tons of cargo. In the coming years, the new airport was base of the two largest German airships LZ127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ129 Hindenburg. In 1938 Frankfurt was a distribution point for the transport of airmail to North America
Frankfurt Airport
Frankfurt Airport
–
Frankfurt Airport Flughafen Frankfurt am Main
Frankfurt Airport
–
Rhein-Main Air Base during the
Berlin Airlift
Frankfurt Airport
–
Civil air traffic at Frankfurt Airport in 1951
22.
Departments of France
–
In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
Departments of France
–
Geometrical proposition rejected
Departments of France
–
The 101 departments of France
Departments of France
–
The three Algerian departments in 1848
23.
Seine-et-Marne
–
Seine-et-Marne is a French department, named after the Seine and Marne rivers, and located in the Île-de-France region. Seine-et-Marne is one of the original 83 departments, created on 4 March 1790 and it had previously belonged to the former province of Île-de-France. With 60% of the used as farmland, Seine-et-Marne is where most agricultural activity occurs within the Île-de-France. Cereals and sugar beet are the exports from Seine-et-Marne. The other key structures are the refinery at Grandpuits and the Snecma research plant. The two new towns are the centre of tourism for the department, mainly due to parks such as Disneyland Park. Seine-et-Marne has a temperate Atlantic climate, the average rainfall is based upon that of Fontainebleau, giving an average rainfall of 650 mm, which is higher than the average of Île-de-France. Average temperature in Melun during the 1953–2002 period was 3.2 °C for January and 18.6 °C for July, the storm of 26 December 1999 led to five deaths in Seine-et-Marne and caused several trees to fall. Seine-et-Marne forms a part of the region, the department covers 49% of the regions land area. It is bordered by Val-dOise, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne, Essonne to the West, Loiret and Yonne to the South, Aube and Marne to the East, the department has many natural reserves, notably Brie and Gâtinais. The highest point of the département is Saint-Georges Hill, people from Seine-et-Marne are known as the Seine-et-Marnais. Originally Seine-et-Marne was very rural and lightly populated, over the past 50 years, however, its population has tripled, due to the development of the Paris conurbation and the building of new towns in the northwest of the region. The population was estimated to be 1,267,496 inhabitants in 2006, the region has changed from consisting only of small villages to forming a large part of the Paris conurbation. Seine-et-Marne as a whole shares a sister city relationship with Orlando, Florida, United States, mutualité, assurance et cycles de lincendie
Seine-et-Marne
–
Prefecture building of the Seine-et-Marne department, in Melun
Seine-et-Marne
–
Wheat field near
Saint-Fargeau-Ponthierry
Seine-et-Marne
–
Throne Room in the
Palace of Fontainebleau
Seine-et-Marne
–
The walls of the medieval city of
Provins
24.
Mitry-Mory
–
Mitry-Mory is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the suburbs of Paris 24.4 km from the center just off the N2 national highway. About one-sixth of Charles de Gaulle Airport lies on the territory of the commune of Mitry-Mory—mostly at the end of the runway, the construction of CDG caused the closure of the prewar Mitry-Mory airfield in the late 1960s. It is also a major railroad centre, another very prominent feature is a huge parking lot for such a small commune. Many of the streets and roads are named for people, Mozart, Guy-Lussac, Léon Foucault, Berlioz, Picasso. Mitry-Mory is very convenient to Paris and an expensive place to live for those who work in Paris. It is twinned with the English town of Prudhoe in Northumberland, the commune of Mitry-Mory was created in 1839 by the merger of the commune of Mitry with the commune of Mory. The commune town hall is located in Mitry, the Commune shares an RER station with the neighboring commune of Villeparisis on the RER B line with the Villeparisis – Mitry-le-Neuf station. It is also served by Mitry – Claye station, which is a station on Paris RER line B. The Commune is an important rail center
Mitry-Mory
–
Location (in red) within Paris inner and outer suburbs
25.
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Seine-Saint-Denis is a French department located in the Île-de-France region. Locally, it is referred to colloquially as quatre-vingt treize or neuf trois. The learned and rarely used demonym for the inhabitants is Séquano-Dionysiens, Seine-Saint-Denis is located to the northeast of Paris. It has an area of only 236 km², making it one of the smallest departments in France. Seine-Saint-Denis and two other departments, Hauts-de-Seine and Val-de-Marne, form a ring around Paris, known as the Petite Couronne. They form, together with Paris the Greater Paris since January 1st 2016, Seine-Saint-Denis is made up of three departmental arrondissements and 40 communes, Seine-Saint-Denis was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. It was formed from the part of the Seine department to the north and north-east of the Paris ring road, Seine-Saint-Denis has a history as a veritable left-wing stronghold, belonging to the ceinture rouge of Paris. The French Communist Party especially has maintained a strong presence in the department. A commune of Seine-Saint-Denis, Clichy-sous-Bois, was the scene of the death of two youths which sparked the riots of autumn 2005. In October - November,9,000 cars were burned and 3,000 rioters were arrested, Seine-Saint-Denis is the French department with the highest proportion of immigrants,21. 7% at the 1999 census. This figure does not include the children of immigrants born on French soil as well as some native elites from former French colonies, the ratio of ethnic minorities is difficult to estimate accurately as French law prohibits the collection of ethnic data for census taking purposes. However estimates suggest there are 500,000 Muslims out of a population of 1.53 million. Saint-Denis is home to the Union of French Islamic Organizations in the Bourget district, in 2005,56. 7% of young people under 18 were of foreign origin including 38% of African origin. Islam is believed to be the most practiced religion in the department, Seine-Saint-Denis was scheduled to be the site of a 2004 International Exhibition. Website of the General council Prefecture website Seine-Saint-Denis Tourist Board
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Prefecture building of the Seine-Saint-Denis department, in Bobigny
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Memorial to King
Louis XVI and Queen
Marie Antoinette,in
Basilica of St Denis
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Aerospace Museum in
Le Bourget
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Canal de l'Ourcq
26.
Tremblay-en-France
–
Tremblay-en-France is a commune in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 19.5 km from the centre of Paris, more than one-quarter of Charles de Gaulle Airport lies within the territory of the commune of Tremblay-en-France, in particular terminals 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D. It is the largest, by area, of the petite couronne suburbs of Paris. The corporate head office of Air France lies within Tremblay, originally called Tremblay-lès-Gonesse, the commune was officially re-named Tremblay-en-France on 20 August 1989. This last station is a station with TGV national rail lines. The inhabited area of Tremblay-en-France, however, is served by Vert-Galant station on Paris RER line and this station is located at the border between the commune of Tremblay-en-France and the commune of Villepinte, on the Villepinte side of the border. The complex opened in December 1995, the complex also has the head office of Air France-KLM. XL Airways France has its office in Bâtiment Mars in Continental Square II in Tremblay-en-France. Aigle Azur has its office in Tremblay. Europe Airpost has its office in the Bâtiment Le Séquoia in the commune. Servair, an Air France subsidiary, has its office in Continental Square. At one point Virgin Express France, a subsidiary of Virgin Express, had its headquarters in Tremblay, Tremblay-en-France has 12 écoles maternelles,14 écoles elementaires, three collèges, and two lycées. The collèges are Descartes, R. Rolland, and P. de Ronsard, the lycées are Lycée Enseignement Professionnel Hélène Boucher and Lycée Polyvalent Leonard de Vinci. The École Pierre-Brossolette had been targeted for closure, prompting protests from students asking the commune to not have the school closed, communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department INSEE Official website
Tremblay-en-France
–
The church of Sainte Therese, in Tremblay-en-France
Tremblay-en-France
–
Ecole Primaire Jean Jaurès
27.
Roissy-en-France
–
Roissy-en-France is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France, in the Val dOise department. It is located 20.7 km from the center of Paris, one-quarter of Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport but none of the terminals is in the commune of Roissy-en-France, which gave its original name to the airport. Later renamed Charles de Gaulle Airport, the airport is commonly referred to as Roissy Airport in France. The rest of the lies on the territory of the commune of Tremblay-en-France. In the name Roissy-en-France, France does not refer to the country of France, Île-de-France was made up of several pays, the pays de France, Parisis, Mantois, Hurepoix, and so on. Pays de France was the plain located immediately north of the city of Paris. Pays de France is now almost entirely built-up, being covered by the suburbs of Paris. Pays de France is also known as the plaine de France, Roissy-en-France is not served by Paris Métro, RER, or suburban rail network. The closest station to Roissy-en-France is Aéroport Charles de Gaulle 1 station on line B of the Paris Regions express suburban rail system, the RER. This station is located inside the airport, on the part of the airport belonging to the commune of Tremblay-en-France,3 km from the center of Roissy-en-France. Blue Line, a passenger airline, has its head office in Building B of Paris Nord 2. Air Frances head office is located in the Roissypôle complex on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport and in Tremblay-en-France, the community has two schools, école maternelle Saint-Exupéry and école élémentaire Jean Mermoz. Roissy is the location where the action of the two explicit sadomasochistic novels Story of O, and its sequel Retour à Roissy by Pauline Réage take place, communes of the Val-dOise department INSEE Association of Mayors of the Val d’Oise Official website Mérimée database - Cultural heritage Land use
Roissy-en-France
–
Saint Eloi
28.
Orly Airport
–
Paris Orly Airport is an international airport located partially in Orly and partially in Villeneuve-le-Roi,7 NM south of Paris, France. Prior to the construction of Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly was the airport of Paris. Orly Airport covers 15.3 square kilometres of land, originally known as Villeneuve-Orly Airport, the facility was opened in the southern suburbs of Paris in 1932 as a secondary airport to Le Bourget. Before this two huge airship hangars had been built there by the engineer Eugène Freyssinet from 1923 on, the 50th Fighter Group flew P-47 Thunderbolt fighter-bomber aircraft from the airport until September, then liaison squadrons used the airfield until October 1945. The USAAF diagram from March 1947 shows the 6140-foot 27/207 runway with 5170-foot 81/261 runway crossing it at its north end. The November 1953 Aeradio diagram shows four runways, all 197 feet wide, 03L7874 ft, 03R6069 ft, 08L5118 ft. The American United States Army Air Forces 1408th Army Air Force Base Unit was the operator at Orly Field until March 1947 when control was returned to the French Government. The Americans left in 1967 as a result of Frances withdrawal from NATOs integrated military command, in May 1958 Pan Am DC-7Cs flew to Los Angeles in 21 hr 56 min, TWA, Air France and Pan Am flew nonstop to New York in 14 hrs 10-15 min. Air France flew to Tokyo in 31 hr 5 min via Anchorage or 44 hr 45 min on a seven-stop 1049G via India, Air Frances ten flights a day to London were almost all Viscounts, the only other London flight was Alitalias daily DC-6B. Paris-Orly Airport features two passenger terminal buildings, Terminal Sud and Terminal Ouest, The brick-style southern terminal building consists of six floors. The airside area and departure gates are located on the upper level 1, the waiting area, which features several shops as well, houses gates A1-A10 and A40-A42 and is furthermore connected to the gate areas Hall A and Hall B to each side of the building. 15 of the departure gates are equipped with jet-bridges, some of them are able to handle wide-body aircraft. The western terminal has a different layout than Terminal Sud, consisting of two floors and a area of four fingers rather than a brick-style layout. The ground level 0 features the arrivals facilities including 8 baggage reclaim belts as well as several service facilities, the departures area is located on level 1 with more stores and restaurants located here. This central departures area is connected to four areas named halls 1-4 which contain departure gates 10A-10P, 20A-20L, 31A-31F. 23 stands at this terminal are equipped with jet-bridges, with several of them able to handle wide-body aircraft. AOM French Airlines had its office in Orly Airport Building 363 in Paray-Vieille-Poste. After AOM and Air Liberté merged in 2001, the new airline, Air Lib, Orly Airport is connected to the RER B train line at Antony train station by the Orlyval automatic shuttle
Orly Airport
Orly Airport
–
Paris Orly Airport Aéroport de Paris-Orly
Orly Airport
–
Terminal South at Orly Airport. Hundreds of photographs of people and the word Bienvenue (Welcome) covers the facade.
Orly Airport
–
Terminal South
29.
Avant-garde
–
The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
Avant-garde
–
The Love of Zero, a 1927 film by
Robert Florey
Avant-garde
–
Marcel Duchamp,
Fountain, 1917. Photograph by
Alfred Stieglitz
30.
Apertures
–
In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of a system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, a wide aperture admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays coming from a certain distance. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for things at the correct distance, the aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane. In the human eye, the pupil is the aperture, an optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles. In general, these structures are called stops, and the stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror. One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a measure or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is given as a ratio. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the stop of the system. The word aperture is used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed. The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs and its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible, or deliberate
Apertures
–
A large (f/2.8) and a small (f/16) aperture.
Apertures
–
Aperture mechanism of Canon 50mm f/1.8 II lens, with 5 blades.
Apertures
–
The aperture range of a 50mm Minolta lens, f/1.4–f/16
Apertures
–
f /32 – small aperture and slow shutter
31.
Paul Andreu
–
Paul Andreu is a French architect who is known for his designs of multiple airports. He is currently a professor of architecture at Zhejiang University and maintains a private practice, Andreu was born at Caudéran, in southwest France. He graduated in 1958 from the École Polytechnique and continued his studies at the École des ponts ParisTech and he next studied under architect Paul Lamarche in the École des Beaux-Arts, graduating in 1968. He has been in charge of planning and constructing Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris since 1967, on 23 May 2004 a portion of Terminal 2E collapsed, killing four people. Terminal 2E, inaugurated in 2003, is the terminal at Roissy by Andreu. The collapse was attributed by the ad hoc administrative enquiry commission to a variety of technical causes, Andreu blamed the collapse on poor execution by the building companies. In 2008, Andreu was hired to design a cultural centre, in 2011 Andreu became dean emeritus and chair professor of the Architecture Department at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, where he teaches three months per year. Www. paul-andreu. com Andreus homepage BBC News, Profile, Paul Andreu Official report of the enquiry commission Pictures and profile at Specifier Magazine Paul Andreu information at Structurae
Paul Andreu
–
Osaka Maritime Museum,
Osaka,
Japan
32.
Frutiger (typeface)
–
Frutiger is a series of typefaces named after its Swiss designer, Adrian Frutiger. Frutiger is a humanist sans-serif typeface, intended to be clear, characteristics of this typeface are, Lowercase square dot over the letter i, double-storey a, single-storey g. Wide, open apertures on letters such as a, e and s, very high x-height, but increasing its clarity for headings. Uppercase Wide A with a low centre bar, though less obvious in bold weight. Q with a stroke below the circle only, univers-like M, square and with centre strokes descending to the base of the letter. Figures monospaced numbers, diagonal serif on the 1, closed 4, oblique The slanted version is an oblique in which the letterforms are slanted, rather than a true italic. Some versions not drawn by Frutiger do add a true italic, Frutiger is a sans-serif typeface by the Swiss type designer Adrian Frutiger. The beginning of Frutiger starts from Concorde, a sans-serif font Frutiger was commissioned to design in 1961-4 by the metal type company Sofratype. Frutiger was asked to create a design that would not be too similar to his previous Univers, in practice the design detail was partly created by his colleague André Gürtler as Frutiger was busy. Frutiger wrote of it, I felt I was on the track with this grotesque. Gürtler too wrote of feeling that the design was innovative, this didnt exist in grotesques at the time. Some years later, Frutiger was commissioned to develop a typeface for Roissy Airport, as a result, he proposed a modified version of Concorde, refining it following research into legibility. The Roissy typeface was completed in 1972, impressed by the quality of the Roissy airport signage, the typographical director of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company approached Frutiger in 1974 to turn it into a typeface for print. Frutiger, What was important, was total clarity – I would even call it nudity – an absence of any kind of artistic addition, designing Frutiger as a print version of Roissy, this principle resulted in a distinctive and legible typeface. The letter properties originally suited to the needs of Charles de Gaulle, an appearance and legibility at various angles, sizes. Ascenders and descenders are very prominent, and apertures are wide to easily distinguish letters from one another, improvements on Roissy included better spacing. The Frutiger family was released publicly in 1976 by the Stempel type foundry in conjunction with Linotype, Frutigers simple and legible yet warm and casual character has made it popular today in advertising and small print. The typeface has also used across the public transport network in Oslo, Norway
Frutiger (typeface)
–
Frutiger is often used on pharmaceuticals, for example this
insulin vial.
Frutiger (typeface)
–
Frutiger
Frutiger (typeface)
–
The National Health Service in England uses Frutiger. This sign is at the Northern General Hospital, Sheffield.
Frutiger (typeface)
–
Frutiger Condensed on the Swiss passport.
33.
Adrian Frutiger
–
Adrian Frutiger was a Swiss typeface designer who influenced the direction of type design in the second half of the 20th century and into the 21st. His career spanned the hot metal, phototypesetting and digital typesetting eras, until his death, he lived in Bremgarten bei Bern. Frutigers most famous designs, Univers, Frutiger and Avenir, are landmark sans-serif families spanning the three genres of sans-serif typefaces, neogrotesque, humanist and geometric. Univers was notable for being one of the first sans-serif faces to form a consistent but wide-ranging family, across a range of widths, Frutiger described creating sans-serif types as his main lifes work, partially due to the difficulty in designing them compared to serif fonts. Adrian Frutiger was born in Unterseen, Canton of Bern, the son of a weaver, as a boy, he experimented with invented scripts and stylized handwriting in a negative reaction to the formal, cursive penmanship then required by Swiss schools. His father and his school teachers encouraged him to pursue an apprenticeship rather than pure art. After initially planning to train as a chef, Frutiger secured an apprenticeship at the Otto Schlaefli printing house in Interlaken. In 1949 he transferred to the Kunstgewerbeschule in Zürich, where he studied under Walter Käch, Karl Schmid, students there studied monumental inscriptions from Roman forum rubbings. Frutiger married Paulette Flückiger in 1952, who died in 1954 after the birth of their son Stéphane and he remarried the theologian Simone Bickel in 1955. They had two daughters, who experienced mental health problems and committed suicide as adolescents. In an interview, Frutiger described himself as a Calvinist, Frutiger spent most of his professional career working in Paris and living in France, returning to Switzerland later in life. Frutigers wood-engraved illustrations of the essay demonstrated his skill, meticulousness, at Deberny & Peignot foundry, Frutiger designed the typefaces Président, Méridien, and Ondine. In addition, Charles Peignot set Frutiger to work upon converting extant typefaces for the new phototypesetting Linotype equipment, Adrian Frutigers first commercial typeface was Président — a set of titling capital letters with small, bracketed serifs, released in 1954. A calligraphic, informal, script face, Ondine, also was released in 1954, in 1955, Méridien, a glyphic, old-style, serif text face was released. The typeface shows inspiration by Nicolas Jenson, and, in the Méridien type, Frutigers ideas of letter construction, unity, raph Levien described as a Frutiger trademark his common use of an a where the loop makes a horizontal line at the top on meeting the vertical. It makes use of narrow wedge serifs, a style known as Latin which Frutiger would often use in his future serif designs. In 1956, he designed his first-of-three, slab-serif typefaces — Egyptienne, on the Clarendon model, after Univers, it was the second, Charles Peignot envisioned a large, unified font family, that might be set in both the metal and the photo-composition systems. Impressed by the success of the Bauer foundrys Futura typeface, Peignot encouraged a new, Frutiger disliked the regimentation of Futura, and persuaded Peignot that the new sans-serif should be based on the realist model
Adrian Frutiger
–
Frutiger in 2002
Adrian Frutiger
–
Univers Bold Condensed on a London street sign
Adrian Frutiger
–
Frutiger in use by the Dutch rail system
Adrian Frutiger
–
Avenir used by the
election campaign of French president
François Hollande.
34.
Public address
–
Simple PA systems are often used in small venues such as school auditoriums, churches, and small bars. Intercom systems, installed in buildings, have both speakers throughout a building, and microphones in many rooms allowing the occupants to respond to announcements. Sound reinforcement systems and PA systems may use some similar components, Sound reinforcement systems are for live music or performance, whereas PA systems are primarily for reproduction of speech. A short time later the Automatic Enunciator Company was established in Chicago in order to market the new device, in August 1912 a large outdoor installation was made at a water carnival held in Chicago by the Associated Yacht and Power Boat Clubs of America. Seventy-two loudspeakers were strung in pairs at intervals along the docks. The system was used to announce race reports and descriptions, carry a series of speeches about The Chicago Plan, and provide music between races. Four years later, in 1915, they built a dynamic loudspeaker with a 1-inch voice coil, a 3-inch corrugated diaphragm, the electromagnet created a flux field of approximately 11,000 G. Their first experiment used a carbon microphone, when the 12 V battery was connected to the system, they experienced one of the first examples of acoustic feedback. They then placed the loudspeaker on the roof, and claims say that the amplified human voice could be heard 1 mile away. Jensen and Pridham refined the system and connected a phonograph to the loudspeaker to be able to broadcast recorded music and this demonstration was official presentation of the working system, and approximately 100,000 people gathered to hear Christmas music and speeches with absolute distinctness. The first outside broadcast was one week later, again supervised by Jensen. Jensen oversaw the governor using the microphone while Pridham operated the loudspeaker, the following year, Jensen and Pridham applied for a patent for what they called their Sound Magnifying Phonograph. Over the next two years developed their first valve amplifier. In 1919 this was standardized as a 3-stage 25 watt amplifier, wilsons speech was part of his nationwide tour to promote the establishment of the League of Nations. It was held on September 9,1919 at City Stadium, as with the San Francisco installation, Jensen supervised the microphone and Pridham the loudspeakers. Wilson spoke into two large horns mounted on his platform which channelled his voice into the microphone, similar systems were used in the following years by Warren G. Harding and Franklin D. Roosevelt. By the early 1920s, Marconi had established a department dedicated to public address, in 1925, George V used such a system at the British Empire Exhibition, addressing 90,000 via six long-range loudspeakers. This public use of loudspeakers brought attention to the possibilities of such technology, the 1925 Royal Air Force Pageant at Hendon Aerodrome used a Marconi system to allow the announcer to address the crowds, as well as amplify the band
Public address
–
Horn loudspeakers are often used to broadcast sound in outdoor locations
Public address
–
US Navy Rear Admiral
Michelle J. Howard uses the
1MC shipboard public address system to address the crew of
USS Wasp (LHD 1)
Public address
Public address
–
Public address system in a school
35.
Roman Polanski
–
Rajmund Roman Thierry Polański is a French-Polish film director, producer, writer, and actor. Born in Paris, his Polish-Jewish parents moved the back to Poland in 1937. Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany a few later, in 1939. Polanskis first feature-length film, Knife in the Water, made in Poland, was nominated for a United States Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. He has since received five more Oscar nominations, along with two BAFTAs, four Césars, a Golden Globe Award and the Palme dOr of the Cannes Film Festival in France, in the United Kingdom he directed three films, beginning with Repulsion. In 1968 he moved to the United States and cemented his status by directing the horror film Rosemarys Baby. A turning point in his life took place in 1969, when his pregnant wife, Sharon Tate, following her death, Polanski returned to Europe and eventually continued directing. He made Macbeth in England and back in Hollywood, Chinatown, in 1977, Polanski was arrested and charged with the rape of a 13-year-old model during a photo session. He subsequently pled guilty to the charge of statutory rape and he was released from prison after serving 42 days, and as part of an apparent plea bargain, was to be put on probation. When he learned that the judge changed his mind and planned to reject the plea bargain, in Europe, Polanski continued to make films, including Tess, starring aspiring actress, Nastassja Kinski. It won Frances César Awards for Best Picture and Best Director and he later produced and directed The Pianist, starring Adrien Brody, in a World War II true story drama about a Jewish-Polish musician. The film won three Academy Awards including Best Director, along with numerous international awards and he also directed Oliver Twist, a story which parallels his own life as a young boy attempting to triumph over adversity. Polanski was born in Paris, the son of Bula and Ryszard Polański, a painter and manufacturer of sculptures and his mother had a daughter, Annette, by her previous husband. Annette managed to survive Auschwitz, where her mother died, Polańskis father was Jewish and originally from Poland, Polańskis mother, born in Russia, had been raised Roman Catholic and was of half-Jewish ancestry. Polański, influenced by his education in the Peoples Republic of Poland, said Im an atheist in an interview about his film, Rosemarys Baby. The Polański family moved back to the Polish city of Kraków in 1936, Kraków was soon occupied by the German forces, and Nazi racial purity laws made the Polańskis targets of persecution, forcing them into the Kraków Ghetto, along with thousands of the citys Jews. Around the age of six, he attended school for only a few weeks, until all the Jewish children were abruptly expelled. That initiative was followed by requiring all Jewish children over the age of twelve to wear white armbands with a blue Star of David imprinted for visual identification
Roman Polanski
–
Polanski at the
2013 Cannes Film Festival
Roman Polanski
–
Jews during the Warsaw uprising
Roman Polanski
–
Polanski's star on the
Łódź walk of fame
Roman Polanski
–
Polanski with wife
Emmanuelle Seigner at the
1992 Cannes Film Festival.
36.
Frantic (film)
–
Frantic in USA, see Elevator to the Gallows Frantic is a 1988 American-French mystery thriller film directed by Roman Polanski and starring Harrison Ford and Emmanuelle Seigner. The theme was written, arranged and performed by Simply Red, dr. Richard Walker is a surgeon visiting Paris with his wife Sondra for a medical conference. At their hotel, she is unable to unlock her suitcase, while Walker is taking a shower, his wife mysteriously disappears from their hotel room. Still jet-lagged, he searches for her in the hotel with the help of a polite but mostly indifferent staff, a vagrant overhears him in a café and says he saw Walkers wife being forced into a car. Walker is skeptical until he finds his wifes ID bracelet on the cobblestones and he contacts the Paris police and the U. S. Embassy, but their responses are bureaucratic, and there is little hope anyone will look for her. As Walker carries on the search himself, he stumbles onto a scene and then encounters the streetwise young Michelle. It transpires that Michelle is a career smuggler but does not know for whom she is working and she reluctantly helps Walker in his increasingly frantic attempt to learn what was in the switched suitcase and to trade whatever it is for the return of his wife. The American embassy, working with Israeli agents, want it back and are willing to let Sondra die in the process of reacquiring it, thus, the doctor is forced to try to save his wife with Michelle, who wants her money for her work. The film ends with a confrontation beside the River Seine where Walkers wife is released, however, a firefight ensues between the Arab and Israeli agents who followed them. During the crossfire, the Arab agents are killed but Michelle is also shot and dies with Walker, angry and upset, Walker throws the krytron into the river while the helpless Israeli agents look at him. He then carries Michelles body away from there, soon after, the Walkers, traumatized because of what happened, leave Paris. The hotels lobby also appeared in the film, filming also took place at the Île aux Cygnes island in the Seine for the Lady Liberty scenes. Frantic was released in the UK on 16 February 1988, with a release of 26 February in the USA, the film was a disappointment at the box office with a domestic gross of $17,637,950, failing to recoup its production budget. However the film was successful in other countries such as France where it received 1,293,721 admissions. As opposed to its failure, Frantic was a critical success. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 78% of critics gave positive based on a sample of 40 reviews with an average rating of 6. 4/10. The film received Two Thumbs Up from Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert on the TV show Siskel & Ebert, pat Collins of WWOR-TV called it Polanskis best film ever. Desson Howe of the Washington Post called the movie vintage Polanski, with its relentless paranoia, irony, diffident strangers, Roger Ebert in his review gave the movie three stars, saying to watch the opening sequences of Frantic is to be reminded of Polanski’s talent
Frantic (film)
–
Theatrical release poster
37.
CDGVAL
–
CDGVAL is a free automatic shuttle rail service at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport consisting of two lines, a first line which opened on 4 April 2007 and a second on 27 June 2007. The two lines are operated by Siemens and Keolis on a 24-hour basis. The 60 million annual passengers of the airport and its 85,000 employees generate an annual traffic of 10 million journeys on CDGVAL, the CDGVAL project replaced the SK6000 project, which was abandoned after unsuccessful test runs in 1999. CDGVAL was launched in 2000, with work beginning in 2003. Total cost is estimated at €145 million, charles de Gaulle is Europes largest airport with an area of 3500 hectares. The airport terminals are relatively far apart and it was not uncommon for the journey between terminals to take nearly half an hour during peak periods. This problem revealed the requirement for a rapid and modern transport solution for airport users, aéroports de Paris planned to overhaul the transport system within the airport perimeter by introducing an internal train link. The VAL metro system project was launched and project specific infrastructure work commenced shortly afterwards, after the project was under way in 1992, use of the SK6000 train system built by French company Soule was imposed on ADP by the French government. Infrastructure had to be adapted and Line 1 was now due to open to the public on May 1,1996, however, during testing the automated rail transit system did not perform as hoped revealing several flaws in the system. In June 1999 the project was abandoned so ADP had to invest urgently in order to renew its fleet of ageing coaches, SK Line 2, which was due to open during the summer of 1997, was still nowhere near completion after almost one billion Francs invested. A new project codenamed CDGVAL was undertaken in 2000, building on the original project, CDGVAL largely followed the SK path while adapting existing infrastructure to allow transit of automatic metro-type equipment. Developed by Siemens Mobility France, this system has already equipped the French cities of Lille, Toulouse and Rennes, Italian city Turin. The launch was initially forecast for autumn 2006, ten years after the opening for the SK6000 line. The first CDGVAL line opened to the public on April 4,2007 after a full test run on March 19,2007, the bus routes ran alongside the new tramway for the first ten days. Among many other things, at the stop there are two hotels which open directly into the train station. This permits 24-hour free transfer to a hotel without queuing curbside in inclement weather, the RER-B commuter line is a heavy-rail service to the Parisian region which is quite cheap. Terminal T1 has no connection to the RER-B, instead. There is then a short hop on the CDGVal to/from T1, the T3-to-T1 connection is uncomplicated, very user-friendly, modern, fast, and free
CDGVAL
–
Terminal 1 station
CDGVAL
–
CDGVAL
CDGVAL
–
Terminal 2 station exterior
CDGVAL
–
Terminal 2 station interior
38.
Alan Parsons Project
–
Behind the revolving line-up and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Parsons was an engineer by profession, but also a musician. A songwriter by profession, Woolfson was also a composer, a pianist, almost all songs on the bands albums are credited to Parsons/Woolfson. Alan Parsons met Eric Woolfson in the canteen of Abbey Road Studios in the summer of 1974, Woolfson, a songwriter and composer, was working as a session pianist, he had also composed material for a concept album idea based on the work of Edgar Allan Poe. Parsons commented at the time that he felt frustrated in having to accommodate the views of some of the musicians, If the film industry was becoming a directors medium, Woolfson felt the music business might well become a producers medium. Recalling his earlier Edgar Allan Poe material, Woolfson saw a way to combine his, Parsons would produce and engineer songs written by the two, and the Alan Parsons Project was born. It is a translation of the book, from the same author, Arista Records then signed the Alan Parsons Project for further albums. Through the late 1970s and early 1980s, the popularity continued to grow. The singles I Wouldnt Want to Be Like You, Games People Play, Damned If I Do, Time, dont Answer Me became their last successful single in the United States, it reached the top 15 on the American charts in 1984. After those successes, however, the group began to fade from view, there were fewer hit singles, and declining album sales. 1987s Gaudi would be the Projects final release, though planned to record an album called Freudiana next. Although the studio version of Freudiana was produced by Parsons, it was primarily Woolfsons idea to turn it into a musical and this eventually led to a rift between the two artists. Freudiana, Gaudi and Gambler were three musicals that included some Project songs like Eye in the Sky, Time, Inside Looking Out, the live music from Gambler was only distributed at the performance site in Mönchengladbach, Germany. Aristas refusal to release the album had two effects, the negotiations led to a renewed contract, and the album was not released at that time. The Sicilian Defence was our attempt at quickly fulfilling our contractual obligation after I Robot, Pyramid, the album was rejected by Arista, not surprisingly, and we then renegotiated our deal for the future and the next album, The Turn of a Friendly Card. The Sicilian Defence album was never released and never will be, I have not heard it since it was finished. I hope the tapes no longer exist, in interviews made before his 2009 death, Woolfson said he planned to release one track from the Sicilian album, which in 2008 appeared as a bonus track on a CD re-issue of the Eve album. Parsons released titles under his name, while Woolfson made concept albums named Freudiana and Poe, More Tales of Mystery, most of the Projects titles, especially the early work, share common traits
Alan Parsons Project
–
Left to right:
Eric Woolfson,
Alan Parsons; the nucleus of the "Project"
Alan Parsons Project
–
Alan Parsons Live Project, June 1998 (distinct from The Alan Parsons Project live)
39.
I Robot (album)
–
I Robot is the second studio album by the British progressive rock band The Alan Parsons Project, released on 1 June 1977 by Arista Records. The album draws conceptually on author Isaac Asimovs science fiction Robot trilogy and it was re-released on CD in 1984 and 2007. The album was intended to be based on the I, Robot stories written by Asimov, and Eric Woolfson spoke with Asimov himself, the cover inlay read, I Robot. The story of the rise of the machine and the decline of man, and a warning that his brief dominance of this planet will probably end, because man tried to create robot in his own image. The title of the track, Genesis Ch.1 v.32, follows this theme by implying a continuation to the story of Creation. The album cover features the band members in the escalator tubes of the circular Terminal 1 building of the Charles de Gaulle Airport outside of Paris. Over this is superimposed a painting of a robot with an atom for a brain. This illustration appears in a form on the label of the record. The original vinyl release had a cover, the inside spread had printed the lyrics for the non-instrumental selections. Three singles were released from the album, I Wouldnt Want to Be Like You, Dont Let it Show, the LP track Breakdown went into heavy rotation on AOR stations and continues to be played on classic rock radio. I Robot has been reissued multiple times in various formats since its release on vinyl. Besides the 8 track, vinyl and compact cassette releases, Arista also released the original aluminium CD along with the rest of the Project albums, mobile Fidelity Sound Lab released the album on standard vinyl, UHQR vinyl, and on aluminium CD. Classic Records has released the album in analogue form on 180 Gram Vinyl, JVC released the album as a K2 edition, with Ammonia Avenue and Eye in the Sky. In 2007, as part of a campaign, Sony released a remastered version along with bonus tracks on CD. It was later released in Japan as an SHM-CD, with the same mastering, the album was re-released under Legacy Recordings as a legacy edition in 2013 on CD, with an extra disc with unreleased bonus tracks, mastered by Dave Donelly. There was also an edition with the same mastering launched one month later. Dont Let It Show was covered by Pat Benatar for her In the Heat of the Night LP, gail Godwin describes it as much more sentimental than the usual Alan Parsons. Some Other Time was also covered by Arjen Anthony Lucassen in his 2012 album Lost in the New Real, I Wouldnt Want to Be Like You is featured in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V on the fictional radio station Los Santos Rock Radio
I Robot (album)
–
I Robot
40.
U2
–
U2 are an Irish rock band from Dublin formed in 1976. The group consists of Bono, the Edge, Adam Clayton, initially rooted in post-punk, U2s sound grew to incorporate influences from many genres of popular music, yet has maintained an anthemic sound. Their lyrics, often embellished with spiritual imagery, focus on personal themes, popular for their live performances, the group has staged several ambitious and elaborate tours over their career. The band formed at Mount Temple Comprehensive School in 1976 when the members were teenagers with limited musical proficiency, within four years, they signed with Island Records and released their debut album Boy. Subsequent work such as their first UK number-one album War, by the mid-1980s, they had become renowned globally for their live act, highlighted by their performance at Live Aid in 1985. The groups fifth album, The Joshua Tree, made them international superstars and was their greatest critical and commercial success. Topping music charts around the world, it produced their only number-one singles in the US, With or Without You, facing a backlash and creative stagnation, U2 reinvented themselves in the 1990s through a new musical direction and public image. This experimentation continued through their album, Pop, and the PopMart Tour. U2 regained critical and commercial favour with the records All That You Cant Leave Behind and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb and their U2 360° Tour of 2009–2011 is the highest-attended and highest-grossing concert tour in history. The groups thirteenth album, Songs of Innocence, was released at no cost through the iTunes Store, U2 have released 13 studio albums and are one of the worlds best-selling music artists of all time, having sold more than 170 million records worldwide. They have won 22 Grammy Awards, more than any other band, Rolling Stone ranked U2 at number 22 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. The band formed in Dublin on 25 September 1976, Larry Mullen Jr. then a 14-year-old student at Mount Temple Comprehensive School, posted a note on the schools notice board in search of musicians for a new band—six people responded. Mullen later described it as The Larry Mullen Band for about ten minutes, then Bono walked in and blew any chance I had of being in charge. Martin, who had brought his guitar and amplifier to the first practice but could not play, did not remain with the group, the group settled on the name Feedback because it was one of the few technical terms they knew. Most of their material consisted of cover songs, which the band admitted was not their forte. Some of the earliest influences on the band were emerging punk rock acts, such as the Jam, the Clash, Buzzcocks, the popularity of punk rock convinced the group that musical proficiency was not a prerequisite to being successful. In April 1977, Feedback played their first gig for an audience at St. Fintans High School. Shortly after, the changed their name to The Hype
U2
–
U2 performing at
Madison Square Garden in November 2005, from left to right: The Edge; Larry Mullen, Jr. (drumming); Bono; Adam Clayton
U2
–
Bono performs in Norway during the
War Tour in 1983.
U2
–
The tree pictured on
The Joshua Tree album sleeve.
Adam Clayton said, "The desert was immensely inspirational to us as a mental image for this record."
U2
–
The Zoo TV Tour was a multimedia-intensive event, featuring a stage that used dozens of video screens.
41.
Beautiful Day
–
Beautiful Day is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the first track from their 2000 album, All That You Cant Leave Behind and it was a commercial success, helping launch the album to multi-platinum status, and is U2s biggest hit to date. Like many tracks from All That You Cant Leave Behind, Beautiful Day harkens back to the groups past sound. The tone of the Edges guitar was a subject of debate amongst the band members, lead singer Bono explained that the upbeat track is about losing everything but still finding joy in what one has. The song received positive reviews, and it became their fourth single in the UK. It also reached the top of the charts in Australia, Canada, Finland, their native Ireland, Italy, Norway, the song peaked at number 21 in the United States, the bands highest position since Discothèque in 1997. In 2001, the song won three Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Record of the Year, and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The group has played Beautiful Day at every one of their concerts since the songs 2001 live debut on the Elevation Tour, Beautiful Day was written in several stages, originating from a composition called Always that the band created in a small room at Hanover Quay Studio. However, they were unimpressed with it, as guitarist the Edge said, As a straight rock song. After lead vocalist Bono came up with the beautiful day lyric, the Edges backing vocals for the chorus were improvised one night with co-producer Daniel Lanois, an addition he called the key to the chorus and its new lyrics. At the same time, the band was looking for a more forward-looking sound and this led to debate amongst the band when the Edge was playing the song on his Gibson Explorer guitar with a tone used in much of their early material up to their 1983 album War. Bono was particularly resistant to the tone the Edge was playing with. As he explains, It was because we were coming up with innovative music that I felt a license to use some signature guitar sounds. The Edge believes the contrast between these more electronic qualities of the track and his vocals with Lanois benefited the song. The mixing process proved difficult, lasting two weeks, several changes were made during this period, Bono added a guitar part that played the songs chord progression to double the bass, an addition that solidified everything, according to the Edge. The Edge also changed the line in the chorus and converted a keyboard idea of Bonos into a guitar part that added a sour quality to balance the tracks positivity. Lanois described the song as one of those little gifts where you think, my god. Beautiful Day is played at a tempo of 136 beats per minute in a 4/4 time signature, the song opens with a reverberating electric piano playing over a string synthesiser, introducing the chord progression of A–Bm7–D–G–D9–A
Beautiful Day
–
"Beautiful Day"
Beautiful Day
–
A video of astronaut
Mark Kelly was featured prior to the song at concerts on the final leg of the
U2 360° Tour.
42.
Gate (airport)
–
A gate, or gatehouse, is an area of an airport that provides a waiting area for passengers before boarding their flight. While the exact specifications vary from airport to airport and country to country, most gates consist of seating, a counter, an entry or exit doorway. At most gates a single doorway opens to a jet bridge which leads to the aircraft door, for airports that handle international flights, certain gates must be configured to accept arriving international passengers. Before the era of the jet bridge, or jetway, airline passengers embarked onto the aircraft from ground level via airstairs. If initially indoors, passengers would exit the area through a door to the outside. This method is used for boarding smaller planes or boarding at smaller airports. The equipment is either airport or airline property, in most cases airport infrastructure
Gate (airport)
–
Gate at
Larnaca International Airport
Gate (airport)
–
Gate at
Chūbu Centrair International Airport
Gate (airport)
–
Entrance to gates at
Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport
Gate (airport)
–
Gate at
Asheville Regional Airport
43.
Dubai International Airport
–
Dubai International Airport is the primary airport serving Dubai, United Arab Emirates and is the worlds busiest airport by international passenger traffic. In 2016, DXB handled 83.6 million passengers,2.59 million tonnes of cargo, Dubai International is situated in the Al Garhoud district,2.5 nautical miles east of Dubai and spread over an area of 2,900 hectares of land. The airport is operated by the Dubai Airports Company and is the base of Dubais international airlines, Emirates. The Emirates hub is the largest airline hub in the Middle East, Emirates handles around 65% of all passenger traffic, Dubai Airport is also the base for low-cost carrier flydubai which handles 11. 6% of passenger traffic and 25% of aircraft movements at DXB. The airport consists of three terminals and has a capacity of 90 million passengers annually. Terminal 3 is the second largest building in the world by floor space, as of January 2016, there are over 7,700 weekly flights operated by 140 airlines to over 270 destinations across all six inhabited continents. The Empire Flying Boats also started operating once a week flying east to Karachi and west to Southampton, by February 1938, there were four flying boats a week. In the 1940s, flying from Dubai was by flying boats operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation, construction of the airport was ordered by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1959. It officially opened in 1960 with its first airfield, at time it was able to handle aircraft the size of a Douglas DC-3 on a 1,800 m long runway made of compacted sand. Three turning-areas, an apron and small terminal completed the airport that was constructed by Costain, in May 1963, construction of a 9,200 ft asphalt runway started. The installation of the system continued after official opening and was completed in August of that year. During the second half of the 1960s several extensions, equipment upgrades like a VHF omnidirectional range, by 1969, the airport was served by 9 airlines serving some 20 destinations. The inauguration was on 15 May 1966 and was marked by the visits of the first big jets of Middle East Airlines, the construction of a new terminal building consisting of a three-story building 110 m long and included an enclosed floor area of 13,400 m2. A new 28 m control tower was also constructed, expansion continued in the early 1970s including ILS Category II equipment, lengthening existing runway to 12,500 ft, installation of a non-directional beacon, diesel generators, taxiways, etc. This work made handling the Boeing 747 and Concorde possible, several runway and apron extensions were carried out through the decade to meet growing demand. 1971 saw the new precision category 2 Approach and Runway Lighting System being commissioned, the construction of the Airport Fire Station and the installation of the generators were completed in December of that year and was fully operational in March 1972. The ruler also commissioned and inaugurated the Long-range Surveillance System on 19 June 1973, with the expansion of the Airport Fire Services it was necessary to find more suitable accommodation and a hangar style building was made available to them at the end of 1976. This was located midway between the ends to facilitate efficient operations
Dubai International Airport
Dubai International Airport
–
Dubai Airport fire station and terminal/control tower seen from the landside, early 1965.
Dubai International Airport
–
The first jet aircraft to land on the new runway at Dubai Airport in 1965 was a
Comet from
Middle East Airlines.
44.
Initial public offering
–
Through this process, a privately held company transforms into a public company. Initial public offerings are used by companies to raise the expansion of capital, possibly to monetize the investments of early private investors. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors, after the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. The IPO process is known as going public. Details of the offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter, underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares and establishing a public market for shares. Alternative methods such as the dutch auction have also been explored, in terms of size and public participation, the two most notable examples of this method is the Google IPO and Snapchats parent company Snap Inc. China has recently emerged as a major IPO market, with several of the largest IPOs taking place in that country, the earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the case of the publicani during the Roman Republic. Like modern joint-stock companies, the publicani were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, there is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, mere evidence remains of the prices for which partes were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. Publicanis lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, the first modern IPO occurred in March 1602 when the Dutch East India Company offered shares of the company to the public in order to raise capital. All the shares were tradable, and the shareholders received receipts for the purchase, a share certificate documenting payment and ownership such as we know today was not issued but ownership was instead entered in the companys share register. In the United States, the first IPO was the offering of Bank of North America around 1783. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the market to price. After the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, for early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. This type of offering is not dilutive, since no new shares are being created, once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering
Initial public offering
–
Capital structure
45.
Vault (architecture)
–
Vault is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space with a ceiling or roof. The parts of a vault exert lateral thrust that requires a counter resistance, when vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However, when the vault is built above ground, various replacements are employed to supply the needed resistance, an example is the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are employed, the simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault, which is generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is an arch, the length being greater than its diameter. As in building an arch, a support is needed while rings of voussoirs are constructed. Until the topmost voussoir, the keystone, is positioned, the vault is not self-supporting, with a barrel vault, the centering can then be shifted on to support the next rings. Amongst the earliest known examples of any form of vaulting is to be found in the village of Khirokitia on Cyprus. Dating from ca.6000 BCE, the circular buildings supported beehive shaped corbel domed vaults of unfired mud-bricks, similar Beehive tombs, called tholoi, exist in Crete and Northern Iraq. Their construction differs from that at Khirokitia in that most appear partially buried, the inclusion of domes, however, represents a wider sense of the word vault. The distinction between the two is that a vault is essentially an arch which is extruded into the third dimension, whereas a dome is an arch revolved around its vertical axis. Pitched-brick vaults are named for their construction, the bricks are installed vertically and are leaning at an angle, examples have been found in archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia dating to the 2nd and 3rd millennium BC which were set in gypsum mortar. A barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault and resembles a barrel or tunnel cut lengthwise in half, the effect is that of a structure composed of continuous semicircular or pointed sections. The earliest known examples of barrel vaults were built by the Sumerians, possibly under the ziggurat at Nippur in Babylonia, which was built of fired bricks cemented with clay mortar. The earliest barrel vaults in ancient Egypt are thought to be those in the built by the 19th dynasty Pharaoh Ramesses II. The vault being over 800 feet long,10 feet in span, the enormous Eyvan-e Khosro at Ctesiphon was built over 1,500 years ago during the Persian Sasanian period as a throne room. The arch is about 37 metres high,26 metres across and 50 metres long, built entirely without centering, the rings relieved the centering from the weight imposed, and the two layers of bricks carried the concrete till it had set. As the walls carrying these vaults were built in concrete with occasional bond courses of brick
Vault (architecture)
–
Gothic rib-vault ceiling of the
Saint-Séverin church in Paris
Vault (architecture)
–
In a pitched-brick vault the bricks lean (are pitched) against an existing wall.
Vault (architecture)
–
St Paul's Cathedral Choir looking east, London
Vault (architecture)
–
Pointed barrel vault showing direction of lateral forces.
46.
Reinforced concrete
–
The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
Reinforced concrete
–
The novel shape of the
Philips Pavilion was allowed by reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete
–
Rebars of
Sagrada Família 's roof in construction (2009)
Reinforced concrete
–
A heavy reinforced concrete column, seen before and after the concrete has been cast in place around the rebar cage.
Reinforced concrete
–
Rebar constructed to properly reinforce a beam element, awaiting concrete to be poured.
47.
Schengen Area
–
The Schengen Area is an area comprising 26 European states that have officially abolished passport and any other type of border control at their mutual borders. The area mostly functions as a country for international travel purposes. The area is named after the Schengen Agreement, States in the Schengen Area have eliminated border controls with other Schengen members and strengthened border controls with non-Schengen countries. Twenty-two of the twenty-eight European Union member states participate in the Schengen Area, three European microstates – Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City – can be considered de facto participants. The Schengen Area has a population of over 400 million people, as a result of the migration crisis ongoing as of early 2017, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Norway and Sweden temporarily imposed controls on some or all of their borders with other Schengen states. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks and subsequent attacks in France, France declared a state of emergency, the Schengen Agreement was signed on 14 June 1985 by five of the ten EEC member states in the town of Schengen, Luxembourg. The Schengen Area was established separately from the European Economic Community, in 1990 the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention, which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa policy. The Agreements and the rules adopted under them were separate from the EC structures. As more EU member states signed the Schengen Agreement, consensus was reached on absorbing it into the procedures of the EU, the Agreement and its related conventions were incorporated into the mainstream of European Union law by the Amsterdam Treaty in 1997, which came into effect in 1999. A consequence of the Agreement being part of European law is that any amendment and regulation is made within its processes, in which the non-EU members are not participants. The UK and Ireland have maintained a Common Travel Area since 1923, but beyond this the UK could not accept abolishing border controls, and were given a full opt-out from the area. While not signing the Schengen Treaty, Ireland has always looked more favourably on joining but has not done so to maintain the CTA, the Nordic members required Norway and Iceland to be included, which was accepted, and so a consensus could be reached. The Schengen Area consists of 26 states, including four which are not members of the European Union, two of the non-EU members, Iceland and Norway, are part of the Nordic Passport Union and are officially classified as states associated with the Schengen activities of the EU. Switzerland was subsequently allowed to participate in the manner in 2008. Liechtenstein joined the Schengen Area on 19 December 2011, de facto, the Schengen Area also includes three European micro-states – Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City – that maintain open or semi-open borders with other Schengen member countries. Two EU members – Ireland and the United Kingdom – negotiated opt-outs from Schengen, the remaining four EU member states – Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus and Romania – are obliged to eventually join the Schengen Area. However, before implementing the Schengen rules, each state must have its preparedness assessed in four areas, air borders, visas, police cooperation. This evaluation process involves a questionnaire and visits by EU experts to selected institutions, the only land borders with border controls between EU/EEA members, are those of Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania, and the one at Gibraltar and those at the Channel Tunnel
Schengen Area
–
A typical Schengen border crossing has no border control post and only a common EU-state sign displaying the name of the country being entered, as here between Germany and Austria. The larger blue sign announces entry to the Federal Republic of Germany in German, the smaller white sign announces entry into the German
state of
Bavaria.
Schengen Area
Schengen Area
–
Passport control at an external Schengen border in Finland
Schengen Area
–
Facilitated Rail Transit Document
48.
Jet bridge
–
Depending on building design, sill heights, fueling positions, and operational requirements, a jet bridge may be fixed or movable, swinging radially and/or extending in length. The jetway was invented by Frank Der Yuen, before the introduction of jet bridges, passengers normally boarded an aircraft by walking along the ground-level ramp and climbing a set of movable stairs, or up airstairs on aircraft so equipped. Mobile staircases or ramp stairs are employed at many airports around the world, particularly smaller airports, united Airlines tested an early prototype Air Dock in 1954. The first operational jet bridges were installed in 1959, although sources disagree as to which airport installed jet bridges first, jet bridges provide all-weather dry access to aircraft and enhance the security of terminal operations. They are often attached at one end by a pivot to the terminal building and have the ability to swing left or right. The cabin, at the end of the bridge, may be raised or lowered, extended or retracted. These motions are controlled by a station in the cab. The cab is provided with a canopy, which allows the bridge to dock with aircraft with differing shapes. Some airports with international gates have two or three bridges for larger aircraft with multiple entrances, faster loading can lead to lower airport charges, less delays and more passenger throughput for the airport, all factors which impact an airlines bottom line. King Shaka International Airport and Edmonton International Airport have A380 jet bridges, though loading bridges are usually permanently attached at their terminal-building end, leaving only the cab free to move, this is not always the case. Loading bridges restrict aircraft parking to spots immediately adjacent to the terminal, thus, airports use mobile staircases to facilitate disembarking at hardstands. Loading bridges may pose hazards to aircraft if handled improperly, if the bridge is not retracted fully before departure, it may contact protruding parts of the taxiing aircraft, requiring repair and delays. Furthermore, during cold weather, the bridge may become frozen to the aircraft. In this case, when the jet bridge retracts, it could damage the aircraft if that area has not been properly de-iced, loading bridges usually cost more to use than remote stands, so many low cost carriers prefer not to use them. When regional jets are used, jet bridges have another disadvantage, several airlines have removed jet bridges at regional jet gates at airports such as Atlanta which are short on gates. When having passengers disembark on the tarmac or the ramp, airlines can fit two or more regional jets per gate. In many other places like Beijing Capital Airport and Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, several incidents of jet bridges collapsing include Sydney, Hong Kong Chep Lap Kok, Seattle and Los Angeles. Jet bridges are used at smaller, single-story airports
Jet bridge
–
A jetway bridge in
Hat Yai International Airport (VTSS)
Jet bridge
–
A Stearns Airport Equipment PBBs at
Denver International Airport in
Denver, Colorado, USA
Jet bridge
–
A jetway bridge in
Hyderabad International Airport (VOHS)
Jet bridge
–
Three
ThyssenKrupp Airport Systems jet bridges feeding an Airbus A380 at
Frankfurt Airport in
Frankfurt,
Germany.
0.8%
New York–JFK
Dubai
Montreal
Tel Aviv
Shanghai
Doha
Algiers
Seoul
São Paulo
Hong Kong
Tokyo–Haneda
Beirut
Casablanca
Bangkok
Singapore Changi
Mauritius
Mexico City
Havana
Punta Cana
Media related to Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport at Wikimedia Commons
Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport travel guide from Wikivoyage
