1.
Chevrolet
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Chevrolet, colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors. Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3,1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2,1918. Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide, with the exception of Oceania. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe, with the exception of the Camaro, Chevrolet vehicles will continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, in North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Durant was cast out from the management of General Motors in 1910 for five years and he took over the Flint Wagon Works, incorporating the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick Motor Company prior to founding GM, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races, Durant planned to use Chevrolets reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. Actual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, the first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However the first actual production wasnt until the 1913 model, so in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only the 1 pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show, Chevrolet first used the bowtie emblem logo in 1914 on the H series models and The L Series Model. It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room, more recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the Coalettes coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12,1911, others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolets parents. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, Louis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1917, Durant became president of General Motors, in 1919, Chevrolets factories were located at Flint, Michigan, branch assembly locations were located in Tarrytown, N. Y. Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, mcLaughlins were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article Sept.23,1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919
2.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
3.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
4.
Full-size car
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A full-size car is a marketing term used in North America for an automobile larger than a mid-size car. Traditional U. S. full-size passenger cars were designed to be comfortable for six occupants, the United States Environmental Protection Agency currently uses the term large car to denote full-size cars based on their combined interior passenger and luggage volume. The traditional full-size passenger cars that were built by the U. S. Full-size cars were also denoted for their length, nearing 4,953 mm in basic low-priced, family sedans. The luxury models often tended to reach 5,350 mm. Previously, the term first appeared in the early 1960s to distinguish what also became known as standard-size cars from the new compact and intermediate models then being introduced. The U. S. EPA defines large size as 120 ft³ or more of combined passenger, a majority of U. S. automakers manufactured full size automobiles were constructed using a body-on-frame platform. This platform was phased out in 2011 when the Ford Panther vehicles ended production, use of the term in North America became popular after the introduction of compacts by the U. S. Detroit Big Three for the 1960 model year, and then a few years later the introduction of what became known as mid-size cars. The term was most correctly applied to close to the width limit carrying nameplates of The Low Priced Three, Chevrolet, Ford. Manufacturers contributed to the lack of distinction by marketing models of their brands into the lower price ranges with what had previously been considered medium-priced brands. For 1977, General Motors downsized its cars, with overall width cut from approximately 80 in to the mid-70 inch range. Chevrolet, Pontiac, and the less expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models had a 116-inch wheelbase, more expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models, plus the Cadillac had a 119 in wheelbase, but no more width. Ford and Chrysler downsized for 1979, the latter even building its Chrysler R platform, by this time, a huge increase in gasoline prices had made it difficult to sell any large cars, downsized or not. Chrysler had the misfortune of introducing two consecutive new designs of its largest cars, in 1974 and 1979, during times when gasoline prices suddenly increased. The EPA interior volumes for passenger and cargo for the most part resulted in mid-size, full-size, the 1980s Chrysler M platform, classified as large cars at the time, were derived from the Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare platform, originally marketed as large compacts. While many modern cars are referred to as full-size, they do not qualify for the term as used in the 1960s and 1970s. Consumer acceptance of large SUVs approaching 80 inches in width shows interest remains in vehicles capable of seating with reasonable comfort. Police cars in the United States are almost always full-size cars and this is usually due to the amount of interior space for an arrestee as well as trunk volume for computer and electrical equipment. Interior space and trunk volume also make such vehicles popular for taxi use, since the discontinuation of the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor the de facto replacement has been a variation of the Ford Taurus
5.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
6.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
7.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
8.
GM B platform
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The B platform, or B-body, was General Motors full-size rear-wheel drive automobile platform. It was closely related to the C-body and D-body and was used for convertibles, hardtops, coupés, sedans, and station wagons. Originally, the B-body was used for Buick and Oldsmobile products, while the A-body was used for Chevrolet and Oakland, the B-body became GMs base model platform in 1958, when all existing Chevrolet products were upgraded to the B-body. For the 1959 model year, the previous A and B bodies were built on the new B-body that lasted until 1996. The A-body designation would be resurrected by GM in 1964 for a new series of intermediate-sized cars including the Chevrolet Chevelle, Pontiac Tempest, Oldsmobile Cutlass, the platform was downsized in length by approximately 10 inches in 1977 and reduced in weight by an average of 800 pounds. In 1991, the received its last major redesign, regaining several inches in length, numerous frame improvements and reinforcements. All B-body cars since 1965 have used perimeter frames with side rails, along with the 1961-64 B-body Pontiacs, the 1958-60 Buicks and 1959-60 Oldsmobiles used a ladder-type frame while an X-frame without side rails was used on 1959-60 Pontiacs, 1959-64 Chevrolets and 1961-64 Buicks. The Rear Drive B-body was the last platform design to have the tank filler port behind the license plate. Also, the Pontiac B-Body vehicles from 1941 till 1948 had the fuel filler door in the fender on the drivers side. Very likely this would also have been the case with the B-Body Oldsmobile, by 1986, the Buick LeSabre and Oldsmobile Delta 88 moved to the GM H platform. And in 1991, Chairman Robert Stempel said, He also stated that the rear drive 1992 Buick Roadmaster, no successor for this platform was made after 1996, when the Buick Roadmaster and Chevrolet Caprice ceased production
9.
Chevrolet Bel Air
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The Chevrolet Bel Air was a full-size car produced by Chevrolet for the 1950–1981 model years. With the 1953 model year the Bel Air name was changed from a designation for a body shape to a premium level of trim applied across a number of body styles. The Bel Air continued with other trim level designations until US production ceased in 1975. Production continued in Canada, for its market only, through the 1981 model year. For 1950, Chevrolet came up with a style that would set a pattern for decades. The Bel Air Hardtop was styled as a convertible with a solid roof. Models like this had been around since the 1920s, including early Chevrolets, but the newly revised idea, sweeping the GM line from Chevrolet to Cadillac, had finally found its era. First year production reached only 76,662 as buyers cautiously tested the revised concept, the car cost $1,741 and weighed 3,225 lb. Front suspension was independent, named knee-action. The first Bel Airs of this era shared only their front sheet metal ahead of the A pillar with the rest of the range. The windshield, doors, glass, and trunk were common with the Styline DeLuxe Convertible Coupe, however the roof, rear quarters, the first Bel Airs were only available with the DeLuxe premium trim level and specification. In 1953 Chevrolet renamed its series, and the Bel Air name was applied to the model range. Two lower series, the 150 and 210, also emerged, the 1953 Chevrolet was advertised as Entirely new through and through, due to the restyled body panels, front and rear ends. However, essentially these Chevrolets had similar frame and mechanicals to the 1949–1952 cars, the Bel Air series featured a wide chrome strip of molding from the rear fender bulge to the rear bumper. The inside of this stripe was painted a color with the outside body color. Lesser models had no model designation anywhere on the car, only having a Chevy crest on the hood,1953 was the first year for a curved, one-piece windshield. Bel Air interiors had a massive expanse of chrome across the lower part of the dashboard. Carpeting and full wheel covers rounded out Bel Air standard equipment, prior to 1954, the 235 and 216 cubic inch six cylinder engines had babbit bearings and scoops to create oil pressure at the bottom of each rod and the oil pressure was standard at 15-30 PSI. During these years, there were three choices, depending on the transmission ordered
10.
Chevrolet Impala
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The Chevrolet Impala is a full-size car built by Chevrolet for model years 1958 to 1985,1994 to 1996, and 2000 to present. The Chevrolet Impala derived its name from the African antelope of the same name, the Impala was Chevrolets most expensive passenger model through 1965, and had become the best-selling automobile in the United States. For its debut in 1958, the Impala was distinguished from other models by its symmetrical triple taillights, the Impala continued as Chevrolets most popular full-size model through the mid-1980s. Between 1994 and 1996, the Impala was revised as a 5. 7-liter V8–powered version of the Caprice Classic sedan, in 2000, the Impala was re-introduced again as a mainstream front-wheel drive Hi-Mid sedan. As of February 2014, the 2014 Impala ranked number one among Affordable Large Cars in U. S. News & World Reports rankings. When the current tenth generation of the Impala was introduced for the 2014 model year, the ninth generation was rebadged as the Impala Limited and sold only to fleet customers through 2016. As of the 2015 model year, both versions are sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, with the current-generation Impala also sold in the Middle East, the Philippines, and South Korea. The Impala name was first used for the full-sized 1956 General Motors Motorama show car that bore Corvette-like design cues, painted emerald green metallic, with a white interior, the Impala featured hardtop styling. Clare MacKichans design team, along with designers from Pontiac, started to establish basic packaging, the first styling sketch that would directly influence the finished Chevrolet automobile was seen by General Motors Styling vice president Harley Earl in October. Seven months later, the design was developed. The Impala was introduced for the 1958 model year as top of the line Bel Air hardtops, from the windshield pillar rearward, the 1958 Bel Air Impala differed structurally from the lower-priced Chevrolet models. Hardtops had a slightly shorter greenhouse and longer rear deck, the wheelbase of the Impala was longer than the lower priced models, although the overall length was identical. Interiors held a two-spoke steering wheel and color-keyed door panels with brushed aluminum trim, no other series included a convertible. The 1958 models were longer, lower, and wider than its predecessors, the tailfins of the 1957 were replaced by deeply sculptured rear fenders. Impalas had three taillights each side, while lesser models had two and wagons just one, crossed-flag insignias were attached above the side moldings, as well as bright rocker moldings and dummy rear-fender scoops. 1958 was the first year of dual headlamps, for 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced anniversary models for each brand, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. This was a step between traditional construction and the later fully unitized body/chassis, the body structure was strengthened in the rocker panels. However, this frame was not as effective in protecting the structure in a side impact crash
11.
Chevrolet Caprice
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The Chevrolet Caprice is a full-sized automobile produced by Chevrolet in North America for the 1965 to 1996 model years. Full-size Chevrolet sales peaked in 1965 with over a million sold and it was the most popular American car in the sixties and early seventies, which, during its lifetime, included the Biscayne, Bel Air, and Impala. The 1971 to 1976 models are the largest Chevrolets ever built, the downsized 1977 and restyled 1991 models were awarded Motor Trend Car of the Year. The Caprice name was coined by Bob Lund after a restaurant he frequented in New York City. Some say the car was named after Caprice Chapman, daughter of auto executive, a Caprice Custom Sedan option package was offered on the 1965 Chevrolet Impala 4-door hardtop, adding $200 to the $2,742 price tag. Full wheel covers were the same as that years Super Sport, the Super Sports blackout rear trim panel was also used, without the Impala SS nameplate. The interior featured a higher-grade cloth and vinyl seat and door trim, faux walnut trim on the dashboard and door panels, pull straps on the doors, a full vinyl roof was optional. A283 cu in,195 hp V8 engine was standard, the Caprice was intended to compete with the Ford LTD, Plymouth VIP, AMCs Ambassador DPL, and even the smaller Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme. These models included luxuriously upholstered interiors with simulated wood dashboard and door-panel trim, thicker carpeting, sound insulation, courtesy lighting, Caprice gained series status for the 1966 model year, and was positioned as the top-line full-size Chevrolet. It included a hardtop, six- or nine-passenger station wagon. The Caprice Estate, a new station wagon model with simulated woodgrain trim was the first Chevrolet woodie wagon since 1954. All wagons featured a bench seat interior. A V8 engine was standard for Caprice models, while features such as an automatic transmission, power steering, white sidewall tires, and vinyl top were extra-cost options, most were built with these options. According to some journalists at the time, a fully optioned Caprice could rival the appearance, comfort, lenses and silver trim on Caprices differed slightly from the other full-sized models. Sedans and coupe models included luxurious cloth and vinyl bench seats with a center armrest in the rear seat. Optional on both was a Strato bench seat which combined bucket-style seat backs and center armrest with a cushion for six-passenger seating. Caprices had unique standard wheel covers, although some of the optional wheels, New options included the Comfortron air conditioning system where the driver could set a constant year-round temperature. A Tilt/Telescopic steering wheel option could be adjusted vertically in six positions, the 1965-70 GM B platform is the fourth best selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T, and the Lada Riva
12.
Chevrolet 210
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The Chevrolet Two-Ten, or 210 was the midrange model of the Chevrolet car from 1953 to 1957. It took its name by shortening the production number by one digit in order to capitalize on the 1950s trend toward numerical auto names. The numerical designation 210 was also used in company literature. It replaced the Styleline DeLuxe model available in previous years, the Two-Ten was discontinued after the 1957 model year to be replaced by the Biscayne. The Two-Ten series, introduced for the 1953 model year, replaced the Styleline DeLuxe series, Two-Tens offered the widest choice of body styles for 1953, including a convertible, Sport Coupe hardtop, two- and four-door sedans, and four-door station wagons. As the American public began to prefer posh to economy, the Bel Air began to outsell the lesser series, including both 150 and 210 models. As a partial answer to this, Chevrolet re-introduced the Two-Ten Sport Coupe hardtop in the middle of the 1955 model year, and also added a four-door Two-Ten hardtop Sport Sedan for 1956. Neither achieved the sales of their Bel Air counterparts, however, since they were only about $100.00 cheaper than the Bel Airs, which provided more luxury and premium exterior trim. Unlike the 150 series, Two-Tens were always available with the luxury options as the Bel Air, including the Powerglide automatic transmission, power window lifts. The Two-Ten Townsman was the top station wagon offered in 1953. The lower-priced Handyman station wagon, a model in 1953-54. Both were joined by a nine-passenger Beauville four-door wagon in 1956-57 and these model years are essentially the same except for minor front and rear trim items, and of course the reduced model offering in 1954. Turn signal indicators on 1953 dashboards were white, green in 1954, two engines were used in each of the 53-54 model years, the more powerful Blue Flame unit used with the Powerglide automatic transmission. All Two-Tens had a 3 speed Synchromesh manual transmission as standard, all engines are of the overhead valve design. They are commonly referred to as Stovebolt Sixes because of the large slotted-head screws used to fasten the valve cover,1954 was the last year for 6 volt electrical systems in Chevrolet vehicles. The 55 model year marks the introduction of a new chassis, the center door frame was beefed up for more safety. The Two-Ten buyer was free to choose any option available. The ammeter and oil pressure gauges were changed to warning lights and this was not the first Chevrolet to be installed with a V8 engine
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
General Motors Motorama
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The General Motors Motorama was an auto show staged by GM from 1949 to 1961. These automobile extravaganzas were designed to whet public appetite and boost automobile sales with displays of fancy prototypes, concept vehicles, Motorama grew out of Alfred P. Sloans yearly industrial luncheons at New York Citys Waldorf Astoria, beginning in 1931. They were almost invariably held in conjunction with the New York Auto Show, after World War II, the first show, Transportation Unlimited Autorama, was staged again at the Waldorf Astoria, in January 1949. Between the New York City venue and the Boston extension, nearly 600,000 people saw the show, during the 1950 show, more than 320,000 visitors admired the Cadillac Debutante, a special convertible trimmed in leopard skins. There was no Autorama or Motorama in 1952, the show officially became known as Motorama when it began to travel around the country in 1953. That year more than 1.4 million visitors saw it, there was a revue, with orchestra, singers, and dancers. Exhibited at this venue were the Buick Wildcat, Pontiac La Parisienne, Oldsmobile Starfire, Chevrolet Corvette, Cadillac Orleans, more than 1.9 million visitors attended the show in 1954, it started on January 26 in the Waldorf Astoria, New York. The 1955 show dates were New York, Miami, Los Angeles, San Francisco, exhibited at these venues were the Buick Wildcat III, Chevrolet Bel Air Nomad, LaSalle II roadster and sedan, and Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. Oldsmobile and Buick pillarless four-door hardtops were first shown at this show, in 1956 over 2.2 million visitors attended. The dates were New York City, Miami, Los Angeles, San Francisco, featured cars included Buick Centurion, General Motors Firebird II, the Oldsmobile Golden Rocket, Pontiac Club de Mer, Cadillac Eldorado Brougham and Eldorado Brougham Town Car. Fans of Mystery Science Theater 3000 will recognize the 1956 show as the Motorama featured in the short film Design for Dreaming, no shows were held for the next two years. In 1957, however, Cadillac did display a couple of cars at various venues. These were the Cadillac Director and the Eldorado Brougham town car of the previous year, the 1959 Motorama was held from October 16–22,1958, at the Waldorf Astoria, New York City, before moving on to Boston. Shown in these two east coast cities were General Motors Firebird III and the Cadillac Cyclone, the final Motorama show was held in 1961 in New York, San Francisco and Los Angeles. More than one million visitors attended, more than 100 trucks were needed to transport Motorama shows around the country, each arriving at a precise time and in a given order. Cars and simultaneous revues were displayed on lifting, revolving platforms known as grass-hoppers, a total of 10.5 million visitors saw Motorama shows between 1949 and 1961. A Touch of Magic was the film for the 1961 Motorama. Design for Dreaming Flo, a 1957 Motorama show car depicted in the 2006 film Cars Gunnell, John, the Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946-1975
15.
Chevrolet Delray
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The Chevrolet Delray, named after Delray Beach, Florida, debuted in 1954 as an optional trim level on two-door models of Chevrolets mid-range 210 series of full-size car. In 1958, it became a series of its own at the bottom of Chevys lineup, and added a four-door sedan, and sedan delivery. The first year for Delray was the year for the 1949-1954 style Chevys. For 1954 the 210 series was shortened considerably, losing its hardtop coupe and convertible, the chassis and mechanical parts were common with the rest of the passenger car range, and the overall appearance was the same as the rest of the range. Front suspension was independent, named knee-action, two engines were used in the 1954 model year, with the more powerful Blue Flame unit used with the Powerglide automatic transmission. All 210s had a three-speed synchromesh manual transmission as standard, with two optional transmissions, all engines were of an overhead valve design. They are commonly referred to as stovebolt sixes because of the large slotted-head screws used to fasten the valve cover,235 in³ Blue Flame I6 rated at 115 hp on manual transmission equipped cars. 235 in³ Blue Flame I6 rated at 125 hp on automatic equipped cars. It featured an upgraded vinyl upholstery with waffle-like pleating, color-keyed to the exterior, along with carpeting, the 1955 model year marked the introduction of a new chassis and the debut of the Chevrolets well-received small block V8. The center door frame was strengthened for more safety, a 210 buyer was free to choose any Chevy powertrain option. The ammeter and oil pressure gauges were changed to warning lights, the 265³ V8 could now be had in three different configurations. The I6 had a new unified build no matter the transmission, even the fuel injected version was available to 210 buyers. Chevrolet in script was mounted inside the wedge, the Delray was Chevrolets price-leading, no-frills model, with the more expensive models being the Biscayne, Bel Air and Impala. It came in a utility coupe, a coupe, a four-door sedan. The Delrays 1958 only four-door or two-door station wagon counterpart was the Chevrolet Yeoman, for 1958, Chevrolet models were redesigned longer, lower, and heavier than their 1957 predecessors. The first production Chevrolet big block V8, the 348 cu in, was now an option, Chevrolets design for the year fared better than its other GM offerings, and lacked the abundance of chrome found on Pontiacs, Oldsmobiles, Buicks and Cadillacs. Despite being a year, consumers made Chevrolet the top make of automobile. With its wide variety of styles and models, Bel Airs could be optioned with almost every conceivable luxury within the Chevrolet line
16.
No frills
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A no-frills or no frills service or product is one for which the non-essential features have been removed to keep the price low. The term frills originally refers to a style of fabric decoration, something offered to customers for no additional charge may be designated as a frill - for example, free drinks on airline journeys, or a radio installed in a rental car. No-frills businesses operate on the principle that by removing luxurious additions, most common products and services for which no-frills brands exist include budget airlines, supermarkets, vacations and pre-owned vehicles. No-frills supermarkets are recognisable by their design and business model. They do not decorate aisles and sometimes dont even fill shelves. In this case, pallets of the products on offer are simply parked alongside the aisles, when all items on a pallet have been sold, they are replaced. Prices are given on plain labels, queueing at the checkout is relatively common, as staffing levels reflect average demand rather than peak demand. At actual peak times, customers often have to wait, shopping bags are charged for, as they are seen as a frill. They somewhat employ the Pareto principle when choosing which goods to offer, meaning that in most supermarkets, therefore, they only stock the most commonly sold products. They only take cash and debit cards and they only open at peak times, e. g.9 am to 6 pm Monday to Saturday, although some stores are open 24 hours. They often do not sell branded items, except in the case of special purchases, instead, they sell generic or private label products. Products are sold in one size, which is usually the best selling size of that product, the shopping carts have a coin-operated slot, to ensure that the trolleys are kept on site. They usually lack butcher, bakery and deli counters, No in-store background music, although some use Satellite Radio. Examples of no-frills supermarkets are, *Dia, Minipreço and Ed are all part of the Dia Group, in the United States, a no-frills automobile model typically has a minimum of convenience equipment, a less powerful engine and spartan trim. Frequently, these represent the lowest-priced version of a larger selection of more lavishly equipped and trimmed models of that same car. Often, the models are sold with a manual transmission and have a shorter options list. Early 1950s American examples include the Chevrolet 150 and Kaiser-Frazer Henry J and these were larger cars than those produced in the US in the 1940s gasoline rationing period by Crosley, who shut down in 1952. One of the more famous no-frills cars was the Studebaker Scotsman, buyers were allowed to buy only a low-cost heater and a few other trim and convenience items from a short options list, a radio was not offered as an option on this model
17.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
18.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
19.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
20.
Station wagon
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The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks
21.
Chevrolet Brookwood
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The Chevrolet Brookwood is a series of full-size station wagons produced by Chevrolet from 1958 to 1961, and again from 1969 to 1972. It debuted in 1958 as Chevrolets mid-range model in its station wagon lineup, after the Yeoman was discontinued in 1959, the Brookwood was subsequently demoted to entry-level status, before going out of production altogether in 1961. It made a reappearance from 1969 and 1972, once again as the least-expensive wagon in Chevrolets lineup. Introduced in 1958 as Chevrolets mid-priced station wagon, Brookwoods were trimmed in line with Chevrolets mid-priced Chevrolet Biscayne models, the Brookwood offered for the 1958 model year was a 4-door station wagon, available in either six- or nine-passenger models. For 1958, Chevrolet models were redesigned longer, lower, the first ever production Chevrolet big block V8, the 348 cu in, was now an option. Chevrolets design for the year fared better than its other GM offerings, despite being a recession year, consumers made Chevrolet the No.1 make of automobile and the Bel Air was at the core of Chevrolets popularity. The Nomad station wagon name also reappeared in 1958 when the vehicle bowed as the premium four-door Chevrolet station wagon, the value of a drag coefficient for 1958 Chevy wagons is estimated by a-c, is Cd =0.6. Like the 1958 Nomad, the 1958 Brookwood was also 4-door only, the next year Brookside would become the base model wagon and offer a 2-door effectively replacing Yeoman. Buyers could order any engine and transmission choice, including the 348 V8, like the rest of Chevrolets 1958 full size car line up, the Brookwood featured Chevrolets new Safety-Girder cruciform frame. The rear was tied together by a cross member. This design was criticized as providing less protection in the event of a side impact collision. For the second time in as many years, Chevrolet again came up with a new car. From the front or rear the 1959 Chevrolets resembled nothing else on the road, from the headlights, placed as low as the law would allow, to the cats-eye tail lights, the 1959 Chevrolet was a brand new car with all new sheet metal. The most visual new change was the flat, wing shaped tailfins, the car was built on a 119 in wheelbase and was 211 inches long-which was 11 in longer than the 1957 model. This made Chevrolet the longest car in the range, whereas two years before it had been the shortest. In addition, the car was 3 in wider outside and had 5 in more width inside than it did in 1958, the frame GM X frame had no side rails. Wagons were still classed by themselves, but had model numbers matching the car series, Chevrolet eliminated its entry-level Delray-based Yeoman models and the Biscayne-based Brookwood became Chevrolets least expensive wagon models. Brookwoods were now available in two-door or four-door body styles, both in six-passenger configuration only, the new Parkwood 6-passenger and new Kingswood 9-passenger wagons had Bel Airs model number, and as such were the middle range wagons
22.
Power window
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Power windows or electric windows are automobile windows which can be raised and lowered by pressing a button or switch, as opposed to using a hand-turned crank handle. Packard introduced the first power windows in the 1940 Packard 180 series, in 1941, the Ford Motor Company followed with the first power windows on the Lincoln Custom. Cadillac had a straight-electric divider window on their series 75, Power assists originated in the need and desire to move convertible body-style tops up and down by some means other than human effort. The earliest power assists were vacuum-operated and were offered on Chrysler Corporation vehicles, shortly before World War II, General Motors developed a central hydraulic pump for working convertible tops. This system was introduced on 1942 convertibles built by GM, previously, GM had used a vacuum system which did not have the power to handle increasingly larger and complex convertible top mechanisms. These systems were based on major hydraulic advances made in weapons in preparation for World War II. The Hydro-Electric system was standard on 1947 model year, the seat and window assist system became available on GM closed cars. The full system was only on the high-end GM convertibles made by Oldsmobile, Buick. It was only available as a package, that is, power assisted windows, front seat and this feature can be identified in 1948 and later General Motors model numbers with an X at the end, such as the 1951 Cadillac Sixty Special sedan, model 6019X. The electrically operated hydraulic pump system was shared by Hudson and Packard for their 1948 through 1950 models, the drivers door contained four buttons in addition to the remaining individual windows. Ford also had a similar system on higher-end convertibles. Mercury and Ford Sportsman convertibles were equipped with windows on four windows from 1946 through 1948 and Mercury. These systems were used by luxury car models until Chrysler introduced the all-electric operation on the 1951 Imperial. The availability of power windows increased with the use of small, General Motors also followed with full electric operation in 1954. This included four-way and then six-way seats, which were introduced in 1956, chevrolet introduced the oddity of power front windows in the 1954 model. Ford also introduced full four-door power windows in sedans in 1954, the full-sized 1955 Nash Airflyte models featured optional power windows. Electrically-operated vent windows were available as early as 1956 on the Continental Mark II, the 1960s Cadillac Fleetwood came standard with power front and rear vent windows, in addition to standard power side windows, for a total of eight power window controls on the drivers door panel. Modern heavy-duty highway tractors frequently have an option for power window controls, however and that is, the compressed air system used for air brakes is also used for the windows
23.
Chevrolet Big-Block engine
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The Chevrolet Big Block is a term for a series of large displacement V8 engines that were developed in the United States during the 1950s to the early 1970s. As American automobiles grew in size and weight following the Second World War, Chevrolet had introduced its popular small block V8 in 1955, but needed something larger to power its medium duty trucks and the heavier cars that were on the drawing board. The first version of the Big Block V8 Chevrolet engine, known as the W-series, was introduced in 1958, Chevrolet designed this engine for use in passenger cars and light trucks. This engine had an overhead valve design with offset valves and uniquely scalloped rocker covers, the W-series engine was made of cast iron. The engine block had 4. 84-inch bore centers, two-bolt main bearing caps, a side oiling lubrication system, with full-flow oil filter, and interchangeable cylinder heads. One minor difference between the 348 and 409/427 was the location of the oil dipstick, it was on the drivers side on the former. No satisfactory explanation was offered for why this change was made. However, it did provide a reliable way to differentiate between the smaller and larger versions of the engine. As with the 265- and 283-cubic-inch Small Block engines, the W-series valve gear consisted of tubular steel push rods operating stud-mounted, the push rods also acted as conduits for oil flow to the valve gear. Due to the low mass of the valve train, mechanical lifter versions of the W-series engine were capable of operating at speeds well beyond 6000. Unlike many of its contemporaries, the chamber of the W-series engine was in the upper part of the cylinder, not the head. This arrangement was achieved by combining a cylinder head deck that was not perpendicular to the bore with a crowned piston, which was a novel concept in American production engines of the day. As the piston approached top dead center, the angle of the crown combined with that of the deck to form a wedge-shaped combustion chamber with a pronounced quench area. The spark plugs were inserted vertically into the area, which helped to produce a rapidly moving flame front for more complete combustion. The theory behind this sort of arrangement is that maximum brake mean effective pressure is developed at low engine speeds. With its relatively flat torque characteristics, the W engine was well-suited to propelling both the trucks and heavier cars that were in vogue in the USA at the time, the W-series was a physically massive engine when compared to the Small Block Chevrolet engine. It had a dry weight of approximately 665 pounds, depending on the type of intake manifold, bore was 4.125 in and stroke was 3.25 in, resulting in a substantially oversquare design. This engine was superseded by the 409-cubic-inch as Chevrolets top performing engine in 1961 and it was produced through 1964 for use in large Chevrolet trucks
24.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
25.
Arlington, Texas
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Arlington is a principal city in the U. S. state of Texas, located in Tarrant County. It is part of the Mid-Cities region of the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, according to the U. S. Census Bureaus estimate, the city had a population of almost 379,577 at the end of 2013, making it the third-largest municipality in the metropolitan area. Arlington is the fiftieth-most populous city in the United States, the seventh-most populous city in the state of Texas, Arlington borders Kennedale, Grand Prairie, Mansfield and Fort Worth, and surrounds the smaller communities of Dalworthington Gardens and Pantego. European settlement in the Arlington area dates back at least to the 1840s, the rich soil of the area attracted farmers, and several agriculture-related businesses were well established by the late nineteenth century. Arlington was founded in 1876 along the Texas and Pacific Railway, the city was named after General Robert E. Lees Arlington House in Arlington County, Virginia. Arlington grew as a cotton-ginning and farming center, and incorporated in 1884, the city could boast of water, electricity, natural gas, and telephone services by 1910, along with a public school system. By 1925 the population was estimated at 3,031, large-scale industrialization began in 1954 with the arrival of a General Motors assembly plant. Automotive and aerospace development gave the city one of the nations greatest population growth rates between 1950 and 1990, Arlington became one of the boomburbs, the extremely fast-growing suburbs of the post-World War II era. U. S. Census Bureau population figures for the city tell the story,7,692,90,229,261,721,365,438, Tom Vandergriff served as mayor from 1951 to 1977 during this period of explosive development. Six Flags Over Texas opened in Arlington in 1961, according to the United States Census Bureau, Arlington has a total area of 99.0 square miles,95.8 square miles of it was land, and 3.2 square miles of it is water. Johnson Creek, a tributary of the Trinity River, and the Trinity River itself, Arlington falls in the Cfa region of the Köppen climate classification system which is a climate zone characterized by hot, humid summers and mild to cool winters. The highest recorded temperature was 113 °F in 1980, the lowest recorded temperature was −8 °F in 1899. The maximum average precipitation occurs in May, severe weather generally occurs April and May months. The population density was 3,811 people per square mile, there were 144,805 housing units at an average density of 1,510 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 27. 4% of the population, 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.7 and the family size was 3.3. In the city, the 2010 population was out with 31% under the age of 20, 8% from 20 to 24, 30% from 25 to 44, 23% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 104 males
26.
South Gate, California
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South Gate is the seventeenth largest city in Los Angeles County, California, with 7.4 square miles. South Gate is located 7 miles southeast of Downtown Los Angeles and it is part of the Gateway Cities region of southeastern Los Angeles County. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 94,396, the city was incorporated on January 20,1923, and it became known as the Azalea City when it adopted the flower as its symbol in 1965. In 1990, South Gate was one of ten U. S. communities to receive the All-America City Award from the National Civic League, the South Gate area was inhabited by the Gabrielino/Tongva Indians before development by Spanish ranchers. In the summer of 1769, a group of Spanish explorers set out from the coast of San Diego to explore the territory between San Diego and the Bay of Monterey. With them was Father Juan Crespi, considered by historians to be one of the great diarists of the New World explorations and his daily entries were remarkably revealing of the country through which the caravan passed. The explorers proceeded in the direction of the San Gabriel Valley, across the Los Angeles River. Among the early Spanish settlers was one of California’s first families, the Lugo land grant encompassed a great part of what is now the City of South Gate. While Francisco Lugo was stationed at Mission San Antonio de Padua near Salinas, California, his first California son, Antonio Maria Lugo was born in 1775. That son became Don Antonio Maria Lugo, Spanish aristocrat and soldier, in 1810, the King of Spain formally granted the land to Lugo as a reward for his and his fathers military service. As Don Lugos family grew, he obtained San Bernardino Rancho, Lugo would direct the proceedings and settle disputes regarding ownership of contested animals as well as adjudicate agricultural disputes. In his saddle, he was the court and the plains his courtroom, Don Antonios son Vincente built his adobe dwelling in the 1850s on 5.5 acres. It is known as Lugo Ranch, and is situated on modern day Gage Avenue in the City of Bell Gardens, before the end of the 1870s, much of the original land grant had been replaced by tracts of 40-acre. By 1880, cattle raising had been replaced by agriculture as the most important local industry, during the years between 1910 and 1940, most of the agricultural land was replaced by homes and factories. The R. D. Tweedy family played an important part in South Gates history, Tweedy was born in 1812 in Illinois and came to California by ox-drawn cart in 1852. Mrs. Tweedy rode across the prairies perched on her chair in the cart. The family was large, and several generations have lived in this city, the family members bought some 2,000 acres of the land on which much of South Gate was built. The downtown business district in South Gate was named after the family and is known as the Tweedy Mile, the city was named in 1918 after the South Gate Gardens on the Cudahy Ranch
27.
Oshawa
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Oshawa is a city in Ontario, Canada, on the Lake Ontario shoreline. It lies in Southern Ontario, approximately 60 kilometres east of Downtown Toronto and it is commonly viewed as the eastern anchor of the Greater Toronto Area and of the Golden Horseshoe. It is the largest municipality in the Regional Municipality of Durham, the name Oshawa originates from the Ojibwa term aazhaway, meaning the crossing place or just cross. Oshawa’s roots are tied to the industry, specifically the Canadian division of General Motors Company. Founded in 1876 as the McLaughlin Carriage Company, General Motors of Canadas headquarters are located in the city, the automotive industry was the inspiration for Oshawas previous mottos, The City that Motovates Canada, and The City in Motion. Once recognized as the sole Automotive Capital of Canada, Oshawa today is an education, key labour force sectors include advanced manufacturing, health technology, logistics, energy and IT. Downtown Oshawa is identified as an Urban Growth Centre in the Government of Ontarios Places to Grow initiative, more than 5,000 people work and more than 2,400 university students study in the downtown core. The downtown is a prominent centre for entertainment and sporting events, food, Oshawa is home to a Regional Innovation Centre and offers start-up facilities for entrepreneurs and small businesses. Co-working offices are located in the downtown. Historians believe that the area that would become Oshawa began as a point for the fur trade. Beaver and other animals trapped for their pelts by local natives were traded with the Coureurs des bois, furs were loaded onto canoes by the Mississauga Indians at the Oshawa harbour and transported to the trading posts located to the west at the mouth of the Credit River. Around 1760, the French constructed a trading post near the location, this was abandoned after a few years. Most notably, one of the fur traders was Moody Farewell, in the late 18th century a local resident, Roger Conant, started an export business shipping salmon to the United States. His success attracted further migration into the region, a large number of the founding immigrants were United Empire Loyalists, who left the United States to live under British rule. Later Irish and then French Canadian immigration increased as did industrialization, as well, the surveys ordered by Governor John Graves Simcoe, and the subsequent land grants, helped populate the area. When Col. Asa Danforth laid out his York-to-Kingston road, it passed through what would later become Oshawa, in 1822, a colonization road known as Simcoe Street was constructed. It more or less followed the path of an old trail known as the Nonquon Road. This intersected the Kingston Road at what would become Oshawas Four Corners, in 1842, Skae, the postmaster, applied for official post office status, but was informed the community needed a better name
28.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
29.
Woodville, South Australia
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Woodville is a suburb of Adelaide, situated about 8 kilometres northwest of the Central Business District of Adelaide. It lies within the City of Charles Sturt, the postcode of Woodville is 5011. Woodville is bound by Cheltenham Parade to the west, Torrens Road to the north, Port Road to the south and Park Street to the east, excluding the area of Cheltenham Park Racecourse. Woodville was one of the first areas to be settled by European migrants in the mid-19th century, by 1853 Woodville consisted of 24 houses, a forge and a wheelwright’s shop. The Woodville Post Office opened around March 1856 and it has many fine examples of colonial and federation architecture and was considered to be a genteel area. Many European migrants settled in Woodville and the surrounds after World War II, Woodville Road was the hub of local activity with numerous commercial businesses. During the 1980s and 1990s, Woodville and its surrounds became home to many Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War, decline set in in the 1980s upon the closure of the Cheltenham plant of General Motors Holden. Woodville became a suburb, particularly during the 1990s. Since then, Woodville is undergoing a revival and many are now seeking residence in Woodville because of its architecture, Woodville Road, although not as a lively as it once was, is starting to develop a personality again. It was previously the home of the semi-professional Australian rules football team Woodville Football Club, Woodville merged with the West Torrens Football Club to form the Woodville-West Torrens Eagles in 1991. Suburbs adjacent to Woodville, Woodville Gardens, Woodville Park, Woodville West, the local zone high school is Woodville High School. In 2005, the Woodville Warriors won the ABL championship, which is South Australias state league and this was their first championship since 2000. History of Woodville, South Australia, Vol. I,1837 -1874, Vol. II, 1875-1960 Corporation of the City of Woodville Marsden, a History of Woodville, Corporation of the City of Woodville Geyer, M. & Donovan, P. From Parklands to Sea Coast, City of Hindmarsh & Woodville City of Charles Sturt
30.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
31.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
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Chevrolet straight-6 engine
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The Chevrolet inline 6 otto engine was Chevrolets sole engine from 1929, through 1954, and was the base engine starting in 1955 when they added the small block V8 to the lineup. It had finally been completely phased out by 1990 in North America and it was replaced by more recently developed V6 and four-cylinder engines. Many popular cars and trucks, including the Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Impala, Chevrolet did not offer another inline 6 until the 2002 General Motors Atlas engines debut in the Chevrolet TrailBlazer. The first mass-produced GM inline 6 was introduced in 1929 on Chevrolet cars and trucks, richard Grant insisted that the new design boast overhead valves. Chevrolet had long known for its valve-in-head four-cylinder engines. William S. Knudsens cast-iron wonder was produced through 1936 and it was 193.9 cubic inches in size and produced 50 hp. This engine used a steel crankshaft with three bearings and cast-iron pistons. Bore and stroke was 3.3125 in by 3.75 in, the 194 was shared with Chevrolet and GMC trucks for 1935 and 1936. A balanced crankshaft was introduced for 1932, while a higher compression ratio upped output to 60 hp, applications,1929 Chevrolet Series AC International 1930 Chevrolet Series AD Universal This engine was used in all Chevrolet passenger cars 1929-1933, and the 1934 Standard models. A 181-cubic-inch version was used by Chevrolet and GMC trucks in 1935 and 1936,206. 8-cubic-inch variant was used by Chevrolet and GMC trucks in 1934,1935, and 1936. The 1934 Chevrolet Master Deluxe series used this engine, as did all 1935-1935 Chevrolet passenger cars and this newly revised engine put out 80 hp. In 1935 and 1936, GMC and Chevrolet used an Oldsmobile 213 L-head engine, for 1937 and 1938, they used Oldsmobiles 230 L-head engine. The next-generation Chevrolet inline 6 was introduced in 1937 and phased out in 1963 in the US and it is often known as the Blue Flame engine, although that name was only officially applied beginning in 1953, and then only for one certain model of the engine. This engine had a 216. 48-cubic-inch displacement with a 3. 500” bore, a four-bearing crankshaft was added, along with 6.5,1 compression pistons, for 85 hp. A new cylinder head in 1941 increased output to 90 hp and this generation did not use a fully pressurized oiling system. The connecting rods were oiled using an oil trough built into the oil pan that had spray nozzles that squirted a stream of oil at the connecting rods, rod bearings were made of babbitt cast integral with the rod. The bearing was adjustable for wear by removing copper shims placed between the rod cap and connecting rod, in this way specified oil clearance could be maintained. If the crankshaft were to be turned undersized, or if the bearing was damaged or worn out, rod and bearing were replaced as a unit and this engine was also used in GMs British Bedford truck
33.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
34.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
35.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
36.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
37.
Cigarette lighter receptacle
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Examples of devices that can be operated from a cigarette lighter receptacle include lights, fans, beverage heating devices, and small motorized tools such as air compressors for inflating tires. Adapters for electronic devices may change voltage to be compatible with the supplied device, devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter. Car manufacturers may offer a cigarette lighter only as an optional extra-cost accessory, the electrical cigar-lighter was invented and patented in the early 1880s by the German inventor Friedrich Wilhelm Schindler. In the 1890s, these tools were sold as electrical cigar lighters, probably in the 1920s they were renamed cigarette lighters, as cigarettes overtook cigars in sales. Patent 1,376,154 was issued for a wireless or cordless lighter with a removable element. The igniter was heated in the socket and then removed for use after an appropriate time interval. In the United States, cigarette lighters started appearing as standard equipment in automobiles in 1925–1926, in 1928, the Connecticut Automotive Specialty Company in Bridgeport patented its version of an automotive cigarette lighter, which used a cord and reel. As the removable plug was returned to the socket, the wires were reeled back into it, the circuit was closed either by pressing a button or removing the igniter from its socket. The modern automatic removable automotive V-Coil lighter was developed by Casco in 1956, when pushed in, the lighter is held against the force of a spring by a clip attached to a bi-metallic strip. If the lighter is then removed from its socket, it can light a cigarette, cigar. In newer cars, the socket is equipped with a cover without the lighter heating element. However, the socket has been repurposed and continues to be used to power electronics in vehicles. The use of cigarette lighter receptacles to supply 12 volt DC power is an example of backward compatibility to a de facto standard. The connector falls far short of ideal, being large and awkward to use. Nevertheless, cigarette receptacles are in widespread use, and all but the lowest-cost cars, trucks, RVs. Portable cigarette lighter receptacles attached to cables and alligator clips for connection directly to car batteries are available for temporary use, standardized 12 volt DC automobile plugs are defined in the United States by UL Standard 2089 regarding vehicle battery adapters. This standard covers plugs and cord sets that insert into cigarette lighter receptacles, in Europe,12 volt plugs and sockets are not specially regulated, and do not require approvals for the CE mark. The male plug is used to feed power into a vehicle to recharge its battery
38.
Chrome plating
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Chrome plating, often referred to simply as chrome, is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a metal object. The chromed layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, ease cleaning procedures, sometimes a less expensive imitator of chrome may be used for aesthetic purposes. Different substrates need different etching solutions, such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, ferric chloride is also popular for the etching of nimonic alloys. Sometimes the component enters the chrome plating vat while electrically live, sometimes the component has a conforming anode made from lead/tin or platinized titanium. A typical hard chrome vat plates at about 1 mil per hour, various linishing and buffing processes are used in preparing components for decorative chrome plating. The chrome plating chemicals are very toxic, disposal of chemicals is regulated in most countries. Some common industry specifications governing the chrome plating process are AMS2460, AMS2406, hexavalent chromium plating, also known as hex-chrome, Cr+6, and chrome plating, uses chromium trioxide as the main ingredient. Hexavalent chromium plating solution is used for decorative and hard plating, along with bright dipping of copper alloys, chromic acid anodizing, a typical hexavalent chromium plating process is, activation bath, chromium bath, rinse, and rinse. The activation bath is typically a tank of chromic acid with a current run through it. This etches the surface and removes any scale. In some cases the activation step is done in the chromium bath, the chromium bath is a mixture of chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid, the ratio of which varies greatly between 75,1 to 250,1 by weight. This results in an extremely acidic bath, the temperature and current density in the bath affect the brightness and final coverage. For decorative coating the temperature ranges from 35 to 45 °C, temperature is also dependent on the current density, because a higher current density requires a higher temperature. Finally, the bath is agitated to keep the temperature steady. One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency and this means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem the part may be over-plated and ground to size, from a health standpoint, hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U. S. the Environmental Protection Agency regulates it heavily, due to its low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity a toxic mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath. Wet scrubbers are used to control these emissions, the discharge from the wet scrubbers is treated to precipitate the chromium from the solution because it cannot remain in the waste water
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