1.
Theodolite
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A theodolite /θiːˈɒdəlaɪt/ is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications, and have adapted for specialized purposes such as meteorology. A modern theodolite consists of a telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes, the horizontal or trunnion axis and the zenith axis. A theodolite measures vertical angles as angles between the zenith, forwards or plunged—typically approximately 90 and 270 degrees, when the telescope is pointed at a target object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision, typically to seconds of arc. A theodolite may be either transit or non-transit, in a transit theodolite, the telescope can be inverted in the vertical plane, whereas the rotation in the same plane is restricted to a semi-circle in a non-transit theodolite. Some types of transit theodolites do not allow the measurement of vertical angles, the builders level is sometimes mistaken for a transit theodolite, but it measures neither horizontal nor vertical angles. It uses a level to set a telescope level to define a line of sight along a horizontal plane. A theodolite is mounted on its head by means of a forced centering plate or tribrach containing four thumbscrews, or in modern theodolites. Before use, a theodolite must be placed vertically above the point to be measured using a plumb bob. The instrument is then set level using leveling footscrews and circular, both axes of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can be read through magnifying lenses. The vertical circle which transits about the horizontal axis should read 90° when the axis is horizontal, or 270° when the instrument is in its second position. Half of the difference between the two positions is called the index error, the horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite must be perpendicular, if not then a horizontal axis error exists. This can be tested by aligning the tubular spirit bubble parallel to a line between two footscrews and setting the bubble central, a horizontal axis error is present if the bubble runs off central when the tubular spirit bubble is reversed. To adjust, the operator removes 1/2 the amount the bubble has run off using the screw, then re-level, test. If not, then a collimation error exists, index error, horizontal axis error and collimation error are regularly determined by calibration and are removed by mechanical adjustment. Their existence is taken account in the choice of measurement procedure in order to eliminate their effect on the measurement results of the theodolite. The term diopter was used in old texts as a synonym for theodolite. This derives from an astronomical instrument called a dioptra
2.
Profession
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The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
3.
Structure
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Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, the latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. Two-dimensional elements with a third dimension have little of either. The structure elements are combined in structural systems, the majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional structures. In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins. The function of molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy, the primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding, the two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the chain. Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure, the structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom, bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds, atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations
4.
Transportation system
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A transport network, or transportation network is a realisation of a spatial network, describing a structure which permits either vehicular movement or flow of some commodity. Examples are network of roads and streets, railways, pipes, aqueducts, one can distinguish land, sea and air transportation networks. Transport network analysis is used to determine the flow of vehicles through a transport network and it may combine different modes of transport, for example, walking and car, to model multi-modal journeys. Transport network analysis falls within the field of transport engineering, braess paradox Flow network Heuristic routing Interplanetary Transport Network
5.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
6.
Civil engineering
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Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering, Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence, during this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The construction of pyramids in Egypt were some of the first instances of large structure constructions, the Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, in 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, the institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach engineering in the United States was Norwich University. The first degree in engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905, throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances, structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design, after taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. In most countries, a degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification. After completing a degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a engineer, a chartered engineer
7.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
8.
John Smeaton
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John Smeaton FRS was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses. He was also a mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, and often regarded as the father of civil engineering and he was associated with the Lunar Society. Smeaton was born in Austhorpe, Leeds, England, in 1750, his premises were in the Great Turnstile in Holborn. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753, Smeatons water wheel experiments were conducted on a small scale model with which he tested various configurations over a period of seven years. The resulting increasing efficiency in water power contributed to the Industrial Revolution and this led him into conflict with members of the academic establishment who rejected Leibnizs theory, believing it inconsistent with Sir Isaac Newtons conservation of momentum. Recommended by the Royal Society, Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse and he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. Portland cement led to the re-emergence of concrete as a building material. He also acted as a consultant on the disastrous 63-year-long New Harbour at Rye, the project is now known informally as Smeatons Harbour, but despite the name his involvement was limited and occurred more than 30 years after work on the harbour commenced. Employing his skills as a engineer, he devised a water engine for the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in 1761. In 1782 he built the Chimney Mill at Spital Tongues in Newcastle upon Tyne and he also improved Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine, erecting one at Chacewater mine, Wheal Busy, in Cornwall in 1775. In 1789 Smeaton applied an idea by Denis Papin, by using a pump to maintain the pressure. This bell, built for the Hexham bridge project, was not intended for underwater work, Smeaton is also credited with explaining the fundamental differences and benefits of overshot versus undershot water wheels. Smeaton experimented with the Newcomen steam engine and made marked improvements around the time James Watt was building his first engines, highly regarded by other engineers, he contributed to the Lunar Society and founded the Society of Civil Engineers in 1771. He coined the term civil engineers to distinguish them from military engineers graduating from the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the Society was a forerunner of the Institution of Civil Engineers, established in 1818, and was renamed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers in 1830. His pupils included canal engineer William Jessop and architect and engineer Benjamin Latrobe and he died after suffering a stroke while walking in the garden of his family home at Austhorpe, and was buried in the parish church at Whitkirk, West Yorkshire. Smeaton is one of six civil engineers depicted in the Stephenson stained glass window, designed by William Wailes, a memorial stone commemorating Smeaton himself was unveiled in the Abbey on 7 November 1994, by Noel Ordman, President of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. John Smeaton Academy, a school in the suburbs of Leeds adjacent to the Pendas Fields estate near Austhorpe, is named after Smeaton
9.
Military engineer
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Military engineering is loosely defined as the art and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and communications. Military engineers are responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering, in the 20th and 21st centuries, military engineering also includes other engineering disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering techniques. According to NATO, military engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component or service, Military engineering does not encompass the activities undertaken by those engineers who maintain, repair and operate vehicles, vessels, aircraft, weapon systems and equipment. Military engineering is a subject taught in military academies or schools of military engineering. The construction and demolition tasks related to engineering are usually performed by military engineers including soldiers trained as sappers or pioneers. In modern armies, soldiers trained to perform such tasks while well forward in battle, the word engineer was initially used in the context of warfare, dating back to 1325 when engine’er referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, engine referred to a machine, i. e. A mechanical contraption used in war, in its place, the term military engineering has come to be used. Modern military engineering can be divided into three main tasks or fields, combat engineering, strategic support, and ancillary support, combat engineering is associated with engineering on the battlefield. Combat engineers are responsible for increasing mobility on the front lines of war such as digging trenches, strategic support is associated with providing service in communication zones such as the construction of airfields and the improvement and upgrade of ports, roads and railways communication. Ancillary support includes provision and distribution of maps as well as the disposal of unexploded warheads, Military engineers construct bases, airfields, roads, bridges, ports, and hospitals. During peacetime before modern warfare, military engineers took the role of civil engineers by participating in the construction of civil-works projects, nowadays, military engineers are almost entirely engaged in war logistics and preparedness. Combat engineers clear routes, repair airfields and harbours, bridge rivers all at top speed, the first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known as architecti. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries, such military engineering feats would have been completely new, and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. The best known of these Roman army engineers due to his writings surviving is Vitruvius, alexander the Great also used engineers in his army. In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for warfare and building field fortifications, temporary camps. The most notable engineers of ancient times were the Romans and Chinese, the Romans were responsible for constructing fortified wooden camps and paved roads for their legions
10.
Chemical engineering
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A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
11.
Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa
12.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
13.
Land surveying
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Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
14.
Construction engineering
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Construction engineering is considered a professional sub-practice area of Civil engineering. Construction technology is a field that deals more with the practical aspects of projects. Construction technologists or construction technicians learn some of the design similar to civil engineers. These technicians are unique such that they are a cross between civil engineers and construction managers, at the educational level, civil engineering students concentrate primarily on the design work, which is more analytical, gearing them toward a career as a design professional. This essentially requires them to take a multitude of challenging engineering science, also, education for construction managers is primarily focused on construction procedures, methods, costs, schedules, and personnel management. Their primary concern is to deliver a project on time, within budget, the difference between a construction technologist and a civil engineer is that civil engineering is an engineering discipline. Construction technology students take basic courses as well as construction management courses. This allows them to understand both basic design functions as well as the requirements needed to design and build todays infrastructures. It should be noted that a career in design work does require a professional engineer license, individuals who pursue this career path are strongly advised to sit for the Engineer In Training exam while in college as it takes five years post graduate to obtain the PE license. Entry-level construction manager positions are typically called project engineers or assistant project engineers and they are responsible for preparing purchasing requisitions, processing change orders, preparing monthly budgeting reports, and handling meeting minutes. They contribute to the creation of infrastructure that best meets the demands of its environment. They must be able to understand infrastructure life cycles, when compared and contrasted to design engineers, construction engineers bring to the table their own unique perspectives for solving technical challenges with clarity and imagination. ABET accreditation is assurance that a college or university program meets the quality standards established by the profession for which it prepares its students, in the US there are currently twenty-five programs that exist in the entire country so careful college consideration is advised. A typical construction engineering curriculum is a mixture of engineering mechanics, engineering design, construction management and general science and this usually leads to a Bachelor of Science degree. The B. S. degree along with some design or construction experience is sufficient for most entry level positions, graduate schools may be an option for those who want to go further in depth of the construction and engineering subjects taught at the undergraduate level. In most cases construction engineering graduates look to either civil engineering, engineering management, job prospects for construction engineers generally have a strong cyclical variation. For example, starting in 2008 - continuing until at least 2011 - job prospects have been due to the collapse of housing bubbles in many parts of the world. In early 2010 the United States construction industry had a 27% unemployment rate, the construction unemployment rate is comparable to the United States 1933 unemployment rate - the lowest point of the Great Depression - of 25%
15.
Geotechnical engineering
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Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define the material properties. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place, a geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations, retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste, Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms. The fields of engineering and engineering geology are closely related. However, the field of engineering is a specialty of engineering. Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, as the cities expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized foundations, Ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no basis for soil design had been developed. Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French Royal Engineer, recognized the natural slope of different soils in 1717, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a materials unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type. The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb developed improved methods to determine the pressures against military ramparts. By combining Coulombs theory with Christian Otto Mohrs 2D stress state, although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because c is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today. In the 19th century Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcys Law describing the flow of fluids in porous media, albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification. Osborne Reynolds recognized in 1885 that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense, modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl Terzaghi. Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, in his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of a soil. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil, Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is a method of testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems
16.
Structural engineering
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They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the performance of different materials. Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build complex structural systems, Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis, entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the design and integrity of an entire system. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures and it became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of the architecture as distinct profession from the engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the engineer were usually one. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world. The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of engineering worldwide in the service of the profession. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B. C. E, when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the form of a pyramid is inherently stable. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site, since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa, the blocks will not fail under compression. Therefore, the strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramids geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as masons and carpenters. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances
17.
Land development
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In an economics context, land development is also sometimes advertised as land improvement or land amelioration. It refers to investments making land more usable by humans, for accounting purposes it refers to any variety of projects that increase the value of the property. Most are depreciable, but some improvements are not able to be depreciated because a useful life cannot be determined. Home building and containment are two of the most common and the oldest types of development and this profit enhancement means identifying and developing the best scheme for the local marketplace, whilst satisfying the local planning process. Development Analysis puts development prospects and the development process itself under the microscope, development analysis can add significantly to the value of land and development, and as such is a crucial tool for landowners and developers. It is a step in Kevin A. Lynchs 1960 book The Image of the City. The landowner can share in additional planning gain via an awareness of the development potential. This is done via a residual development appraisal or residual valuation, the residual appraisal calculates the sale value of the end product, and hypothetically deducts costs, including planning and construction costs, finance costs and developers profit. The residue, or leftover proportion, represents the land value, therefore, in maximising the GDV, land value is concurrently enhanced. Land value is highly sensitive to supply and demand, build costs, planning and affordable housing contributions, understanding the intricacies of the development system and the effect of value drivers can result in massive differences in the landowners sale value. Land improvement in the economic sense can often lead to degradation from the ecological perspective. Land development and the change in land value does not usually take into account changes in the ecology of the developed area, new creation of farmland will rely on the conversion and development of previous forests, savannas or grassland. Recreation of farmland from wasteland, deserts or previous impervious surfaces is considerably less frequent because of the degraded or missing fertile soil in the latter, starting from forests, land is made arable by assarting or slash-and-burn. Agricultural development furthermore includes, Hydrological measures Soil improvement, road construction Because the newly created farmland is more prone to erosion than soil stabilized by tree roots, such a conversion may mean irreversible crossing of an ecological threshold. The resulting deforestation is not easily compensated for by reforestation or afforestation. Examples of land restoration/land rehabilitation counted as land development in the strict sense are still rare, however, renaturation, reforestation, stream restoration may all contribute to a healthier environment and quality of life, especially in densely populated regions. The same is true for planned vegetation like parks and gardens, but restoration plays a particular role, because it reverses previous conversions to built and agricultural areas
18.
Transportation engineering
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It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering. The importance of engineering within the civil engineering profession can be judged by the number of divisions in ASCE that are directly related to transportation. There are six such divisions representing one-third of the total 18 technical divisions within the ASCE, the planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice. More sophisticated forecasting can include aspects of traveler decisions, including auto ownership, trip chaining. Passenger trips are the focus of transportation engineering because they represent the peak of demand on any transportation system. The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying list online the safety protocols, geometric design requirements, transportation engineering, as practiced by civil engineers, primarily involves planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, the design aspects of transportation engineering include the sizing of transportation facilities, determining the materials and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry of the roadway. Before any planning occurs the Engineer must take what is known as an inventory of the area or if it is appropriate and these inventories help the engineer create business models to complete accurate forecasts of the future conditions of the systemReview. Operations and management involve traffic engineering, so that vehicles move smoothly on the road or track, older techniques include signs, signals, markings, and tolling. Newer technologies involve intelligent transportation systems, including advanced traveler information systems, advanced control systems. Human factors are an aspect of engineering, particularly concerning driver-vehicle interface and user interface of road signs, signals. Engineers in this specialization, Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the project. Analyze locations of high volumes and high collisions for safety and capacity. Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system, utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the roadways themselves. Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads, typical tasks would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and design, and construction cost estimating. Railroad engineers can also move into the field of train dispatching which focuses on train movement control. Railway engineers also work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network by reinvesting and revitalizing the rail system to future demands
19.
Hydraulic engineering
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Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees. Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its boundary. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest, in a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluids surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid, pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Four basic devices for measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential manometer, Bourdon gauge. As Prasuhn states, On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid and this reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces, dams, the main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity, ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a force, whereas an ideal fluid doesnt deform. The various effects of disturbance on a flow are stable, transition. For an ideal fluid, Bernoullis equation holds along streamlines, as the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually adheres to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is forced to decelerate, creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards and this zone is known as the boundary layer
20.
Environmental engineering
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It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers study the effect of advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct studies on management to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment. Environmental engineers design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, at many universities environmental engineering programs are offered at either the department of civil engineering or the department of chemical engineering at engineering faculties. Environmental civil engineers focus on hydrology, water management, bioremediation. Environmental chemical engineers, on the hand, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies. Additionally, engineers are more frequently obtaining specialized training in law and are utilizing their technical expertise in the practices of environmental engineering law, most jurisdictions also impose licensing and registration requirements. Ever since people first recognized that their health is related to the quality of their environment, the ancient Indian Harappan civilization utilized early sewers in some cities more than 5000 years ago. The Romans constructed aqueducts to prevent drought and to create a clean, in the 15th century, Bavaria created laws restricting the development and degradation of alpine country that constituted the regions water supply. However, its roots back to early efforts in public health engineering. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities, in many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits for those societies had longer-term impacts which reduced other environmental qualities. One example is the application of the pesticide DDT to control agricultural pests in the years following World War II. The story of DDT as vividly told in Rachel Carsons Silent Spring is considered to be the birth of the environmental movement. Conservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm the environment have been developed by various societies for millennia. Notable examples are the laws decreeing the construction of sewers in London and Paris in the 19th century, to some extent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts, in the United States, the practice of environmental assessment was formally initiated on January 1,1970, the effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act. Since that time, more than 100 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have adopted procedure used elsewhere, NEPA is applicable to all federal agencies in the United States. Water is treated to water quality objectives for the end uses
21.
Critical infrastructure
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Critical infrastructure is a term used by governments to describe assets that are essential for the functioning of a society and economy - the infrastructure. The European Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection has been out in EU Directives by the Commission. It has proposed a list of European critical infrastructures based upon inputs by its Member States, the German critical-infrastructure protection programme is coordinated by the Federal Ministry of the Interior. The USA has had a wide-reaching Critical Infrastructure Protection Program in place since 1996, in 2014 the NIST Cybersecurity Framework was published, and quickly became a popular set of guidelines, despite the imposing costs of full compliance. Presidential Policy Directive 21, issued in February,2013 entitled Critical Infrastructure Security, the 2013 version of the NIPP has faced criticism for lacking viable risk measures
22.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
23.
Physical science
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Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, in natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria. Natural science can be broken into two branches, life science, for example biology and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences, physics – natural and physical science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Branches of astronomy Chemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties, branches of chemistry Earth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment works and it includes the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Branches of Earth science History of physical science – history of the branch of science that studies non-living systems. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, however, the term physical creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the problems concerning the motion of rockets. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars, History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures, History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets, moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system, History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the properties of condensed phases of matter. History of cryogenics – history of the cryogenics is the study of the production of low temperature. History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them
24.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
25.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
26.
Doctoral
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
27.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
28.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
29.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
30.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
31.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
32.
Industrial engineer
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Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University
33.
Institute of technology
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An institute of technology is a type of university which specializes in engineering, technology, Applied Science, and possibly natural sciences. How the terms are used varies from country to country, the English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ meaning many and τεχνικός meaning arts, the oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology. Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794, in some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, in countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities, Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelors, masters and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees, the UKs first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as technical education schools. This is mostly the case in countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in education in general. The aspects of this debate can follow the lines, To what degree is technology defined as a concept. What is the scope of technology discourse, what is the place and relation of science with technology. How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa, can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions. Who ultimately is responsible for training and What is the role of technology in this. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned, 1970s–1990s During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system, in the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes, AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later. 1990s–today Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical, a recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
34.
Exam
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A test or examination is an assessment intended to measure a test-takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. A test may be administered formally or informally, an example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be an examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I. Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score, a test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a childs knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject, a standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are used in education, professional certification, psychology, the military. A non-standardized test is flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty. Since these tests are developed by individual instructors, the format. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the level of students, to motivate students to study. Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for five minutes to an entire class period. In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty and format. Although there is variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test, there is variability between different types of standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test, a test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be responsible for its administration
35.
Flemish Community
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The term community should then not be capitalized. State reforms in Belgium turned the country from a state into a federal one. Cultural communities were the first type of decentralisation in 1970, forming the Dutch, French, later on, in 1980, these became responsible for more cultural matters and were renamed to simply Community, the Dutch Community also being renamed to the Flemish Community. In the same state reform of 1980, the Flemish and Walloon Region were set up, in Flanders it was decided that the institutions of the Flemish Community would take up the tasks of the Flemish Region, so there is only one Flemish Parliament and one Flemish Government. Legally speaking, in the region of Brussel-Capital, the Flemish Community is responsible not for people but for Flemish institutions such as schools, theatres, libraries. The reason is no distinct sub-national status exists in Belgium. Yet, individuals living in Brussels can opt by their own choice for certain policies of the Flemish Community, Dutch is the official language of the Flemish Community. Minorities speak French, Yiddish, Turkish, Arabic, Berber, Italian, Spanish, English, though most of these groups are recent immigrants, since the Middle Ages, Jews have formed the oldest minority to retain its own identity. Compared with most areas in the Netherlands, the dialects of Flemish people still tend to be strong. In Dutch, these are often called tussentaal or, rather derogatorily, more recently, a number of local initiatives have been set up to save the traditional dialects and their diversity. In Brussels, the dialect is heavily influenced by French. Nowadays, most Flemings in Brussels do not speak the local dialect and this is due in part to the relatively large numbers of young Flemings coming to Brussels, after a long period of many more others moving out while French-speakers moved in. In certain municipalities along the border with the Walloon and the Brussels-Capital regions and these cover rights such as to receive official documentation in their own tongue. The community competencies there, are exercised by the two affected institutional communities, the Flemish Community therefore established a local elected council and executive to cater for intermediate-level decision making & public services. The VGC then recognised local, municipal institutions to care of the purely local public service in these community areas. Flanders has a radio and television broadcasting company, the Vlaamse Radio en Televisieomroep or VRT in Dutch. Since 1989, several companies for region-wide radio and television broadcasting have become established. There are also so-called regional broadcast companies of which the range is limited to smaller parts of the Flemish Region
36.
French Community of Belgium
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In Belgium, the French Community refers to one of the three constituent constitutional linguistic communities. The name French Community refers to Francophone Belgians, and not to French people residing in Belgium, as such, the French Community of Belgium is sometimes rendered in English as the French-speaking Community of Belgium for clarity. The Community has its own parliament, government, and administration and its official flag is identical to the Walloon Flag, which is also the official flag of the Walloons of Wallonia. Wallonia is home to 80% of all Francophone Belgians, with the remaining 20% residing in Brussels, the French Community of Belgium includes 4.5 million people, of whom,3.6 million live in the Walloon Region,900,000 living in the Brussels-Capital Region. French speakers who live in the Flemish Region are not included in the numbers for the French-speaking Community. Their number is unknown, given the absence of sub-nationality status, estimates of the French-speaking population of Flanders vary from 120,000, around 200,000, to around 300,000. The French Community of Belgium makes up about 41% of the population of Belgium, 58% of the population belongs to the Flemish Community. For years there have been hints that the Community wanted to demonstrate the link between Wallonia and Brussels, the two main territories where the French speakers are in the majority. The independent/private media uses both the alternative and the original designation, in September 2011, the Community adopted a new logo that incorporates its new name. The French Community of Belgium is governed by the Parliament of the French Community, which selects the executive branch, the Parliament of the French Community is the legislative assembly of the French Community of Belgium based in the Quartier Royal. These members are elected for a term of five years, the current President of the Parliament of the French Community is Philippe Courard. Note, Government coalition parties are denoted with bullets The Cabinet of the French Community of Belgium is the branch of the French Community. It consists of a number of ministers chosen by the parliament and is headed by a Minister-President, following the 25 May 2014 election, the PS and CDH parties formed a coalition. A few days later, Milquet was replaced by Marie-Martine Schyns, Schyns took over the Compulsory Education portfolio, which she was already in charge of during the previous legislature. Greoli took over Culture and Child Care from Milquet and also received the Sports portfolio from René Collin, Brussels-Capital Region Commission communautaire française Communities and regions of Belgium Wallonia French Community of Belgium, official website. Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, official website
37.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
38.
Bologna process
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The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements between European countries to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher-education qualifications. The process has created the European Higher Education Area under the Lisbon Recognition Convention and it is named after the University of Bologna, where the Bologna declaration was signed by education ministers from 29 European countries in 1999. The process was opened to countries in the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe. Before the signing of the Bologna declaration, the Magna Charta Universitatum was issued at a meeting of university rectors celebrating the 900th anniversary of the University of Bologna in 1988, the Bologna Process has 50 participating countries. Monaco and San Marino are the members of the Council of Europe which did not adopt the process. The ESU, EUA, EURASHE, EI, ENQA, UNICE, other groups at this level are ENIC, NARIC and EURODOC. Four countries are not members of the process, Israel is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although it has observer status. Although Israel is not geographically part of Europe, it is part of the UNESCO European Region, Israel is also a signatory of the Lisbon Recognition Convention but, under the criteria of the Berlin Communiqué, ineligible for the Bologna Process. Kosovo is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although Serbia is a party, Kosovo declared independence from it and is theoretically a part of the Bologna Process since the 1999 war. It was suggested that Kosovo could be associated with the process in a category appropriate to its situation, Northern Cyprus satisfies the criteria for membership applications to the Bologna process established in the 2003 Berlin communique. The universities in Northern Cyprus can freely follow the Bologna priorities such as the degree system, quality assurance. This scheme enables undergraduate students and teachers to spend one year abroad at an EU university/higher education institution, the basic framework is three cycles of higher-education qualifications. In describing the cycles, the uses the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, First cycle, typically 180–240 ECTS credits. Second cycle, typically 90–120 ECTS credits, usually awarding a masters degree Third cycle, There is no concrete ECTS range, since the disciplines vary in length and comprehensiveness. In most cases, it would take three to four years to earn a degree and another one or two years for a masters degree. Doctoral degrees usually require two to four years of specialization, primarily individual research under a mentor. Degree names may vary by country, one academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS credits, equivalent to 1, 500–1,800 hours of study. In order to enhance its competitiveness by cutting down costs, therefore a Europe-wide standardization of the values produced in each of the national higher educational systems is called for
39.
Class ring
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A class ring is a ring worn by students and alumni to commemorate their graduation, generally for a high school, college, or university. Today class rings can be customized, from the material and style that the ring is made of to the color, there is a wide selection of emblems, pictures, and words that can be added to the sides of the rings and even inside the center gem. The tradition of class rings originated with the class of 1835 at the United States Military Academy at West Point. Prior to graduation, these classes wore the USMA Class Ring with the Class Crest closest to the heart, following graduation, members of these classes wore the ring with the Academy Crest closest to the heart, signifying their bond with the Academy as a whole. I wear the ring and I return often to the city of Charleston, South Carolina, author Pat Conroy attended and graduated from The Citadel and wrote the fictional account of a cadets journey at a military school set in Charleston, South Carolina. Aggie Ring Doctoral ring Iron ring MIT class ring X-Ring The Citadel Ring United States Military Academy class ring Media related to Class rings at Wikimedia Commons
40.
Norwegian Institute of Technology
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Not to be confused with the National Institute of Technology The Norwegian Institute of Technology, known by its Norwegian abbreviation NTH was a science institute in Trondheim, Norway. It was established in 1910, and existed as an independent technical university for 89 years, in 1996 NTH ceased to exist as an organizational superstructure when the university was restructured and rebranded. The former NTH departments are now basic building blocks of the Norwegian University of Science, NTH was primarily a polytechnic institute, educating master level engineers as well as architects. In 1992 NTH had 7627 master and doctoral students and 1591 employees, it graduated 1262 chartered engineers,52 chartered architects, the operating budget was equivalent to USD100 M, and the total premises amounted to around 260,000 m². Since the merger, it forms a part of the University commonly known as Gløshaugen, after the geographical area in which it is situated. This will at least entail, 1) early years, pre-WWII history, incl Samfundet, 2) NTH during WWII, 3) possibly some info on each decade until 96, incl SINTEF, RUNIT, PVV, etc. World War II radar and ASDIC pioneer, research and industry mentor, technology historian Johannes Falnes, World War II resistance agent, defence research director, Minister of Industry Terje Michalsen, electronics engr. Venture capitalist Lars Monrad Krohn, electronics engr, industrialist Ingvild Myhre, electronics engr. telecom industry executive Lars Onsager, chemical engr. 1968 Nobel laureate Venketa Parthasarathy, chemical engr. noted for work on wood pulp and two-stage oxygen delignification Erik Rolfsen, architect and city planner for Oslo Edgar B. Student society co-founder, popular science & technology author Rolf Skaar, cybernetics engr. industrialist, Norwegian Space Centre director Einar Aasen Skogsholm, VP of MECO Øystein Stray Spetalen, petroleum engr. MP for 20 years, former Conservative party parliamentary leader Vebjørn Tandberg, industrialist Theodore Theodorsen, Norwegian-American aerodynamicist Leif Tronstad, O. B. E. Chemist, nuclear chemistry scientist, planner and organiser of World War IIs Operation Gunnerside Tor Olav Trøim, shipping and energy industry executive John Ugelstad, chemical engr. Inventor of the Rottefella ski binding and Dromedille dinghy, World War II resistance agent Vegard Wollan, sINTEFs development and investment company Sun Microsystems Trondheim, formerly ClustRa Systems Kongsberg Oil & Gas Technologies AS, acquired Systems in Motion AS
41.
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
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The Norwegian University of Science and Technology is a public research university with campuses in the cities of Trondheim, Gjøvik and Ålesund in Norway. NTNU is the largest of the eight universities in Norway, and, as its name suggests, has the national responsibility for higher education in engineering. Prior to the 1996 merger, NTH, AVH, DMF, and VM together constituted the University of Trondheim, however, the universitys roots go back to 1760, with the foundation of the Trondheim Society, which in 1767 became the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters. In 2010 the society, and NTNU, as the museum now is part of the university. NTNU itself celebrated the 100th anniversary of the foundation of NTH this year, the centennial was also celebrated by the publication of several books, among them a history of the university, entitled Turbulens og tankekraft. Historien om NTNU which translates as Turbulence and mindpower, The history of NTNU, the context for the request was that the Norwegian government wanted to cut back on the number of institutions in the sector. The merger, which went into effect in January,2016, NTNU has several campuses in Trondheim, with Gløshaugen, for engineering and sciences, and Dragvoll, for humanities and social sciences as the main two. Other campuses include Tyholt for marine technology, Øya for medicine, Kalvskinnet for archaeology, Midtbyen for the music conservatory, with the 2016 merger, NTNU added campuses elsewhere in Trondheim as well as in Gjøvik and Ålesund. NTNU has long considered the possibility of bringing the activity of the two largest campuses together at or near NTNUs Gløshaugen campus, in 2013 the Rector initiated a vision project, with the charge to define different perspectives on future development from a 50-year perspective. That same year,2013, the Norwegian Ministry of Education, the reports were presented in 2014, and both recommended bringing Dragvoll and Gløshaugen together, and better integrating them with the city. A unanimous NTNU board endorsed the recommendations in the vision report, NTNU is governed by a board of 11 members. This is according to the Norwegian Act relating to universities and university colleges, two of the members are elected by and among the students. Academic and administrative staff contribute 6,700 FTE of which 4053 are in education, NTNU has more than 100 laboratories and is at any time running some 2,000 research projects. Students and staff can take advantage of roughly 300 research agreements or exchange programs with 58 institutions worldwide, olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, and is located in Campus Øya in Trondheim. Its main focus areas of research are translational research, medical technology and health surveys, biobanks, the faculty has about 350 master’s degree students,250 bachelor’s degree students,720 medical students and more than 500 students attending other courses. Funding from the Research Council of Norway totaled 82 million euros, the university is home to four of 21 Norwegian Centers of Excellence. The Centre for the Biology of Memory is also one of four Kavli Neuroscience Institutes, in 2012 Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg opened the Norwegian Brain Centre as an outgrowth of NTNUs Kavli Institute one of the largest research laboratories of its kind in the world. To increase Open Access publishing, NTNU has established a publishing fund, in 2008 NTNUs digital institutional repository was founded
42.
Iron ring
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The Iron Ring is a ring worn by many Canadian-trained engineers, as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession. The ring symbolizes the pride which engineers have in their profession, the ring serves as a reminder to the engineer and others of the engineer’s obligation to live by a high standard of professional conduct. It is not a symbol of qualification as an engineer – this is determined by the provincial and territorial licensing bodies, the Iron Ring is made from either wrought iron or stainless steel. The first ceremony awarding the ring was held in 1925, under the supervision of Herbert E. T. Haultain, the rings are given in ceremonies held at individual universities, each assigned one of 26 camps of the Corporation of the Seven Wardens. Many incorrectly believe that the rings are made from the steel of a beam from the first Quebec Bridge, seventy-five construction workers died in the collapse which was attributed to poor planning and design by the overseeing engineers. Rudyard Kipling, who wrote the ritual obligation, indicated that the Ring as an allegory in itself be rough, not smoothed, and hammered, and as a ring have no beginning nor end. There is no evidence that there is any particular history in the source of Cold Iron for the Ring, remnants of the Quebec Bridge legend still exist in Canada. The Iron Ring is worn on the finger of the working hand. There, the act as a sharp reminder of ones obligation while the engineer works. This is particularly true of recently obligated engineers, whose rings bear sharp, unworn, protocol dictates that the rings should be returned by retired engineers or by the families of deceased engineers. Some camps offer previously obligated or experienced rings, but they are now due to medical and practical complications. The Ring itself is small and understated, designed as a constant reminder, rather than a piece of jewelry, the Rings were originally hammered manually with a rough outer surface. The modern machined ring design is unique, a reminder of the manual process, twelve half-circle facets are carved into the top and bottom of the outer surface, with the two halves offset by one facet radius. It is a symbol that reflects the moral, ethical and professional commitment made by the engineer who wears the ring, the ceremonies are private affairs with no publicity. Invitations to attend are extended to local engineering alumni and professional engineers by those who are scheduled to participate, for some schools, the invitation to witness the ceremony is open to anyone in the engineering profession, and non-obligated engineers may not participate in the ritual. Some graduating engineers choose to receive a ring passed on from a relative or mentor, based upon the success of the Iron Ring in Canada, a similar program was created in the United States, where the Order of the Engineer was founded in 1970. The organization conducts similar ring ceremonies at a number of U. S. colleges, in which the recipient signs an Obligation of the Engineer, the first such ceremony occurred on June 4,1970, at the Cleveland State University under the supervision of Lloyd Chancy. NTH Ring Iron Ring Clock Henry Petroski, To Forgive Design, Understanding Failure Cambridge, Mass, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,2012, chapter 8, The obligation of an engineer, p. 175-198
43.
Bologna Process
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The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements between European countries to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher-education qualifications. The process has created the European Higher Education Area under the Lisbon Recognition Convention and it is named after the University of Bologna, where the Bologna declaration was signed by education ministers from 29 European countries in 1999. The process was opened to countries in the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe. Before the signing of the Bologna declaration, the Magna Charta Universitatum was issued at a meeting of university rectors celebrating the 900th anniversary of the University of Bologna in 1988, the Bologna Process has 50 participating countries. Monaco and San Marino are the members of the Council of Europe which did not adopt the process. The ESU, EUA, EURASHE, EI, ENQA, UNICE, other groups at this level are ENIC, NARIC and EURODOC. Four countries are not members of the process, Israel is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although it has observer status. Although Israel is not geographically part of Europe, it is part of the UNESCO European Region, Israel is also a signatory of the Lisbon Recognition Convention but, under the criteria of the Berlin Communiqué, ineligible for the Bologna Process. Kosovo is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although Serbia is a party, Kosovo declared independence from it and is theoretically a part of the Bologna Process since the 1999 war. It was suggested that Kosovo could be associated with the process in a category appropriate to its situation, Northern Cyprus satisfies the criteria for membership applications to the Bologna process established in the 2003 Berlin communique. The universities in Northern Cyprus can freely follow the Bologna priorities such as the degree system, quality assurance. This scheme enables undergraduate students and teachers to spend one year abroad at an EU university/higher education institution, the basic framework is three cycles of higher-education qualifications. In describing the cycles, the uses the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, First cycle, typically 180–240 ECTS credits. Second cycle, typically 90–120 ECTS credits, usually awarding a masters degree Third cycle, There is no concrete ECTS range, since the disciplines vary in length and comprehensiveness. In most cases, it would take three to four years to earn a degree and another one or two years for a masters degree. Doctoral degrees usually require two to four years of specialization, primarily individual research under a mentor. Degree names may vary by country, one academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS credits, equivalent to 1, 500–1,800 hours of study. In order to enhance its competitiveness by cutting down costs, therefore a Europe-wide standardization of the values produced in each of the national higher educational systems is called for
44.
Construction Engineering
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Construction engineering is considered a professional sub-practice area of Civil engineering. Construction technology is a field that deals more with the practical aspects of projects. Construction technologists or construction technicians learn some of the design similar to civil engineers. These technicians are unique such that they are a cross between civil engineers and construction managers, at the educational level, civil engineering students concentrate primarily on the design work, which is more analytical, gearing them toward a career as a design professional. This essentially requires them to take a multitude of challenging engineering science, also, education for construction managers is primarily focused on construction procedures, methods, costs, schedules, and personnel management. Their primary concern is to deliver a project on time, within budget, the difference between a construction technologist and a civil engineer is that civil engineering is an engineering discipline. Construction technology students take basic courses as well as construction management courses. This allows them to understand both basic design functions as well as the requirements needed to design and build todays infrastructures. It should be noted that a career in design work does require a professional engineer license, individuals who pursue this career path are strongly advised to sit for the Engineer In Training exam while in college as it takes five years post graduate to obtain the PE license. Entry-level construction manager positions are typically called project engineers or assistant project engineers and they are responsible for preparing purchasing requisitions, processing change orders, preparing monthly budgeting reports, and handling meeting minutes. They contribute to the creation of infrastructure that best meets the demands of its environment. They must be able to understand infrastructure life cycles, when compared and contrasted to design engineers, construction engineers bring to the table their own unique perspectives for solving technical challenges with clarity and imagination. ABET accreditation is assurance that a college or university program meets the quality standards established by the profession for which it prepares its students, in the US there are currently twenty-five programs that exist in the entire country so careful college consideration is advised. A typical construction engineering curriculum is a mixture of engineering mechanics, engineering design, construction management and general science and this usually leads to a Bachelor of Science degree. The B. S. degree along with some design or construction experience is sufficient for most entry level positions, graduate schools may be an option for those who want to go further in depth of the construction and engineering subjects taught at the undergraduate level. In most cases construction engineering graduates look to either civil engineering, engineering management, job prospects for construction engineers generally have a strong cyclical variation. For example, starting in 2008 - continuing until at least 2011 - job prospects have been due to the collapse of housing bubbles in many parts of the world. In early 2010 the United States construction industry had a 27% unemployment rate, the construction unemployment rate is comparable to the United States 1933 unemployment rate - the lowest point of the Great Depression - of 25%
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Geotechnical Engineering
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Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define the material properties. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place, a geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations, retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste, Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms. The fields of engineering and engineering geology are closely related. However, the field of engineering is a specialty of engineering. Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, as the cities expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized foundations, Ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no basis for soil design had been developed. Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French Royal Engineer, recognized the natural slope of different soils in 1717, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a materials unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type. The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb developed improved methods to determine the pressures against military ramparts. By combining Coulombs theory with Christian Otto Mohrs 2D stress state, although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because c is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today. In the 19th century Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcys Law describing the flow of fluids in porous media, albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification. Osborne Reynolds recognized in 1885 that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense, modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl Terzaghi. Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, in his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of a soil. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil, Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is a method of testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems
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Structural Engineering
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They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the performance of different materials. Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build complex structural systems, Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis, entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the design and integrity of an entire system. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures and it became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of the architecture as distinct profession from the engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the engineer were usually one. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world. The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of engineering worldwide in the service of the profession. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B. C. E, when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the form of a pyramid is inherently stable. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site, since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa, the blocks will not fail under compression. Therefore, the strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramids geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as masons and carpenters. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances
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Hydraulic Engineering
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Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees. Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its boundary. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest, in a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluids surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid, pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Four basic devices for measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential manometer, Bourdon gauge. As Prasuhn states, On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid and this reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces, dams, the main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity, ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a force, whereas an ideal fluid doesnt deform. The various effects of disturbance on a flow are stable, transition. For an ideal fluid, Bernoullis equation holds along streamlines, as the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually adheres to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is forced to decelerate, creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards and this zone is known as the boundary layer
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Environmental Engineering
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It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers study the effect of advances on the environment. To do so, they conduct studies on management to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment. Environmental engineers design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, at many universities environmental engineering programs are offered at either the department of civil engineering or the department of chemical engineering at engineering faculties. Environmental civil engineers focus on hydrology, water management, bioremediation. Environmental chemical engineers, on the hand, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies. Additionally, engineers are more frequently obtaining specialized training in law and are utilizing their technical expertise in the practices of environmental engineering law, most jurisdictions also impose licensing and registration requirements. Ever since people first recognized that their health is related to the quality of their environment, the ancient Indian Harappan civilization utilized early sewers in some cities more than 5000 years ago. The Romans constructed aqueducts to prevent drought and to create a clean, in the 15th century, Bavaria created laws restricting the development and degradation of alpine country that constituted the regions water supply. However, its roots back to early efforts in public health engineering. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities, in many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits for those societies had longer-term impacts which reduced other environmental qualities. One example is the application of the pesticide DDT to control agricultural pests in the years following World War II. The story of DDT as vividly told in Rachel Carsons Silent Spring is considered to be the birth of the environmental movement. Conservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm the environment have been developed by various societies for millennia. Notable examples are the laws decreeing the construction of sewers in London and Paris in the 19th century, to some extent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts, in the United States, the practice of environmental assessment was formally initiated on January 1,1970, the effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act. Since that time, more than 100 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have adopted procedure used elsewhere, NEPA is applicable to all federal agencies in the United States. Water is treated to water quality objectives for the end uses
