1.
Clare Hall, Cambridge
–
Clare Hall is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. Founded in 1966 by Clare College, Clare Hall is a college for advanced study, admitting only postgraduate students alongside postdoctoral researchers and fellows. Clare Hall is one of the smallest colleges with 180 graduate students, after Clare College decided to establish this new centre in January 1964, the initial planning was carried through by a small group of fellows of the college chaired by the Master, Sir Eric Ashby. It was soon agreed that the new centre would be called Clare Hall, the Institute of Advanced Studies at the University of Bologna is so far the only institution abroad explicitly modelled upon Clare Hall. A neighbouring house, Elmside in Grange Road, provided rooms for the small number of graduate students. Sir Eric Ashby, then Master of Clare College and Vice-Chancellor of the University, among the early visiting fellows was Ivar Giaever, who was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physics in 1973. Joseph Brodsky, a fellow and poet in residence at Clare Hall in 1977, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1987. Other facilities in the grounds include a sports complex with a multi-gym and swimming pool. It also has a room which is used for Formal Hall. The university athletics track is a run from the main college buildings. In 1978 a second neighbouring house, now called Leslie Barnett House, was obtained for graduate student accommodation and this purchase also allowed the Michael Stoker and Brian Pippard Buildings to be built in the college grounds, providing further student rooms. The Anthony Low Building in the garden of Elmside was completed in 2000, providing further common rooms and the Garden Bar for the graduates on the main college site. It was renamed Clare Hall West Court and, after conversion and some major building works, now provides public rooms, studies, apartments, study bedrooms, a fitness centre and a swimming pool. The interaction between members of Clare Hall is encouraged also by college seminars, lunchtime discussions and formal lecture series, the latter includes the annual series of lectures relating to human values, given by a distinguished international scholar and sponsored by the Tanner Foundation. They also include the annual Ashby lecture, given by a fellow. Other events include art exhibitions, films and small concerts which supplement the wealth of music available in the university, the President’s term of office is fixed at seven years. In February 2013, it was announced that David Ibbetson, Regius Professor of Civil Law would succeed Harris after the summer, the late Lord Ashby was elected as the first honorary fellow of Clare Hall in 1975, on his retirement from the Mastership of Clare College. They also include the retired Presidents of the College, together with Ralph Erskine, architect of the early buildings, Clare Hall has a strong tradition in theoretical physics
2.
University of Cambridge
–
The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
3.
Trinity Lane
–
Trinity Lane is a historical street in the heart of the college area in Cambridge, England. The lane leads off Trinity Street, the lane then turns south around the back of Gonville and Caius. Here, Trinity Hall is to the west, at the end of the lane is Clare College to the west and Kings College with its huge Chapel blocking the way to the south. Here the Old Schools are also to be found to the east and beyond that the University of Cambridge Senate House where degree ceremonies are held, the Old Schools now house the Cambridge University Offices, which form the main administration for the University. Senate House Passage is a passageway that links from near the end of Trinity Lane back to Trinity Street. Gonville and Caius College is to the north and the Senate House is to the south, Trinity Lane originally linked the High Street with the wharfs on the River Cam. In the 16th century, the east–west part of the lane was known as Find Silver Lane or Kings Childer Lane, before Kings College was built, this street continued on to what is now known as Queens Lane, leading off the north of Silver Street. Trinity Lane has changed little for several centuries, Trinity Lane, Cambridge — postcards of Cambridge Trinity Lane, Cambridge in Colour
4.
Elizabeth de Clare
–
Elizabeth de Clare, 11th Lady of Clare was the heiress to the lordships of Clare, Suffolk in England and Usk in Wales. She was the youngest of the three daughters of Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford and Joan of Acre, and sister of Gilbert de Clare and she is often referred to as Elizabeth de Burgh, due to her first marriage to John de Burgh. Her two successive husbands were Theobald II de Verdun and Roger dAmory, Elizabeth de Clare married three times and had three children, one by each husband. Her father had one of Englands wealthiest and most powerful nobles. This made Elizabeth one of the greatest heiresses in England and her maternal uncle, King Edward II, recalled her to England so he could select a husband for her. She left Ireland for good in 1316, leaving behind her young son and she accompanied her brother Gilbert to Ireland for their double wedding to two siblings, the son and daughter of the Earl of Ulster. Elizabeth married John de Burgh on 30 September 1308 and he was the heir to the Earl of Ulster, and Elizabeth could expect to be a countess in due course. She gave birth to their child, a son, in 1312, he would become William Donn de Burgh. Only a year later, her husband John was unexpectedly killed in a minor skirmish, a widow, Elizabeth remained in Ireland until another the death of her brother, Gilbert, at the Battle of Bannockburn in July 1314 compelled her immediate return to England. He and Elizabeth had been engaged before she was called back to England and she was Lady Verdun for only six months when Theobald died on 27 July 1316, at Alton, Staffordshire, from typhoid. He left behind three daughters from a marriage and Elizabeth, who was pregnant. Just a few weeks later after Isabels birth, Edward II married Elizabeth to Sir Roger DAmory, Lord DAmory, DAmory had been a knight in her brothers service who rose to prominence as a favourite of Edward II. Now married to him, Elizabeth was caught up in the upheavals of her uncles reign. She gave birth to daughter, Elizabeth, in May 1318. Roger was reckless and violent, and made an enemy of his brother-in-law. DAmory switched sides, joining the Marcher Lords led by Roger Mortimer and Thomas and he died of his wounds at Tutbury Castle, Staffordshire on 12 March 1322, having been captured by the royalist forces at the Battle of Boroughbridge where the rebels were soundly defeated. Elizabeth was captured at Usk Castle and imprisoned at Barking Abbey with her children by the victorious faction, elizabeths brother-in-law, Hugh Despenser the younger, lord of Glamorgan, became a particular favourite of King Edward II. With the support of the king he began to take over the adjacent lordships in south Wales and he concentrated on the lordships held by his sisters-in law and their husbands, Margaret and Hugh DAudley, and Elizabeth and Roger Damory
5.
St Hugh's College, Oxford
–
St Hughs College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford. It is located on a 14. 5-acre site on St Margarets Road and it was founded in 1886 by Elizabeth Wordsworth as a womens college, and accepted its first male students in its centenary year in 1986. It enjoys a reputation as one of the most attractive colleges because of its extensive, in its 125th anniversary year, the college became a registered charity under the name The Principal and Fellows of St Hughs College in the University of Oxford. As of July 2013, the financial endowment was £25.7 million. St Hughs was founded in 1886 by Elizabeth Wordsworth to help the number of women who find the charges of the present Halls at Oxford. Using money left to her by her father, who had been Bishop of Lincoln and she named the college after one of her fathers 13th-century predecessors, Hugh of Avalon, who was canonised in 1220, and in whose diocese Oxford had been. The college was initially accommodated in properties in Norham Road, Norham Gardens and its first six students were Annie Moberly, Jessie Annie Emmerson, Charlotte Jourdain, Constance E. Ashburner, Wilhemina J. de Lorna Mitchell and Grace J. Parsons. Students were required to ask the Principal before accepting invitations to friends. Records show that rent was between £18 and £21 a term depending on the size of the room, with fires being charged extra. The college began to move to its present site in 1913 and this house was situated on the corner of St Margarets Road and Banbury Road, and was owned by University College. The first book was a copy of Sales Koran, which was given to the college by the then Bishop of Tokyo, the college soon took over other properties nearby. The leasehold of No.4 St Margarets Road was acquired in 1919, the leasehold of No.82 Woodstock Road was donated to the college by Dr Joan Evans in 1924 and No.89 Banbury Road was purchased from Lincoln College for £7,000 in 1927. The college obtained the freehold to the site in 1927. The freeholds of Nos. 1-4 St Margarets Road and 74-82 Woodstock Road were purchased from St Johns College in 1931 and 1932 respectively, the college received a Royal Charter in 1926. Between 1935 and 1936 No.1 St Margarets Road was demolished, brick huts were constructed in the college grounds with space for 300 beds. Between 1940 and 1945, over 13,000 servicemen and women were treated at the college, advances in medicine discovered at the hospital meant the mortality rate for brain-penetrating injuries fell from 90% to 9%. Staff and students were relocated to Holywell Manor, Savile House, in 1943 the college acquired the leasehold of No 72 Woodstock Road from Dame Gertrude Whitehead for £1,500. It was used as a club for American soldiers during the war, in 1946, it was leased to the University of Paris as Maison Française, an Anglo-American educational establishment
6.
Oriel College, Oxford
–
Oriel College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in Oxford, England. Located in Oriel Square, the college has the distinction of being the oldest royal foundation in Oxford, in recognition of this royal connection, the college has also been known as Kings College and Kings Hall. The reigning monarch of the United Kingdom is the official Visitor of the College, the original medieval foundation set up by Adam de Brome, under the patronage of Edward II, was called the House or Hall of the Blessed Mary at Oxford. The first design allowed for a Provost and ten Fellows, called scholars, and the College remained a body of graduate Fellows until the 16th century. During the English Civil War, Oriel played host to high-ranking members of the Kings Oxford Parliament, the College has nearly 40 Fellows, about 300 undergraduates and some 160 graduates, the student body having roughly equal numbers of men and women. Oriels notable alumni include two Nobel laureates, prominent Fellows have included founders of the Oxford Movement, among Oriels more notable possessions are a painting by Bernard van Orley and three pieces of medieval silver plate. In 1329, the college received by royal grant a large house belonging to the Crown, known as La Oriole and it is from this property that the college acquired its common name, Oriel, the name was in use from about 1349. The word referred to an oratoriolum, or oriel window, forming a feature of the earlier property, the arrangement was cancelled in 1450. In 1643 a general obligation was imposed on Oxford colleges to support the Royalist cause in the English Civil War. The King called for Oriels plate, and almost all of it was given, the total weighing 29 lb.0 oz.5 dwt. of gilt, and 52 lb.7 oz.14 dwt. of white plate. In the same year the College was assessed at £1 of the sum of £40 charged on the colleges. When the Oxford Parliament was assembled during the Civil War in 1644, Oriel housed the Executive Committee of the Privy Council, following the defeat of the Royalist cause, the University was scrutinised by the Parliamentarians, and five of the eighteen Oriel Fellows were removed. In 1673 James Davenant, a Fellow since 1661, complained to William Fuller, then Bishop of Lincoln, Bishop Fuller appointed a commission that included the Vice-Chancellor, Peter Mews, the Dean of Christ Church, John Fell, and the Principal of Brasenose, Thomas Yates. During the early 1720s, a struggle began between the Provost and the Fellows, culminating in a lawsuit. In 1721, Henry Edmunds was elected as a Fellow by 9 votes to 3, his election was rejected by Provost George Carter, and on appeal, by the Visitor, Edmund Gibson, then Bishop of Lincoln. The Provost continued to reject candidates, fuelling discontent among the Fellows, the jury decided for the Fellows, supporting the original charter of Edward II. In the early 19th century, the zeal of Provosts John Eveleigh. The group was disgusted by the then Church of England and sought to revive the spirit of early Christianity, tension arose in College since Provost Edward Hawkins was a determined opponent of the Movement
7.
Anthony Grabiner, Baron Grabiner
–
Anthony Stephen Grabiner, Baron Grabiner, QC is a British barrister, academic administrator, and life peer. He is head of chambers at One Essex Court, a set of commercial barristers in the Temple. Since 2014, he has been the Master of Clare College, Cambridge, Grabiner was non-executive chairman of Arcadia Group from 2002 to December 2015. In 1999, he was made a peer as Baron Grabiner. In October 2015, he resigned the Labour whip over the direction the party was taking under Jeremy Corbyn and he now sits in the Lords as a Non-affiliated member but remains a member of the Labour Party. Grabiner was born on 21 March 1945 to Jewish parents, Ralph Grabiner and he was educated in the Central Foundation Boys School. He studied at the London School of Economics and Political Science, where he graduated with a first class honours Bachelor of Laws in 1966 and he was further educated in Lincolns Inn, and was called to the Bar in 1968. From 1976 to 1981, Grabiner was Standing Junior Counsel to the Department of Trade, made a Queens Counsel in 1981, he became a Bencher in 1989, and a Recorder of the Crown Court between 1990 and 1999. Grabiner has been a Deputy High Court Judge since 1994 and he was a non-executive director of Next plc in 2002, and a member of the Bank of England Financial Services Law Committee from 2002 to 2005. In the week ending 15 October 2010, Lord Grabiner represented Liverpool Football Club in the London High Court, Lord Grabiners service to Liverpool Football Club has been noted by international news organisations. In July 2011, Grabiner was appointed by News Corporation as chairman of the management and it was subsequently reported in The Lawyer magazine that Grabiner would be receiving a fee of £3,000 an hour for his advice to News Corporation. Furthermore, MPs stated that He was content to provide a veneer of establishment credibility to the group while happily disengaging from the key decisions he had a responsibility to scrutinise, for this deplorable performance he received a considerable salary. A later report by the lawyers Lord Pannick QC and Michael Todd QC, exonerated Lord Grabiner and criticized the parliamentary inquiry, in particular, the QCs found that the parliamentary committees showed little understanding of the relevant company law in drafting the report. Grabiner was Chair of the Governors of the London School of Economics from 1998 until 2007, in December 2013, it was announced that he had been elected Master of Clare College, Cambridge University, to succeed Professor Tony Badger in October 2014. On 1 August 2015, Grabiner was appointed as the President of the University of Law, on 26 July 1999, Grabiner was created a life peer with the title Baron Grabiner, of Aldwych in the City of Westminster. From 1999 to 2015, he sat in the House of Lords on the Labour Party benches, on 24 October 2015, he announced that he has resigned the Labour whip but would remain a party member. He was the second Labour peer to resign the whip over the views of the new party leader, Grabiner explained his resignation to The Times, I have nothing in common whatever with Mr Corbyn — and I dont believe we are ever going to win an election. He now sits in the Lords as a cross-bench member, since 1983, Lord Grabiner has been married to Jane Portnoy
8.
Financial endowment
–
A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
9.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
10.
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
–
This is a list of the colleges within the University of Cambridge. They also provide funding, accommodation, or both, for some of the research posts in the University. They are self-governed charities in their own right, with their own endowments, until the mid-19th century, both Cambridge and Oxford comprised a group of colleges with a small central university administration, rather than universities in the common sense. The University of Cambridge has 31 colleges, founded between the 13th and 20th centuries, the oldest college is Peterhouse, founded in 1284, and the newest is Robinson, founded in 1977. Homerton, which was first founded in the century as a dissenting academy. All 16 of the old colleges and 7 of the 15 new ones admit both male and female students as undergraduates and postgraduates, without any age restrictions. No colleges are all-male, although most originally were, darwin, founded in 1964, was the first mixed college, while in 1972 Churchill, Clare and Kings colleges were the first previously all-male colleges to admit women. The last all-male college to become mixed was Magdalene, in 1988, in 1973 Hughes Hall became the first all-female college to admit men, and Girton admitted men in 1976. Lucy Cavendish also places restrictions on the admission of staff members, the same is true of Newnham, but not Murray Edwards. Key, U–undergraduates, P–postgraduates, Abb-Official abbreviation used in the Reporter, there are also several theological colleges in Cambridge that are affiliated with the university through the Cambridge Theological Federation. Most colleges are led by a Master, even when the Master is female, Girton College has always had a Mistress, even though male candidates have been able to run for the office since 1976. These include, Ayerst Hostel, founded in the 1880s, renamed as St Edmunds House in 1896, buckingham College, founded in 1428 as a Benedictine hall, refounded as Magdalene in 1542. Bull College, a college for US GIs returning from World War II, existing in Michaelmas 1945. Cavendish College, founded in 1873, an attempt to allow students to sit the Tripos examinations. Clare Hall was the name of Clare College between 1338 and 1856, Clare College founded a new college named Clare Hall in 1966. Gonville Hall, founded in 1348, and re-founded in 1557 as Gonville, gods House, founded in 1437, and re-founded in 1505 as Christs College. Kings Hall, founded in 1317, and combined with Michaelhouse to form Trinity College in 1546, Michaelhouse, founded in 1324, and combined with Kings Hall to form Trinity College in 1546. List of Oxbridge sister colleges List of fictional Cambridge colleges Colleges of the University of Oxford Colleges of Durham University Colleges of the University of York
11.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam about 50 miles north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in the Bronze Age and in Roman Britain, under Viking rule, Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951, the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, is one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the Cavendish Laboratory, Kings College Chapel, the citys skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, the chimney of Addenbrookes Hospital and St Johns College Chapel tower. Anglia Ruskin University, evolved from the Cambridge School of Art, Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies spun out of the university. More than 40% of the workforce has a higher education qualification, the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to be home to AstraZeneca, a hotel and the relocated Papworth Hospital. Parkers Piece hosted the first ever game of Association football, the Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fairs are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads, settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3, the principal Roman site is a small fort Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street, the eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettles Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads, evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement—also on and around Castle Hill—became known as Grantebrycge, Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands, by the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a little ruined city containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river, the arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill, like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies
12.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
13.
Peterhouse, Cambridge
–
Peterhouse is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It is the oldest college of the university, having founded in 1284 by Hugo de Balsham, Bishop of Ely. Today, Peterhouse has 226 undergraduates,86 full-time graduate students and 45 fellows, the modern name of Peterhouse does not include the word college. Peterhouse is one of the wealthiest colleges in Cambridge, with assets exceeding £250 million, Peterhouse is widely considered the most traditional of the Cambridge colleges. It is one of the few that still seeks to insist that its members attend communal dinners, Hall takes place in two sittings, with the second known as Formal Hall, which consists of a three-course candlelit meal and which must be attended wearing gowns. At Formal Hall, the rise as the fellows proceed in, a gong is rung. The college has five Nobel laureates associated with it, either as students or fellows, Sir John Kendrew, Sir Aaron Klug, Archer Martin, Max Perutz. After disagreement between the scholars and the Brethren of the Hospital, both requested a separation, the Church of St Peter without Trumpington Gate was to be used by the scholars. Bishop Hugo de Balsham died in 1286, bequeathing 300 marks that were used to buy land to the south of St Peters Church. The earliest surviving set of statutes for the college was given to it by the then Bishop of Ely, Simon Montacute, although based on those of Merton College, these statutes clearly display the lack of resources then available to the college. They were used in 1345 to defeat an attempt by Edward III to appoint a candidate of his own as scholar, in 1354-55, William Moschett set up a trust that resulted in nearly 70 acres of land at Fen Ditton being transferred to the College by 1391-92. The Colleges relative poverty was relieved in 1401 when it acquired the advowson and rectory of Hinton through the efforts of Bishop John Fordham and John Newton. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the college acquired the area formerly known as Volneys Croft, which today is the area of St Peters Terrace, the William Stone Building. In 1553, Andrew Perne was appointed Master and his religious views were pragmatic enough to be favoured by both Mary I, who gave him the Deanery of Ely, and Elizabeth I. A contemporary joke was that the letters on the weather vane of St Peters Church could represent Andrew Perne, Papist or Andrew Perne, Protestant according to which way the wind was blowing. Having previously been close to the reformist Regius Chair of Divinity, Martin Bucer, later as vice-chancellor of the university Perne would have Bucers bones exhumed, John Foxe in his Actes and Monuments singled this out as shameful railing. There is a hole burnt in the middle of the relevant page in Pernes own copy of Foxe, Perne died in 1589, leaving a legacy to the college that funded a number of fellowships and scholarships, as well bequeathing an extensive collection of books. This collection and rare volumes since added to it is now known as the Perne Library, between 1626 and 1634, the Master was Matthew Wren
14.
Choir of Clare College, Cambridge
–
The Choir of Clare College, Cambridge is a mixed-voice choir whose primary function is to lead services in Clare Colleges chapel at the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Since the founding of the choir in 1971, the Choir of Clare College has gained an reputation as one of the leading university choral groups in the world. The first chapel choir was formed in 1866, for the next one hundred years the choir consisted of undergraduate lower voices and a treble line provided by boys from city schools. In 1966, the use of boys was discontinued and for a period there was no upper line. The current mixed-voice choir was established in 1971 by Peter Dennison and he was succeeded by the colleges first director of music, John Rutter. Rutter left in 1979 to focus on composing but retains a connection with the college as an honorary fellow. Timothy Brown directed the choir for 31 years until he was succeeded by the current director of music. Since 1979 the choir has been conducted by the director of music, the organ is played by two organ scholars, who, like the choral scholars, are students at the college. An organ scholarship is awarded as necessary to ensure there are always two undergraduate organists in the college - a new scholar is appointed to arrive when the previous one graduates. If the director of music is not present for any reason, the Choir of Clare College, Cambridge maintains a strong recording and touring schedule, in addition to its performances at Clare College Chapel in Cambridge. In recent years, the choir has toured throughout Europe, the US, the choir regularly performs in the United Kingdom, giving concerts in the major London concert halls, as well as at numerous festivals around the country. The choir also performs with instrumental groups such as the European Baroque Orchestra, in January 2016 it gave the world premiere of Green Mass, composed by Alexander Raskatov, in the Royal Festival Hall along with the London Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Vladimir Jurowski. The Choir of Clare College, Cambridge has recorded extensively, now exclusively for the Harmonia Mundi USA label, releases on this label include Veni Emmanuel, Music for Advent, Stabat Mater Dolorosa, Music for Passiontide and a recording of selected works by Imogen Holst. The choir has also begun live streaming of some of its services from the chapel. The choir often tours externally, usually between university terms, many composers have been commissioned to write for the choir, including Sir John Tavener, Jonathan Dove, Herbert Howells, Tarik ORegan, John Rutter, Giles Swayne and James Whitbourn
15.
The Backs
–
The name the Backs refers to the backs of the colleges. St Johns — buildings on both sides of the river, spanned by the St Johns kitchen bridge and the Bridge of Sighs Trinity — buildings on the east bank, Trinity Hall — buildings on the east bank but with no rear grounds on the west bank. Clare — buildings on the east bank, spanned by Clare bridge, Kings — buildings on the east bank, spanned by Kings bridge. Queens — buildings on both sides of the river, spanned by the Mathematical Bridge, historically, much of the land was used by the colleges for grazing livestock or growing fruit. The river was also an important commercial thoroughfare to the mill at Silver Street, in the 16th century, the area consisted of pasture, gardens and orchards owned by colleges of the University, with wooden bridges across the Cam. Over time, the colleges planted avenues of trees and built sturdier bridges, in 1772, St Johns College consulted English landscape architect Lancelot Brown, who laid out a wilderness on the college side of Queens Road which still exists today. In 1779, Brown presented a plan to the University of Cambridge to create country-house style parkland with its focus on Kings Colleges Gibbs Building, the plan would have involved removing avenues, transforming the river into a lake, and planting clumps of trees to screen the other colleges. It was never implemented, possibly because it would have removed historic college boundaries, in response to many elm trees succumbing to Dutch elm disease, a Backs Committee was formed in 1979 so that a joint approach could be taken to the problem facing The Backs. As a result of the work, trees were cut down. However, the committee stopped meeting in 1994, in 1995, English Heritage listed The Backs as a Grade 1 Historic Park. In the 2000s, six University colleges on The Backs commissioned Robert Myers, the report, entitled The Backs Cambridge Landscape Strategy, was completed in November 2007 and released on 1 December 2007. It sets out proposals for the evolution of The Backs over the next 50 years, over-mature and inappropriately-sited trees will be removed and new ones planted. In addition, there will be a replacement of avenues, an extension of the wilderness planting behind St Johns and along the edge of Queens Road. In December 2007, The Daily Telegraph reported that there has been a degree of consensus between institutions well known for prizing their autonomy. List of bridges in Cambridge Punt Stubbings, Frank H. Bedders, Bulldogs and Bedells, academical Elysium — The Landscaping of the Cambridge Backs. Queens College Record 2000 — The Grove Elms, archived from the original on 2008-01-28. Some of the references in this section were obtained from The Backs Cambridge landscape strategy, University of Cambridge Official Map — The Backs
16.
River Cam
–
The River Cam is the main river flowing through Cambridge in eastern England. After leaving Cambridge, it flows north and east into the Great Ouse to the south of Ely at Popes Corner. The Great Ouse connects the Cam to the North Sea at Kings Lynn, The total distance from Cambridge to the sea is about 40 mi and is navigable for punts, small boats, and rowing craft. The Great Ouse also connects to Englands canal system via the Middle Level Navigations, in total, the Cam runs for around 69 kilometres from its furthest source to its confluence with the Great Ouse. This was not universally applied, however, and the stretch of the river continues to be informally known as the Granta. It has been said that the river is the Granta above the Silver Street Bridgemap 11, the Rhee tributary is also formally known as the Cam, and the Granta has a tributary on its upper stretch also known as the Granta. The Cam has no connection with the much smaller River Cam in Gloucestershire, an organisation called the Conservators of the River Cam was formed in 1702, charged with keeping the river navigable. The Conservators are responsible for the two locks in and north east of Cambridge, Jesus Lockmap 7 and Baits Bite Lock. map 3 The stretch north of Jesus Lock is sometimes called the lower river. The stretch between Jesus Lock and Baits Bite Lock is much used for rowing, there are also many residential boats on this stretch, their occupants forming a community who call themselves the Camboaters. Navigation on the lowest section of the Cam, below and including Bottisham Lock, the stretch above Jesus Lock is sometimes known as the middle river. Between Jesus Lock and the Mill Pond, map 12 it passes through the Backsmap 10 below the walls of many of the colleges and this is the section of river most popular with tourists, with its picture-postcard views of elegant bridges, green lawns and graceful willows. Access for mechanically powered boats is prohibited above La Mimosa Pub between 1 April and 30 September, when the middle and upper river are only to manually propelled craft. The most common of these are the flat-bottomed punts, punts and canoes can be manhandled around the weir above the Mill Pool by means of the rollers, a slipway from lower to upper level. From the Mill Pool and its weir, the river can be followed upstream through Grantchester meadows to the village of Grantchestermap 14 and Byrons Pool, the two principal tributaries of the Cam are the Granta and the Rhee, though both are also known as the Cam. The Rhee begins just off the High Street, at Ashwell in Hertfordshire, just after flowing under the Roman Ermine Street, it crosses the avenue of Wimpole Hall and a few kilometres later it receives the waters of the minor River Mel that runs through Meldreth. It runs along the edge of the village of Barrington. At Harston it passes Harston Mill, the site of a mill from at least the 11th century until the need for mill died out in the mid-20th century. It then touches the edge of the village of Haslingfield before joining the Granta at Hauxton Junction
17.
Edward I of England
–
Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
18.
Listed building
–
A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
19.
King's College, Cambridge
–
Kings College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Formally The Kings College of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas in Cambridge, Kings was founded in 1441 by Henry VI, soon after he had founded its sister college in Eton. However, the Kings plans for the college were disrupted by the Wars of the Roses and resultant scarcity of funds, and his eventual deposition. Little progress was made on the project until in 1508 Henry VII began to take an interest in the college, the building of the colleges chapel, begun in 1446, was finally finished in 1544 during the reign of Henry VIII. Kings College Chapel is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the worlds largest fan-vault, and the chapels stained-glass windows and wooden chancel screen are considered some of the finest from their era. The building is seen as emblematic of Cambridge, the chapels choir, composed of male students at Kings and choristers from the nearby Kings College School, is one of the most accomplished and renowned in the world. Every year on Christmas Eve the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols is broadcast from the chapel to millions of listeners worldwide, on 12 February 1441 King Henry VI issued letters patent founding a college at Cambridge for a rector and twelve poor scholars. This college was to be named after Saint Nicholas, upon whose saint day Henry had been born, William Millington, a fellow of Clare College was installed as the rector. Henry directed the publication of the colleges first governing statutes in 1443 and his original modest plan for the college was abandoned, and provision was instead made for community of seventy fellows and scholars headed by a provost. Henry had belatedly learned of William of Wykehams 1379 twin foundation of New College, Oxford and Winchester College, the King had in fact founded Eton College on 11 October 1440, but up until 1443 Kings and Eton had been unconnected. However, that year the relationship between the two was remodelled upon Wykehams successful institutions and the sizes of the colleges scaled up to surpass Wykehams. A second royal charter which re-founded the now much larger Kings College was issued on 12 July 1443, members of Kings were to be recruited entirely from Eton. Membership of Kings was a vocation for life, scholars were eligible for election to the fellowship after three years of probation, irrespective of whether they had achieved a degree or not. In fact, undergraduates at Kings – unlike those other colleges – did not even have to pass university examinations to achieve their BA degree. The gateway and south range of Old Court had already been built, Henrys grand design for the new college buildings survives in the 1448 Founders Will which describes his vision in detail. Behind the hall and buttery was to be another courtyard, the first stone of the chapel was laid by the King on St James Day,25 July 1446. However, within a decade Henrys engagement in the Wars of the Roses meant that funds began to dry up, work proceeded sporadically until a generation later in 1508 when the Founders nephew Henry VII was prevailed upon to finish the shell of the building. The interior had to wait a further generation until completion by 1544 with the aid of Henry VIII, the chapel would be the only part of Henry VIs Founders Will to be realised
20.
English Civil War
–
The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
21.
Classicism
–
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
22.
Gothic architecture
–
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
