1.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
2.
John Wesley Powell
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John Wesley Wes Powell was a U. S. soldier, geologist, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He is famous for the 1869 Powell Geographic Expedition, a river trip down the Green and Colorado rivers. Powell served as director of the U. S. Geological Survey and proposed, for development of the arid West. Powell was born in Mount Morris, New York, in 1834 and his father, a poor itinerant preacher, had emigrated to the U. S. from Shrewsbury, England, in 1830. His family moved westward to Jackson, Ohio, then Walworth County, Wisconsin, before settling in rural Boone County, as a young man he undertook a series of adventures through the Mississippi River valley. In 1855, he spent four months walking across Wisconsin, during 1856, he rowed the Mississippi from St. Anthony, Minnesota, to the sea. In 1857, he rowed down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi River, in 1858 he rowed down the Illinois River, then up the Mississippi and the Des Moines River to central Iowa. At age 25, he was elected in 1859 to the Illinois Natural History Society, Powell studied at Illinois College, Illinois Institute, and Oberlin College, over a period of seven years while teaching, but was unable to attain his degree. During his studies Powell acquired a knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin, Powell had a restless nature and a deep interest in the natural sciences. This desire to learn natural sciences was against the wishes of his father. In 1860 when Powell was on a tour he decided that the Civil War was inevitable, he decided to study military science. Powells loyalties remained with the Union and the cause of abolishing slavery, on May 8,1861, he enlisted at Hennepin, Illinois, as a private in the 20th Illinois Infantry. He was described as age 27, height 5 6-1/2 tall, light complected, gray eyes, auburn hair and he was elected sergeant-major of the regiment, and when the 20th Illinois was mustered into the Federal service a month later, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant. He enlisted in the Union Army as a cartographer, topographer, during the Civil War, he served first with the 20th Illinois Volunteers. While stationed at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, he recruited a company that became Battery F of the 2nd Illinois Light Artillery with Powell as captain. On November 28,1861, Powell took a leave to marry the former Emma Dean. At the Battle of Shiloh, he lost most of his arm when struck by a minie ball while in the process of giving the order to fire. The raw nerve endings in his arm would continue to cause him pain for the rest of his life
3.
Newport, Rhode Island
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Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The City of Newport is located approximately 37 miles southeast of Providence,21 miles south of Fall River and it is known as a New England summer resort and famous for its mansions. It was a major 18th-century port city and also contains a number of surviving buildings from the colonial era of the United States. The city is the county seat of Newport County and it was known for being the city of some of the Summer White Houses during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013 and its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. They left Portsmouth, Rhode Island after a fallout with Anne Hutchinson. As part of the agreement, Coddington and his followers took control of the side of the island. They were soon joined by Nicholas Easton, who had recently expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for holding heretical beliefs. The settlement grew to be the largest of the four settlements of Rhode Island. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke, peace did not last long in Newport, as many did not like Coddingtons autocratic style. As a result, a counter-faction was formed by 1650, led by Nicholas Easton, Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640. In 1658, a group of Jews were allowed to settle in Newport who were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain, the Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second-oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest standing synagogue in the United States, in 1663, the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its Royal Charter, and Benedict Arnold was elected its first Governor at Newport. The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the 18th century. They brought with them experience and connections, capital. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera who arrived in 1745, Rivera introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil, which became one of the leading industries and made Newport rich. Newports inhabitants who were engaged in whaling developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles, Aaron Lopez fled to Newport from Lisbon in 1752 and is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. To him in a degree than to any one else was due the rapid commercial development which made Newport for a quarter of a century afterward the most formidable rival of New York
4.
Phoenix, Arizona
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Phoenix is the capital and most populous city of the U. S. state of Arizona. Phoenix is the anchor of the Phoenix metropolitan area, also known as the Valley of the Sun, the metropolitan area is the 12th largest by population in the United States, with approximately 4.3 million people as of 2010. Settled in 1867 as a community near the confluence of the Salt and Gila Rivers. Located in the reaches of the Sonoran Desert, Phoenix has a subtropical desert climate. Despite this, its canal system led to a farming community, many of the original crops remaining important parts of the Phoenix economy for decades, such as alfalfa, cotton, citrus. The city averaged a four percent annual growth rate over a 40-year period from the mid-1960s to the mid-2000s. This growth rate slowed during the Great Recession of 2007–09, and has rebounded slowly, Phoenix is the cultural center of the Valley of the Sun, as well as the entire state. For more than 2,000 years, the Hohokam people occupied the land that would become Phoenix, the Hohokam created roughly 135 miles of irrigation canals, making the desert land arable. Paths of these canals would later used for the modern Arizona Canal, Central Arizona Project Canal. The Hohokam also carried out trade with the nearby Anasazi, Mogollon and Sinagua. It is believed that between 1300 and 1450, periods of drought and severe floods led to the Hohokam civilizations abandonment of the area. After the departure of the Hohokam, groups of Akimel Oodham, Tohono Oodham and Maricopa tribes began to use the area, as well as segments of the Yavapai and Apache. The Oodham were offshoots of the Sobaipuri tribe, who in turn were thought to be the descendants of the formerly urbanized Hohokam and their crops included corn, beans, and squash for food, while cotton and tobacco were also cultivated. Mostly a peaceful group, they did together with the Maricopa for their mutual protection against incursions by both the Yuma and Apache tribes. The Tohono Oodham lived in the region as well, but their concentration was to the south. Living in small settlements, the Oodham were seasonal farmers who took advantage of the rains and they also hunted local game such as deer, rabbit, and javalina for meat. When the Mexican–American War ended in 1848, Mexico ceded its northern zone to the United States, the Phoenix area became part of the New Mexico Territory. In 1863 the mining town of Wickenburg was the first to be established in what is now Maricopa County, at the time Maricopa County had not yet been incorporated, the land was within Yavapai County, which included the major town of Prescott to the north of Wickenburg
5.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
6.
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
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The Sierra Nevada is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province. The vast majority of the lies in the state of California. The Sierra runs 400 miles north-to-south, and is approximately 70 miles across east-to-west, the Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty wilderness areas, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks, the character of the range is shaped by its geology and ecology. More than one hundred years ago during the Nevadan orogeny. The range started to uplift four M. A. ago, the uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones. Uplift continues due to faulting caused by forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra. The Sierra Nevada has a significant history, the California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912, the Sierra Nevada lies in Central and Eastern California, with a very small but historically important spur extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevadas elevation increases gradually from 1,000 feet in the Central Valley to an height of about 10,500 feet at its crest only 50–75 miles to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment, unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift. The Sierra Nevada stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass in the north to Tehachapi Pass in the south and it is bounded on the west by Californias Central Valley and on the east by the Basin and Range Province. The geographical boundary between the Sierra and the Cascades is virtually indistinguishable, with the Fredonyer Pass designation being traditional, physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade-Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, the northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed, and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River. The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower, its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California, the height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the range from 5,000 feet to more than 9,000 feet. The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet high, farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell
7.
Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
8.
U.S. Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
9.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
10.
Author
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An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be described as a writer. More broadly defined, an author is the person who originated or gave existence to anything, in the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of works of authorship. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, however, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time its created, an interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon ones death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the issue of fan fiction. If the media responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music. Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books, what powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting, in the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author and he writes, in his essay Death of the Author, that it is language which speaks, not the author. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, with this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak. Michel Foucault argues in his essay What is an author and that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to certain standards upon the text which. Foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a work, a part of its structure
11.
Pomfret, Connecticut
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Pomfret is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 4,247 in 2010 according to the United States Census, the town was incorporated in 1713 and named after Governor Saltonstall’s estate near Pontefract in Yorkshire, England. Pomfret is bordered on the north by Woodstock, on the east by Putnam and Killingly, on the west by Eastford, and on the south by Brooklyn and Hampton. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 40.6 square miles. Pomfret includes several villages, neighborhoods, or sections, Abington Elliotts Pomfret Pomfret Center Pomfret Landing The principal roads through the town are U. S. Route 44 and Routes 169, and 101. Mashamoquet State Park and Wolf Den State Park are both located in Pomfret, near the intersection of US44 and CT101, Wolf Den State Park is the alleged site of General Israel Putnams slaying of the last wolf in Connecticut. Rocky paths connect join the small cave which is the actual wolf den with a glacially positioned boulder called the Indian Chair, camping and cook-out facilities are available for a nominal fee. The Air Line Trail, a railroad bed, joins the town of Pomfret with its neighbor to the east. The Airline Trail runs seven miles, much of it through an Audubon Society property named the Bafflin Sanctuary, Pomfret has no formal town center due to the towns significant southward expansion after its establishment, first around Mortlake, later absorbing the town. The town office is located on US Route 44, the Congregational Church, until its destruction by fire on December 7,2013, stood on the eastern edge of the old town green on Pomfret Hill, across from the Pomfret School, founded in 1894. About a mile north of the Congregational Church site is Christ Episcopal Church, across from Christ Church on the west side of Route 44 is The Rectory School, founded in 1920. At the divergence point of US44 and CT169 is Most Holy Trinity Roman Catholic Church, as of the census of 2010, there were 4,247 people,1,582 households, and 1,123 families residing in the town. The population density was 105.4 people per square mile, there were 1,684 housing units at an average density of 41.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 95. 7% White,0. 6% African American,0. 1% Native American,1. 6% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 9% of the population. 22. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.05. In the town, the population was out with 24. 8% under the age of 18,6. 9% from 18 to 24,23. 4% from 25 to 44,32. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 97.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $82,661, and the median income for a family was $96,641
12.
Sheffield Scientific School
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Sheffield Scientific School was founded in 1847 as a school of Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut for instruction in science and engineering. Originally named the Yale Scientific School, it was renamed in 1861 in honor of Joseph E. Sheffield, the school was incorporated in 1871. The Sheffield Scientific School helped establish the model for the transition of U. S. higher education from a model to one which incorporated both the sciences and the liberal arts. Following World War I, however, its curriculum gradually became completely integrated with Yale College, the Sheff ceased to function as a separate entity in 1956. After technological developments in the nineteenth century such as the electric telegraph. Harvard established the Lawrence Scientific School in 1846 and Dartmouth began the Chandler Scientific School in 1852, the stage was set at Yale for the transition in education beginning in 1846, when professorships of agricultural chemistry and practical chemistry were established. In 1847, the School of Applied Chemistry became part of a newly created Department of Philosophy, classes and labs were hosted in the Second Presidents House on Yales Old Campus until funding and a suitable facility could be found. Norton died in 1852 and was replaced by John Addison Porter, Applied chemistry was followed in 1852 by a professorship of civil engineering establishing a school of engineering. These programs made up the Yale Scientific School, in 1853 and 1854, science and engineering courses were listed in the Yale College course catalog as offered by the Yale Scientific School. Porter elicited help from his father-in-law, Joseph Earl Sheffield, and in 1858, Sheffield donated funds, the old Yale Medical School building on the northeast corner of Grove and Prospect Streets was renovated and renamed Sheffield Hall. Sheffields building reinforced the division of Hillhouse Avenue into an upper, residential section, in 1861, the school became the Sheffield Scientific School in recognition of his generosity devoted to the promotion of the study of the natural, physical, and mathematical sciences. Sheffield was one of Yales greatest benefactors and continued to support the school throughout his life, Yale also received US$591,000 from his will as well as his house, the Sheffield mansion, designed and originally owned by Ithiel Town. The school also benefited from the Morrill Act starting in 1863, land grant status, however, was transferred to the Storrs Agricultural School in 1893 after arguments by the state grange that the school was not a proper farm school. A series of lectures, later known as the Sheffield Lectures was instituted by the school in 1866, professor Othniel Charles Marsh of the school led four Yale scientific expeditions in search of fossils in 1870-3. The Sheffield School innovated with a course offering science and mathematics as well as economics, English, geography, history, modern languages, philology. Unlike Yale College students at the time, Sheffield students had no dorms, no required chapel, no disciplinary marks, the Academical Department of Yale and Sheffield became rivals. The Ac students studied liberal arts and would look down on the practical Sheff students, the Yale Scientific Magazine was founded at Sheffield in 1894, the first student magazine devoted to the sciences. In 1872–73, Sheffield Scientific Schools first new building, North Sheffield Hall was built, designed by Josiah Cleaveland Cady and this was followed by Winchester Hall and Sheffield Chemical
13.
Yale College
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Yale College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the school of the university. Originally established to train Congregationalist ministers, the college began teaching humanities, at the same time, students began organizing extracurricular organizations, first literary societies, and later publications, sports teams, and singing groups. By the mid-19th century, it was the largest college in the United States, in 1847, it was joined by another undergraduate degree-granting school at Yale, the Sheffield Scientific School, which was absorbed into the college in the mid-20th century. The most distinctive feature of life is the schools system of residential colleges, established in 1932. All undergraduates live in these colleges after their year, when most live on the schools Old Campus. The Collegiate School was founded in 1701 by a charter drawn by ten congregationalist ministers led by James Pierpont, originally situated in Abraham Piersons home in Killingworth, Connecticut, the college moved to New Haven in 1718 and was renamed for Elihu Yale, an early benefactor. Founded as a school to train ministers, original curriculum included only coursework in theology, later in the century, William Graham Sumner, the first professor of sociology in the United States, introduced studies in the social sciences. The relaxation of curriculum came in tandem with expansion in the extracurriculum, participation and leadership in these groups was an important social signifier and a route to induction into prestigious senior societies. Thus extracurricular participation became central to student life and social advancement, by 1870, Yale was the largest undergraduate institution in the country. Two additional colleges were built by 1940, and two more in the 1960s, for most of its history, study at Yale was almost exclusively restricted to white Protestant men, often the children of alumni. Documented exceptions to this paradigm include Hawaiian native Henry ʻŌpūkahaʻia, who became a student of Yale President Timothy Dwight in 1809, pennington, who was allowed to audit theology courses in 1837. Moses Simons, a descendent of a slave-holding South Carolinian family, has suggested to be the first Jew to graduate from Yale. Though his maternal ancestry is disputed, he may have also been the first person of African American descent to graduate from any American college. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified. Enrollment at Yale only became competitive in the early 20th century, as late as the 1950s, tests and demographic questionnaires for admission to the college worked to exclude non-Christian men, especially Jews, as well as non-white men. By the mid-1960s these processes were becoming more meritocratic, focusing on recruitment of a racially, economically and geographically diverse student body and this meritocratic transition encouraged the university to establish the first need-blind admissions policy in the United States. After several decades of debate about coeducation, Yale College admitted its first class of women in 1969, in recent years, the college has focused on international recruitment, quadrupling the fraction of international students admitted between 1993 and 2013
14.
James Dwight Dana
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James Dwight Dana FRS FRSE was an American geologist, mineralogist, volcanologist, and zoologist. He made pioneering studies of mountain-building, volcanic activity, and the origin and structure of continents, Dana was born February 12,1813 in Utica, New York. His father was merchant James Dana, and mother was Harriet Dwight, through his mother he was related to the Dwight New England family of missionaries and educators including uncle Harrison Gray Otis Dwight and first cousin Henry Otis Dwight. Graduating in 1833, for the two years he was teacher of mathematics to midshipmen in the Navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged in his duties. His labors in preparing the reports of his explorations occupied parts of thirteen years after his return to America in 1842 and his notebooks from the four years of travel contained fifty sketches, maps, and diagrams, including views of both Mount Shasta and Castle Crags. Danas sketch of Mount Shasta was engraved in 1849 for publication in the American Journal of Science and Arts, in the article he described in scientific terms the rocks, minerals, and geology of the Shasta region. As far as is known, his sketch of Mount Shasta became the view of the mountain ever published. In 1844 he again became a resident of New Haven, and married Professor Sillimans daughter, in 1850, he was appointed as Sillimans successor, as Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale College, a position which he held until 1892. The 1849 publication of his geology of Mount Shasta was undoubtedly a response to the California gold rush publicity. Dana was the pre-eminent U. S. geologist of his time and he had previously written that there was likelihood that gold was to be found all along the route between the Umpqua River in Oregon and the Sacramento Valley. He was probably deluged with inquiries about the Shasta region, and was forced to publish in more detail some advice to the gold miners. Dana was responsible for developing much of the knowledge on Hawaiian volcanism. In 1880 and 1881 he led the first geological study of the volcanics of Hawaii island, Dana theorized that the volcanic chain consisted of two volcanic strands, dubbed the Loa and Kea trends. The Kea trend included Kīlauea, Mauna Kea, Kohala, Haleakala, the Loa trend includes Lōʻihi, Mauna Loa, Hualālai, Kahoʻolawe, Lānaʻi, and West Molokaʻi. Following another expedition by fellow geologist C. E. Dana died on April 14,1895, Dana was married to Henrietta Silliman in 1844. Their son, Edward Salisbury Dana, was also a distinguished mineralogist, Danas best known books were his System of Mineralogy Manual of Mineralogy, and his Manual of Geology. A bibliographical list of his writings shows 214 titles of books and papers and his reports on Zoophytes, on the Geology of the Pacific Area, and on Crustacea, summarizing his work on the Wilkes Expedition, appeared from 1846 onwards. Other works included Manual of Mineralogy, afterwards entitled Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology, in 1887, Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of his further investigations were published in a quarto volume entitled Characteristics of Volcanoes
15.
Lake Champlain
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Lake Champlain /ʃæmˈpleɪn/ is a natural freshwater lake in North America mainly within the borders of the United States but partially situated across the Canada–U. S. Border, in the Canadian province of Quebec, the New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County. Most of this area is part of the Adirondack Park, there are recreational opportunities in the park and along the relatively undeveloped coastline of Lake Champlain. The cities of Plattsburgh, New York and Burlington, Vermont are on the western and eastern shores, respectively. The Quebec portion is in the county municipalities of Le Haut-Richelieu. There are a number of islands in the lake, the largest include Grand Isle, Isle La Motte, and North Hero, all part of Grand Isle County, Vermont. The Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a system known as the Great Appalachian Valley. The Champlain Valley is a section of the larger Saint Lawrence Valley. Lake Champlain is one of large lakes scattered in an arc through Labrador, in Canada, the northern United States. Although it is smaller than each of the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain is a body of fresh water. Approximately 1,269 km2 in area, the lake is roughly 201 km long and 23 km across at its widest point, the lake varies seasonally from about 95 to 100 ft above mean sea level. Lake Champlain drains nearly half of Vermont, and approximately 250,000 people get their water from the lake. The lake is fed in Vermont by the LaPlatte, Lamoille, Missisquoi, Poultney, and Winooski rivers, along with Lewis Creek, Little Otter Creek, and Otter Creek. In New York, it is fed by the Ausable, Boquet, Great Chazy, La Chute, Little Ausable, Little Chazy, Salmon, in Quebec, it is fed by the Pike River. It is connected to the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal, parts of the lake freeze each winter, and in some winters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to as closing. In July and August, the temperature reaches an average of 70 °F. The Chazy Reef is an extensive Ordovician carbonate rock formation extends from Tennessee to Quebec. It occurs in prominent outcropping at Goodsell Ridge, Isle La Motte, the oldest reefs are around The Head of the south end of the island, slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry, and the youngest are in fields to the north
16.
William Henry Brewer
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William Henry Brewer was an American botanist. He worked on the first California Geological Survey and was the first Chair of Agriculture at Yale Universitys Sheffield Scientific School, William H. Brewer was born in Poughkeepsie, New York and grew up on a farm in Enfield, New York. In 1848 Brewer attended Yale and began studying chemistry under Professors Benjamin Silliman. There, Brewer was a member of Berzelius, one of Yales oldest secret societies. In 1852 he graduated from the first class of the Sheffield Scientific School with a Bachelor of Philosophy degree and began teaching at the Ovid Academy in Ovid and it was in Ovid where Brewer first befriended Presbyterian minister Laurentine Hamilton. In 1855 Brewer travelled to Europe where he studied science under Professor Robert Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg in Germany. He then went to Munich to study chemistry under Professor Justus von Liebig. In 1857 Brewer went to Paris, France and studied chemistry under Professor Michel Eugène Chevreul, in 1858 Brewer returned to the United States and married Angelina Jameson, of Ovid, New York on August 14,1858. In October, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Washington and Jefferson College in Washington and his wife later died in June,1859. In 1860, shortly after the death of his wife and newborn son, Brewer was invited by Josiah D. Whitney to become the chief botanist of the California Division of Mines and Geology. Brewer led field parties in the survey of the geology of California until 1864. On September 1,1868, he married his wife, Georgiana Robinson, of Exeter. Together they had four children, three sons and one daughter, during his tenure at Yale, Brewer took part in a survey of Greenland in 1869. In 1899 he was hired by Edward Henry Harriman to take part in his famous Alaskan expedition, in 1903 Brewer retired from teaching, and died at his New Haven, Connecticut home in 1910. He was buried at Grove Street Cemetery and he was a member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Papers of William Henry Brewer, 1860-1864, Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University Herbaria William Henry Brewer from findagrave. com
17.
Mount Shasta
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Mount Shasta is a potentially active volcano at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County, California. At an elevation of 14,179 feet, it is the second highest peak in the Cascades, Mount Shasta has an estimated volume of 85 cubic miles, which makes it the most voluminous stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc. The mountain and its area are managed by the U. S. Forest Service as part of the Shasta–Trinity National Forest. Mount Shasta is connected to nearby Shastina, and they dominate the northern California landscape and it rises abruptly and stands nearly 10,000 ft above the surrounding terrain. On a clear day, snowy Mount Shasta can be seen from the floor of the Central Valley 140 miles to the south. The mountain has attracted the attention of poets, authors, if Shastina were a separate mountain, it would rank as the fourth-highest peak of the Cascade Range. Mount Shastas surface is free of deep glacial erosion except, paradoxically. This is the largest glacial valley on the volcano, although it not now have a glacier in it. There are seven named glaciers on Mount Shasta, with the four largest radiating down from high on the summit cone to below 10,000 ft primarily on the north. The Whitney Glacier is the longest, and the Hotlum is the most voluminous glacier in the state of California. Three of the smaller named glaciers occupy cirques near and above 11,000 ft on the south and southeast sides, including the Watkins, Konwakiton, and Mud Creek glaciers. The oldest known human habitation in the dates to about 7,000 years ago. The historic eruption of Mount Shasta in 1786 may have been observed by Lapérouse, although perhaps first seen by Spanish explorers, the first reliably reported land sighting of Mount Shasta by a European or American was by Peter Skene Ogden in 1826. In 1827, the name Sasty or Sastise was given to nearby Mount McLoughlin by Ogden, the name was transferred to present-day Mount Shasta in 1841, partly as a result of work by the United States Exploring Expedition. Beginning in the 1820s, Mount Shasta was a prominent landmark along what became known as the Siskiyou Trail, the Siskiyou Trail was on the track of an ancient trade and travel route of Native American footpaths between Californias Central Valley and the Pacific Northwest. The California Gold Rush brought the first Euro-American settlements into the area in the early 1850s, including at Yreka, California, the first recorded ascent of Mount Shasta occurred in 1854, after several earlier failed attempts. In 1856, the first women reached the summit, by the 1860s and 1870s, Mount Shasta was the subject of scientific and literary interest. A book by California pioneer and entrepreneur James Hutchings, titled Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California, the summit was achieved by John Muir, Josiah Whitney, Clarence King, and John Wesley Powell
18.
Louis Agassiz
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Agassiz grew up in Switzerland, and studied and received Doctor of Philosophy and medical degrees at Erlangen and Munich, respectively. After further studies with Cuvier and Humboldt in Paris, Agassiz proceeded with leading to his appointment as professor of natural history at University of Neuchâtel. He made vast institutional and scientific contributions to zoology, geology, nevertheless, his reputation has suffered somewhat in hindsight by the evidence of his resistance to Darwinian evolution, and his later writings on human polygenism. Louis Agassiz was born in Môtier in the canton of Fribourg, educated first at home, then spending four years of secondary school in Bienne, he completed his elementary studies in Lausanne. In 1829 he received the degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen, moving to Paris he came under the tutelage of Alexander von Humboldt Humboldt and Georges Cuvier launched him on his careers of geology and zoology respectively. Previously he had not paid attention to the study of ichthyology. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live enough to work out the history of these fish. He at once threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm which characterized him to the end of his busy life, the task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in 1829. This was followed by research into the history of the found in Lake Neuchâtel. Enlarging his plans, in 1830 he issued a prospectus of a History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe and it was only in 1839, however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor of history in the University of Neuchâtel. The fossil fish there soon attracted his attention, the fossil-rich stones furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca were known at the time, but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early as 1829, planned the publication of the work which, more than any other, five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel, in gathering materials for this work Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him. They had known him for seven years at the time, Agassiz found that his palaeontological labors made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups, Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales, while Agassiz did much to improve fish taxonomy, his classification has been superseded by later work
19.
John Tyndall
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John Tyndall FRS was a prominent Irish 19th-century physicist. His initial scientific fame arose in the 1850s from his study of diamagnetism, later he made discoveries in the realms of infrared radiation and the physical properties of air. Tyndall also published more than a dozen science books which brought state-of-the-art 19th century experimental physics to a wide audience, from 1853 to 1887 he was professor of physics at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London. Tyndall was born in Leighlinbridge, County Carlow, Ireland and his father was a local police constable, descended from Gloucestershire emigrants who settled in southeast Ireland around 1670. Tyndall attended the schools in County Carlow until his late teens. Subjects learned at school notably included technical drawing and mathematics with some applications of those subjects to land surveying. He was hired as a draftsman by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland in his teens in 1839. In the decade of the 1840s, a boom was in progress. Between 1844 and 1847, he was employed in railway construction planning. In 1847 Tyndall opted to become a mathematics and surveying teacher at a school in Hampshire. Recalling this decision later, he wrote, the desire to grow intellectually did not forsake me, and, another recently arrived young teacher at Queenwood was Edward Frankland, who had previously worked as a chemical laboratory assistant for the British Geological Survey. Frankland and Tyndall became good friends, on the strength of Franklands prior knowledge, they decided to go to Germany to further their education in science. Among other things, Frankland knew that certain German universities were ahead of any in Britain in experimental chemistry, the pair moved to Germany in summer 1848 and enrolled at the University of Marburg, where Robert Bunsen was an influential teacher. Tyndall studied under Bunsen for two years, perhaps more influential for Tyndall at Marburg was Professor Hermann Knoblauch, with whom Tyndall maintained communications by letter for many years afterwards. Tyndalls Marburg dissertation was an analysis of screw surfaces in 1850. He stayed at Marburg for a year doing research on magnetism with Knoblauch, including some months visit at the Berlin laboratory of Knoblauchs main teacher. It is clear today that Bunsen and Magnus were among the very best experimental science instructors of the era, thus, when Tyndall returned to live in England in summer 1851, he probably had as good an education in experimental science as anyone in England. Tyndalls early original work in physics was his experiments on magnetism and diamagnetic polarity and his two most influential reports were the first two, co-authored with Knoblauch
20.
John Ruskin
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John Ruskin was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, as well as an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects as varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology, literature, education, botany and his writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin also penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters, the elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society and he also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation. He was hugely influential in the half of the 19th century. After a period of decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability, from the 1850s he championed the Pre-Raphaelites who were influenced by his ideas. His work increasingly focused on social and political issues, Unto This Last marked the shift in emphasis. In 1869, Ruskin became the first Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Oxford, in 1871, he began his monthly letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain, published under the title Fors Clavigera. In the course of this complex and deeply personal work, he developed the principles underlying his ideal society, as a result, he founded the Guild of St George, an organisation that endures today. Ruskin was the child of first cousins. His father, John James Ruskin, was a sherry and wine importer founding partner and de facto manager of Ruskin, Telford. John James was born and brought up in Edinburgh, Scotland, to a mother from Glenluce and his wife, Margaret Cox, née Cock, was the daughter of an aunt on the English side of the family and a publican in Croydon. She had joined the Ruskin household when she became companion to John Jamess mother, John James had hoped to practice law, but was instead articled as a clerk in London. His father, John Thomas Ruskin, described as a grocer, was an inadequate businessman, to save the family from bankruptcy, John James, whose prudence and success were in stark contrast to his father, took on all debts, settling the last of them in 1832. John James and Margaret were engaged in 1809, but opposition to the union from John Thomas, Ruskin was born at 54 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, London, south of St Pancras railway station. His childhood was characterised by the influences of his father and mother. John James Ruskin helped to develop his sons Romanticism and they shared a passion for the works of Byron, Shakespeare and especially Walter Scott
21.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
22.
John William Hill
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John William Hill or often J. W. Hill was a British born American artist working in watercolor, gouache, lithography, and engraving. Hills work focused primarily upon natural subjects including landscapes, still lifes, Hill was the son of British aquatint engraver John Hill. He emigrated with his parents from London to the United States in 1819, in 1822 the family moved to New York, where Hill apprenticed in aquatint engraving in his fathers shop. In 1838 Hill married Catherine Smith - their children included the astronomer George William Hill, in watercolor and aquatint engravings, Hill employed a stipple technique, building up planes of softly graduated colors made of tiny brushstrokes–a process commonly seen in painted miniatures. Applied to a scale on canvas the result was a form of objective realism in contrast with more common romanticized works of mid-19th century American painting. In 1829, at the age of 17, Hill began exhibiting watercolors and engravings produced in his fathers studio at the Brooklyn Art Association, in 1833, at the age of 21, Hill was elected to associate membership in the National Academy of Design. In his early twenties Hill began work for the New York State Geological Survey, first creating a series of studies and overhead views of principle American cities. This work was distinct for its accuracy of arial perspective and recording minute architectural detail and these portraits of urban settlement required frequent travel to observe, sketch, and map before creating finished watercolor studies. The completed watercolors were then recreated as color lithographic art and published by the Smith Brothers, Hills work with the New York State Geological Survey continued later with his illustration of James Ellsworth De Kays Zoology of New York State, or, The New-York Fauna. Part II, Birds published in 1844, like John James Audubons bird portraits, Hills were painted with an objective eye, documenting accurate anatomy and colors, and capturing the animals natural countenance. While in his early forties Hill read John Ruskins Modern Painters, the Pre-Raphaelite movements combination of realism with increased emotional content appealed to Hill. Hill championed Pre-Raphaelite painting methods in the United States, but was fascinated with their ideals. In 1863, with art critic Clarence Cook, geologist Clarence King, for the remainder of Hills life he focussed upon landscapes, mostly of the mountainous areas of New England and New York state. Hills paintings and engravings are found in the collections of the Brooklyn Museum, the Amon Carter Museum, Fogg Museum, the Hood Museum of Art, who Was Who in American Art, 1564-1975. John William Hill, An Artists Memorial, the South on Paper, Line, Color and Light p42. Stebbins, Theodore E. Virginia Anderson and Melissa Renn, the Last Ruskinians, Charles Eliot Norton, Charles Herbert Moore, and Their Circle. Townsend, Joyce H. Pre-Raphaelite Painting Techniques
23.
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
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The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form the seven-member brotherhood and their principles were shared by other artists, including Marie Spartali Stillman and Ford Madox Brown. A later, medievalising strain inspired by Rossetti included Edward Burne-Jones, the groups intention was to reform art by rejecting what it considered the mechanistic approach first adopted by Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. Its members believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been an influence on the academic teaching of art. In particular, the group objected to the influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts, to the Pre-Raphaelites, according to William Michael Rossetti, sloshy meant anything lax or scamped in the process of painting. Any thing or person of a commonplace or conventional kind, the brotherhood sought a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian art. The group associated their work with John Ruskin, an English critic whose influences were driven by his religious background, the group continued to accept the concepts of history painting and mimesis, imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. The Pre-Raphaelites defined themselves as a movement, created a distinct name for their form of art. The groups debates were recorded in the Pre-Raphaelite Journal, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in John Millaiss parents house on Gower Street, London in 1848. At the first meeting, the painters John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Hunt and Millais were students at the Royal Academy of Arts and had met in another loose association, the Cyclographic Club, a sketching society. At his own request Rossetti became a pupil of Ford Madox Brown in 1848, at that date, Rossetti and Hunt shared lodgings in Cleveland Street, Fitzrovia, Central London. Hunt had started painting The Eve of St. Agnes based on Keatss poem of the same name, as an aspiring poet, Rossetti wished to develop the links between Romantic poetry and art. Ford Madox Brown was invited to join, but the more senior artist remained independent but supported the group throughout the PRB period of Pre-Raphaelitism, other young painters and sculptors became close associates, including Charles Allston Collins, Thomas Tupper, and Alexander Munro. The PRB intended to keep the existence of the secret from members of the Royal Academy. The principles were deliberately non-dogmatic, since the brotherhood wished to emphasise the personal responsibility of artists to determine their own ideas. Influenced by Romanticism, the members thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable, nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras. The emphasis on medieval culture clashed with principles of realism which stress the independent observation of nature, in its early stages, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood believed its two interests were consistent with one another, but in later years the movement divided and moved in two directions. The realists were led by Hunt and Millais, while the medievalists were led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris
24.
Wagon train
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A wagon train is a group of wagons traveling together. In a military context, a train was the wagon train that followed an army with supplies. In the American West, settlers traveling across the plains and mountain passes in covered wagons banded together for mutual assistance, although wagon trains are associated with the Old West, the Trekboers of South Africa also traveled in caravans of covered wagons. Virtually all U. S. trails originated in Independence, Missouri, perhaps the most famous wagon train trail was the Oregon Trail which had a span of over 2,000 miles. Other paths included the Santa Fe Trail, the Chisholm Trail, the California Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the Old Spanish Trail. Although wagon train suggests a line of wagons, when permitted, wagons would often fan out. Originally, westward movement began in small groups, but well-funded travelers with a hundred or more wagons could employ professional wagon masters and ostlers, Overland emigrants discovered smaller groups of twenty to forty wagons were more manageable than larger ones, especially without professional wagon masters. Many operated under democratic principles, creating bylaws and electing a captain, in reality, a captain had limited authority. His role was largely confined to getting everyone moving in the morning and selecting when, membership in wagon trains was generally fluid and wagons frequently joined or left trains depending on the needs and wishes of their owners. An accident or illness, for instance, might force someone to fall behind and wait for the next train, some might break away to settle in Colorado Territory or other territories along the way. While Indians might attempt to raid horses under cover of darkness, contrary to popular belief, wagons were seldom circled defensively. The advent of gunpowder meant that an army could no longer rely solely on foraging in the surrounding countryside. In the 18th century, organized commissary and quartermaster departments were developed to centralize delivery of supplies, the delivery took the form of baggage trains, large groups of wagons that traveled at the rear of the main army. Westward-bound collective treks are reflected in numerous books, films and television programs about the journeys, cavalcade Conestoga wagon Convoy Covered wagon Laager Stewart, George R. The California Trail, An Epic With Many Heroes, the Plains Across, The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-60. Urbana, University of Illinois Press,1993, children on the Oregon Trail Life and Death on the Oregon Trail, Â Provisions for births and lethal circumstances, Â OCTA. Oregon-California Trails Association - Oregon Trail History, brown, Dee Alexander, and Martin Ferdinand Schmitt. Media related to Wagon trains at Wikimedia Commons Wagon Train at Spartacus Educational http, //www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/634001/wagon-train
25.
Carson City, Nevada
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Carson City, officially the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City, is an independent city and the capital of the US state of Nevada, named after the mountain man Kit Carson. As of the 2010 census, the population was 55,274, the majority of the population of the town lives in Eagle Valley, on the eastern edge of the Carson Range, a branch of the Sierra Nevada, about 30 miles south of Reno. The town originated as a stopover for California bound emigrants, but developed into a city with the Comstock Lode, a silver strike in the mountains to the northeast. The city has served as the capital of Nevada since statehood in 1864 and for much of its history was a hub for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, prior to 1969, Carson City was the county seat of Ormsby County. In 1969, the county was abolished, and its territory was merged with Carson City to form the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City, with the consolidation, the city limits today extend west across the Sierra Nevada to the California state line in the middle of Lake Tahoe. Like other independent cities in the United States, it is treated as a county-equivalent for census purposes, the first European Americans to arrive in what is known as Eagle Valley were John C. Frémont and his party in January 1843. Fremont named the river flowing through the valley Carson River in honor of Kit Carson, prior to the Fremont expedition, the Washoe people inhabited the valley and surrounding areas. Settlers named the area Washoe in reference to the tribe, by 1851 the Eagle Station ranch located along the Carson River served as a trading post and stopover for travelers on the California Trails Carson Branch which ran through Eagle Valley. The valley and trading post received their name from an eagle that was hunted and killed by one of the early settlers and was featured on a wall inside the post. As the area was part of the Utah Territory, it was governed from Salt Lake City, early settlers bristled at the control exerted by Mormon-influenced officials and desired the creation of the Nevada territory. A vigilante group of settlers, headed by Abraham Curry. In 1858, Abraham Curry bought Eagle Station and thereafter renamed the settlement Carson City, as Curry and several other partners had Eagle Valley surveyed for development. Curry had decided for himself that Carson City would someday serve as the capital city, following the discovery of gold and silver in 1859 on the nearby Comstock Lode, Carson Citys population began to rise. Curry built the Warm Springs Hotel a mile to the east of the center of town, as such, Carson City bested Virginia City and American Flat. Curry loaned the Warm Springs Hotel to the territorial Legislature as a meeting hall, the Legislature named Carson City to be the seat of Ormsby County and selected the hotel as the territorial prison with Curry serving as its first warden. Today the property serves as part of the state prison. When Nevada became a state in 1864 during the American Civil War, Carson Citys development was no longer dependent on the mining industry and instead became a thriving commercial center
26.
California Geological Survey
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The California Geological Survey, previously known as the California Division of Mines and Geology, is the California state geologic agency. As might be expected for a state that owed its existence to the rush of 1849. In 1851, one year after California was admitted to the United States, Trask, a medical practitioner and active member of the California Academy of Sciences, as Honorary State Geologist. In 1853 the Legislature passed a joint resolution asking him for information about the state. He submitted a report On the Geology of the Sierra Nevada, about two months later, the Legislature created the first California Geological Survey headed by Trask, who retained the title of State Geologist. Within a few years the mining of gold began to decline. These changes, coupled with publication of reports by Trask, created a clamor for a state geological survey. In 1860 the Legislature passed an act creating the Office of State Geologist, the act named Josiah D. Whitney to fill the office. A Yale graduate, Whitney had worked on surveys in the east. The act directed Whitney to make an accurate and complete survey of the state. Whitney chose William Henry Brewer as chief botanist to lead the field party. Brewer then added Clarence King, James Gardiner, topographer Charles F. Hoffmann and it was one of the most ambitious geological surveys ever attempted and yielded a vast amount of information about California that was hitherto unknown and unpublished. Among the natural features of California they were the first to describe Kings Canyon, the original California Geological Survey influenced the future of surveying and spurred the creation of the United States Geological Survey. Funding for the work was limited and the last field work was done in 1870 by Hoffmann. In 1874 the Survey was officially ended due to hostility between then Governor of California Newton Booth and Whitney, in 1880 the State Mining Bureau was established by the Legislature. The establishment of the Bureau was an action in response to the need for information on the occurrence, mining. Its focus was on Californias mining industry and the Governor appointed the State Mineralogist, in 1891, the Bureau published the first geologic map of the state showing eight stratigraphic units in color, along with numerous blank areas where information was lacking. The second colored geologic map of the state, published in 1916, in 1927 the Bureau became the Division of Mines within the Department of Natural Resources
27.
Josiah Whitney
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Josiah Dwight Whitney was an American geologist, professor of geology at Harvard University, and chief of the California Geological Survey. His father was Josiah Dwight Whitney of the New England Dwight family and he was the brother of grammarian and lexicographer William Dwight Whitney. He was educated at a series of schools in Northampton, Plainfield, Round Hill, New Haven, in 1836, he entered Yale University where he studied chemistry, mineralogy and astronomy. After graduation in 1839, he continued to study chemistry in Philadelphia, in 1841, he was preparing to enter Harvard Law School, when he happened to hear a lecture on geology by Charles Lyell. He decided to change plans and sailed to Europe in 1842 to continue his studies in science. For the next five years he traveled through Europe and studied chemistry and geology in France, when Jackson was dismissed from the survey, Foster and Whitney completed it in 1850 and the final report was published under their names. Building on this experience, Whitney became a consultant, and eventually wrote the book. It was considered to be the reference for the next 15 years. During the 1850s, Whitney participated in surveys of Iowa, Illinois. He was appointed state chemist and professor in the Iowa State University in 1855, in 1858-1860, he took part in the survey of the lead region of the Upper Missouri River, publishing, again with Hall, a report in 1862. In 1860, he was appointed the state geologist for California and was instructed by the legislature to undertake a comprehensive survey of the state. They began a survey that covered not only geology and geography, but also botany, zoology, although significant progress was made, Whitney made a tactical error by first publishing two volumes on paleontology when the legislators were clamoring for information about gold. Whitney argued that the survey should do more than serve as a prospecting party. The legislature grew impatient with the scope and pace of the survey work, Whitney tactlessly complained, telling legislators, We have escaped perils by flood and field, have evaded the friendly embrace of the grizzly, and now find ourselves in the jaws of the Legislature. In 1867, the survey was eliminated from the budget, although the California Geological Survey ceased work when funds were eliminated, Whitney managed to retain the title of state geologist until 1874. The surveys field work never resumed, One or two bureau chiefs tried to broaden the scope to include geology, but the bureau was not allowed to hire a geologist until 1928, six decades after the old surveys demise. The state funded the publication and printing of the first three volumes of the results, and Whitney published the remaining reports using his own money. Whitney also wrote The Yosemite Book, which was essentially a guide to Yosemite Valley
28.
Mount Tyndall
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Mount Tyndall is a peak in the Mount Whitney region of the Sierra Nevada in the U. S. state of California. It rises to 14,025 feet, and is the tenth highest peak in the state, the mountain was named in honor of the Irish scientist and mountaineer, John Tyndall. Mount Tyndall is 1.5 miles west of the higher Mount Williamson, King and Cotter were attempting to make the first ascent of Mount Whitney, and had made a long trek from Kings Canyon, only to realize months later that they had climbed the wrong peak. The easiest route on Mount Tyndall in terms of access and climbing is the Northwest Ridge and it begins about one half mile west of Shepherd Pass and about 1 mile north of the peak. Other non-technical routes exist on the gently sloped west side of the peak, at least two significant technical routes lie on the much steeper east face, the first of these routes was climbed by noted mountaineer Fred Beckey and Charlie Raymond in 1970. List of mountain peaks of California List of California fourteeners Mount Tyndall, in Chapter 3 of the free online version of this book, King gives an account of the first ascent of Mount Tyndall
29.
Mount Whitney
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Mount Whitney is the highest summit in the contiguous United States and the Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 14,505 feet. The west slope of the mountain is in Sequoia National Park, the east slope is in the Inyo National Forest in Inyo County. The summit of Whitney is on the Sierra Crest and the Great Basin Divide and it lies near many of the highest peaks of the Sierra Nevada. The peak rises dramatically above the Owens Valley, sitting 10,778 feet or just over two miles above the town of Lone Pine 15 miles to the east, in the Owens Valley. It rises more gradually on the west side, lying only about 3,000 feet above the John Muir Trail at Guitar Lake, the mountain is partially dome-shaped, with its famously jagged ridges extending to the sides. Mount Whitney is above the line and has an alpine climate. Very few plants grow near the summit, one example is the Skypilot, the only animals are transient, such as the butterfly Parnassius phoebus and the gray-crowned rosy finch. The mountain is the highest point on the Great Basin Divide, waterways on the west side of the peak flow into Whitney Creek, which flows into the Kern River. The Kern River terminates in the Tulare Basin, during very wet years, water overflows from the Tulare Basin into the San Joaquin River which flows to the Pacific Ocean. From the east, water from Mount Whitney flows to Lone Pine Creek, which joins the Owens River, which in turn terminates at Owens Lake, the estimated elevation of the summit of Mount Whitney has changed over the years. The technology of elevation measurement has become refined and, more importantly. The peak was commonly said to be at 14,494 ft, an older plaque on the summit reads elevation 14,496.811 feet but this was estimated using the older vertical datum from 1929. Since then the shape of the Earth has been estimated more accurately, using a new vertical datum established in 1988 the benchmark is now estimated to be at 14,505 ft. The rise is caused by a fault system that runs along the eastern base of the Sierra. Thus, the granite that forms Mount Whitney is the same as the granite that forms the Alabama Hills, the raising of Whitney is due to the same geological forces that cause the Basin and Range Province, the crust of much of the intermontane west is slowly being stretched. The granite that forms Mount Whitney is part of the Sierra Nevada batholith, in Cretaceous time, masses of molten rock that originated from subduction rose underneath what is now Whitney and solidified underground to form large expanses of granite. In July 1864, the members of the California Geological Survey named the peak after Josiah Whitney, during the same expedition, geologist Clarence King attempted to climb Whitney from its west side, but stopped just short. In 1871, King returned to climb what he believed to be Whitney, upon learning of his mistake in 1873, King finally completed his own first ascent of Whitney, but did so a month too late to claim the first recorded ascent
30.
Yosemite Valley
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Yosemite Valley is a glacial valley in Yosemite National Park in the western Sierra Nevada mountains of Northern California. The valley is about 8 miles long and up to a deep, surrounded by high granite summits such as Half Dome and El Capitan. The valley is drained by the Merced River and a multitude of streams and waterfalls including Tenaya, Illilouette, Yosemite, Yosemite Falls is the highest waterfall in North America, and is a big attraction especially in the spring when the water flow is at its peak. The valley is renowned for its beauty, and is widely regarded as the centerpiece of Yosemite National Park. The Valley is the attraction in the park for the majority of visitors. On July 2,2011 there was a record 20,851 visitors to the valley, most visitors enter the valley from roads to the west and pass through the famous Tunnel View entrance. Visitor facilities are located in the center of the valley, there are both hiking trail loops that stay within the valley and trailheads that lead to higher elevations, all of which afford glimpses of the parks many scenic wonders. Yosemite Valley is located on the slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains,150 miles due east of San Francisco. It stretches for 7.5 miles in a roughly east-west direction, Yosemite Valley represents only one percent of the park area, but this is where most visitors arrive and stay. More than half a dozen creeks tumble from hanging valleys at the top of cliffs that can rise 3000–4000 feet above the valley floor. These streams combine into the Merced River, which flows out from the end of the valley. The flat floor of Yosemite Valley holds both forest and large meadows, which provide breathtaking views of the surrounding crests and waterfalls. The first view of Yosemite Valley many visitors see is the Tunnel View, so many paintings were made from a viewpoint nearby that the National Park Service named that viewpoint Artist Point. The view from the end of the Valley contains the great granite monolith El Capitan on the left. Just past this spot the Valley suddenly widens with the Cathedral Spires, to this point, the Valley has been curving gently to the left, to the north. Now a grand curve back to the right begins, with Yosemite Falls on the north, followed by the Royal Arches, opposite to the south is Glacier Point,3,200 feet above the Valley floor. At this point the Valley splits into two, one section slanting northeast, with the other curving from south to southeast, between them both, at the eastern end of the valley, is Half Dome, the most famous and most recognizable natural feature in the Sierra Nevada. Above and to the northeast of Half Dome is Clouds Rest, at 9926 feet, snow melting in the Sierra forms creeks and lakes
31.
Mojave Desert
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The Mojave Desert is an arid rain-shadow desert and the driest desert in North America. It is located in the southwestern United States, primarily within southeastern California and southern Nevada, very small areas also extend into Utah and Arizona. The central part of the desert is sparsely populated, while its peripheries support large communities such as Las Vegas, Lancaster, Palmdale, Victorville, the Mojave Desert is bordered by the Great Basin Desert to its north and the Sonoran Desert to its south and east. Topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi Mountains to the west, and the San Gabriel Mountains, the mountain boundaries are distinct because they are outlined by the two largest faults in California – the San Andreas and Garlock faults. The Mojave Desert displays typical basin and range topography and it occupies less than 50,000 sq mi, making it the smallest of the North American deserts. The Mojave Desert is often referred to as the desert, in contrast to the low desert. However, the Mojave Desert is generally lower than the Great Basin Desert to the north, the spelling Mojave originates from the Spanish language while the spelling Mohave comes from modern English. The Mojave Desert receives less than 13 in of rain a year and is generally between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation, zion National Park in Utah lies at the junction of the Mojave, the Great Basin Desert, and the Colorado Plateau. Despite its aridity, the Mojave has long been a center of production, fed by irrigation coming from groundwater. The Mojave is a desert of temperature extremes and two distinct seasons, winter months bring comfortable daytime temperatures, which dip precipitously to around 20 °F on valley floors, and below 0 °F at higher elevations. Storms moving from the Pacific Northwest can bring rain and in places even snow. More often, the shadow created by the Sierra Nevada as well as mountain ranges within the desert such as the Spring Mountains, bring only clouds. By early June, it is rare for another Pacific storm to have a significant impact on the regions weather, summer weather is dominated by heat. Temperatures on valley floors can soar above 120 °F and above 130 °F at the lowest elevations, low humidity, high temperatures, and low pressure, draw in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico creating thunderstorms across the desert southwest known as the North American monsoon. Autumn is generally pleasant, with one to two Pacific storm systems creating regional rain events, october is one of the driest and sunniest months in the Mojave, and temperatures usually remain between 70 °F and 90 °F on the valley floors. After temperature, wind is the most significant weather phenomenon in the Mojave, during the June Gloom, cooler air can be pushed out into the desert from Southern California. In Santa Ana wind events, hot air from the desert blows out into the Los Angeles basin, wind farms in these areas generate power from these winds. The other major factor in the region is elevation
32.
Salt Lake City
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Salt Lake City, often shortened to Salt Lake or SLC, is the capital and the most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Utah. With an estimated population of 190,884 in 2014, the city lies at the core of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, Salt Lake City is further situated within a larger metropolis known as the Salt Lake City-Ogden-Provo Combined Statistical Area. This region is a corridor of contiguous urban and suburban development stretched along an approximately 120-mile segment of the Wasatch Front and it is one of only two major urban areas in the Great Basin. The city was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young, Isaac Morley, George Washington Bradley and numerous other Mormon followers, who extensively irrigated and cultivated the arid valley. Due to its proximity to the Great Salt Lake, the city was originally named Great Salt Lake City—the word great was dropped from the name in 1868 by the 17th Utah Territorial Legislature. Today, however, less than half the population of Salt Lake City proper are members of the LDS Church. It was traversed by the Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway, in 1913, Salt Lake City has since developed a strong outdoor recreation tourist industry based primarily on skiing, and hosted the 2002 Winter Olympics. It is the banking center of the United States. Before Mormon settlement, the Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute had dwelt in the Salt Lake Valley for thousands of years. The land was treated by the United States as public domain, the first U. S. explorer in the Salt Lake area is believed to be Jim Bridger in 1825, although others had been in Utah earlier, some as far north as the nearby Utah Valley. Frémont surveyed the Great Salt Lake and the Salt Lake Valley in 1843 and 1845, the Donner Party, a group of ill-fated pioneers, had traveled through the Great Salt Lake Valley in August 1846. The first permanent settlements in the date to the arrival of the Latter-day Saints on July 24,1847. Upon arrival at the Salt Lake Valley, president of the church Brigham Young is recorded as stating, This is the right place, Brigham Young claimed to have seen the area in a vision prior to the wagon trains arrival. They found the broad valley empty of any human settlement, four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Brigham Young designated the building site for the Salt Lake Temple, which would eventually become a famous Mormon and Salt Lake City landmark. The Salt Lake Temple, constructed on the block that would later be called Temple Square, construction started in 1853, and the temple was dedicated on 6 April 1893. The temple has become an icon for the city and serves as its centerpiece, in fact, the southeast corner of Temple Square is the initial point of reference for the Salt Lake Meridian, and for all addresses in the Salt Lake Valley. The Mormon pioneers organized a new state called Deseret and petitioned for its recognition in 1849, the United States Congress rebuffed the settlers in 1850 and established the Utah Territory, vastly reducing its size, and designated Fillmore as its capital city. Great Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the capital in 1858
33.
Timothy H. O'Sullivan
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Timothy H. OSullivan was a photographer widely known for his work related to the American Civil War and the Western United States. OSullivans history and personal life remains a mystery for many historians as there is information to work off of. For example, he was born in Ireland and came to New York City two years later with his parents or his parents traveled to New York before he was born. There is no way of finding out which of the two stories is true and we do know that as a teenager, he was employed by Mathew Brady. There is no record of him fighting and he most likely did civilians work for the army such as surveying, and he took photographs in his spare time. After being honorably discharged, he rejoined Bradys team, in July 1862, OSullivan followed the campaign of Maj. Gen. John Popes Northern Virginia Campaign. By joining Alexander Gardners studio, he had his photographs published in the first Civil War photographs collection. In July 1863, he created his most famous photograph, The Harvest of Death, in 1864, following Gen. Ulysses S. Grants trail, he photographed the Siege of Petersburg before briefly heading to North Carolina to document the siege of Fort Fisher. That brought him to the Appomattox Court House, the site of Robert E. Lees surrender in April 1865, from 1867 to 1869, he was the official photographer on the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel under Clarence King. The expedition began at Virginia City, Nevada, where he photographed the mines and his job was to photograph the West to attract settlers. In so doing, he one of the pioneers in the field of geophotography. OSullivans pictures were among the first to record the ruins, Navajo weavers. In contrast to the Asian and Eastern landscape fronts, the matter he focused on was a new concept. It involved taking pictures of nature as an untamed, pre-industrialized land without the use of painting conventions. OSullivan combined science and art, making records of extraordinary beauty. In 1870 he joined a team in Panama to survey for a canal across the isthmus. From 1871 to 1874 he returned to the southwestern United States to join Lt. George M. Wheelers survey west of the 100th meridian west. He faced starvation on the Colorado River when some of the boats capsized
34.
Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel
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Major General A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, by Clarence King, U. S. geologist. The results of the survey were published in eight volumes of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, systematic geology, by Clarence King, U. S. Geologist. Xii,803 pp. and atlas of 12 sheets, descriptive geology, by Arnold Hague and S. F. Emrnons. Mining industry, by James D. Hague, with contributions by Clarence King. Xv,647 pp. and atlas of 14 sheets, part II, Palaeontology, by James Hall and R. P. Whitfield. Part III, Ornithology, by Robert Ridgway, xii,669 pp. Vol. V. Botany, by Sereno Watson, aided by Prof. Daniel C. Odontornithes, A monograph on the extinct toothed birds of North America, special Publication, List of plants collected in Nevada and Utah, 1867-69, numbered as distributed. Atlases, Atlas accompanying the report of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. by Clarence King,1 single and 11 double folio sheets. Atlas accompanying Volume III on Mining Industry, engraved and printed by Julius Bien, New York. USGS Historical Photography Library - Collection of photographs from the 40th Parallel Survey
35.
Samuel Franklin Emmons
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Samuel Franklin Emmons was an American geologist. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts and he graduated from Harvard University in 1861 and studied at the Ecole des Mines in Paris, France, from 1862 to 1864 and at the Frieberg mining school in 1865. The largest glacier in the contiguous United States, Emmons Glacier, is located along their route and is named after Emmons. During the autumn of 1872, with Clarence King, Emmons discovered the locality of the diamond fields in Colorado. Emmons is the namesake of Mount Emmons, Colorado, and Mount Emmons, extracted from the Tenth United States Census Geology and mining industry of Leadville, Colorado, with atlas with William Francis Hillebrand, Antony Guyard, and Whitman Cross. US Geological Survey No.12 Geology of the Denver basin in Colorado with Whitman Cross and George Homans Eldridge
36.
Arnold Hague
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Arnold Hague was a United States geologist who did many geological surveys in the U. S. of which the best known was that for Yellowstone National Park. He also had assignments in China and Guatemala and he became a member of the U. S. Geological Survey in 1879 when it was first organized. Hague was the son of William Hague, a clergyman and he graduated from Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University in 1863. He then spent three years in Germany, studying at the universities of Göttingen and Heidelberg, and at the Freiberg Mining Academy. In 1867 he returned to the United States, and was appointed assistant geologist on the U. S. geological exploration of the 40th parallel under Clarence King. The results of study were published in volume iii. of the report of the exploration. In 1878 he was engaged by the Chinese government to examine gold, silver, on the organization of the U. S. Geological Survey in 1879, he returned to the United States, and became one of its geologists. He was sent to Nevada, and made a report on the “Geology of the Eureka District. ”In 1883 he was made geologist of the Yellowstone Park division, and assigned to the study of the geysers of that district in connection with the extinct volcanic regions of the Rocky Mountains. He was a member of scientific societies both in the United States and Europe, and in 1885 was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and he received an Sc. D. degree from Columbia University in 1901, and an LL. D. degree from Aberdeen University. He was a member of the appointed by the National Academy of Sciences at the request of the United States Government in 1896 to prepare plans for the National Forest preserves. He was vice president of the International Congresses of Geologists held in Paris in 1900, in Stockholm in 1910 and he became president of the Geological Society of America in 1910. New York Times obituary Works by or about Arnold Hague at Internet Archive Hague, Geological history of the Yellowstone national park. National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
37.
Gilbert Munger
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Gilbert Munger was a late 19th century American landscape painter whose romantic yet topographically accurate landscapes helped to introduce the newly opened West to the American public. Gilbert Davis Munger was born on April 14,1837, in Madison, Connecticut, to Sherman and Lucretia Munger and he was a distant cousin of the American engraver and artist George Munger. As a painter, however, he was largely self-taught and was inspired in the development of his style by reading the work of John Ruskin, during this period of his life, he began to make friends with other artists, including John Mix Stanley and John Ross Key. Munger served in the Union Army as an engineer helping to build the fortifications around Washington. After the war he moved to New York, but he began to spend time in the West as two of his brothers had settled in Minnesota. By the mid 1860s, he was beginning to some recognition for his landscapes. A turning point in Mungers life came in 1869 when he joined Clarence Kings famed Fortieth Parallel Survey as a guest artist. During his two years with the survey, he painted the Wasatch Mountains in Utah and the Cascade Mountains in northern California, ten of Mungers survey paintings were later printed as chromolithographs in Kings report on the surveys activities. Between 1869 and 1875, Munger made other trips around the West, painting landscapes—especially volcanic mountains—in central and southern California, Oregon, with Albert Bierstadt, he made a trip in November 1872 to paint Donner Pass, named after the famously ill-fated Donner Party. In this phase of his career, he made San Francisco his home base and his work began to circulate in print and in exhibitions, and some of his paintings were even used as study aids for geology students at Yale University. In 1877, Munger moved to Europe, living first in London, in England, he painted reproductions of his Western landscapes as well as scenes around London, in Cornwall, and in Scotland. In France, he painted numerous landscapes along the Seine River, at the instigation of John Ruskin, he also painted some 50 canvases of Venice, these are more vividly colored and looser in their brushwork than most of his earlier work. The European period saw the height of Mungers success and fame and he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in France and awarded medals by the governments of Germany, Russia, and Belgium. He even took a trip into writing, turning out a three-act comedy, Madelaine Marston. In 1893, Munger returned to New York, where he produced reproductions of his European paintings as well as new landscapes of areas around West Virginia, New York, and elsewhere. He was unable to match his European level of success, however, and it may be that Mungers lifelong avoidance of the formal art-world institutions of academy exhibitions and selling through dealers worked against him. Mungers work is in the collections of numerous regional American museums as well as museums in Paris, Berlin, Munich and his artwork is also featured in the Utah Museum of Fine Arts collection. Utah Museum of Fine Arts Cummings, Hildegard, storrs, Connecticut, Benton Museum of Art
38.
Uniformitarianism
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Uniformitarianism is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. Though an unprovable postulate that cannot be verified using the scientific method, coined by William Whewell, it was originally proposed in contrast to catastrophism by British naturalists in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the Scottish geologist James Hutton. Huttons work was refined by John Playfair and popularised by Charles Lyells Principles of Geology in 1830. The earlier conceptions likely had influence on 18th-century European geological explanations for the formation of Earth. Abraham Gottlob Werner proposed Neptunism, where strata represented deposits from shrinking seas precipitated onto primordial rocks such as granite, in 1785 James Hutton proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the Biblical account. The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have composed of the productions of the sea. Hence we find reason to conclude, 1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes. 2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, georges Cuviers paleontological work in the 1790s, which established the reality of extinction, explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. From 1830 to 1833 Charles Lyells multi-volume Principles of Geology was published, the works subtitle was An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earths surface by reference to causes now in operation. The terms uniformitarianism for this idea, and catastrophism for the opposing viewpoint, were coined by William Whewell in a review of Lyells book, Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century. According to Reijer Hooykaas, Lyells uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not an idea, Uniformity of law – the laws of nature are constant across time. Uniformity of methodology – the appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are those with analogy today, Uniformity of kind – past and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and produce the same effects. Uniformity of degree – geological circumstances have remained the same over time, none of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians. The four together make up Lyells uniformitarianism, the two methodological assumptions below are accepted to be true by the majority of scientists and geologists. Gould claims that these propositions must be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. You cannot go to an outcrop and observe either the constancy of natures laws or the working of unknown processes. It works the way around
39.
Catastrophism
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Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. This was in contrast to uniformitarianism, in which slow incremental changes, such as erosion, Uniformitarianism held that the present is the key to the past, and that all things continued as they were from the indefinite past. Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods, plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off, being replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata. Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one change to the Biblical account of Noahs flood. Until the 19th century, beliefs based on the narratives of Creation. In this way they were able to explain their observations within the framework of a short Earth history, the leading scientific proponent of catastrophism in the early nineteenth century was the French anatomist and paleontologist Georges Cuvier. His motivation was to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession that he, nor did he ever make any reference to divine creation as the mechanism by which repopulation occurred following the extinction event. In fact Cuvier, influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and this led him to believe the Earth was several million years old. Buckland spent much of his career trying to demonstrate the reality of the biblical flood with geological evidence. Eventually, Buckland would abandon flood geology in favor of the glaciation theory advocated by Louis Agassiz, who had briefly been one of Cuviers students. Instead they believed that the earth had been shaped by the term action of forces such as volcanism, earthquakes, erosion, and sedimentation. In part, the rejection was fostered by their impression that the catastrophists of the early nineteenth century believed that God was directly involved in determining the history of Earth. The rise in uniformitarianism made the introduction of a new catastrophe theory very difficult, in 1923 J Harlen Bretz published a paper on the channeled scablands formed by glacial Lake Missoula in Washington State, USA. Bretz encountered resistance to his theories from the establishment of the day. Finally in 1979 Bretz received the Penrose Medal, the Geological Society of Americas highest award, in the 1950s, Immanuel Velikovsky propounded catastrophism in several popular books. Velikovsky used this to explain the biblical plagues of Egypt, the reference to the Sun standing still for a day. Scientists rejected Velikovskys conjectures, often quite passionately, over the past 25 years, a scientifically based catastrophism has gained wide acceptance with regard to certain events in the distant past. One impetus for change came from the publication of a historic paper by Walter
40.
Henry Adams
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Henry Brooks Adams was an American historian and member of the Adams political family, being descended from two U. S. Presidents. After the American Civil War, he became a political journalist who entertained America’s foremost intellectuals at his homes in Washington and Boston. In his lifetime, he was best known for his History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, a 9-volume work, praised for its literary style. His posthumously published memoirs, The Education of Henry Adams, won the Pulitzer Prize and he was born in Boston, the son of Charles Francis Adams, Sr. and Abigail Brooks into one of the countrys most prominent families. After his graduation from Harvard University in 1858, he embarked on a tour of Europe. He was initiated into the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity as honorary member at the 1893 Columbian Exposition by Harris J. Ryan, through that organization, he was a member of the Irving Literary Society. He tried his hand again at law, taking employment with Judge Horace Grays Boston firm, Henry shouldered the responsibility reluctantly and with much self-doubt. Had little to do, he reflected later, and knew not how to do it rightly, during this time, Adams was the anonymous Washington correspondent for Charles Hales Boston Daily Advertiser. On March 19,1861, Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Henry accompanied his father to London as his private secretary. He also became the anonymous London correspondent for the New York Times, the two Adamses were kept very busy, monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and trying to obstruct the construction of Confederate commerce raiders by British shipyards. Henrys writings for the Times argued that Americans should be patient with the British, while in Britain, Adams was befriended by many noted men, including Charles Lyell, Francis T. Palgrave, Richard Monckton Milnes, James Milnes Gaskell, and Charles Milnes Gaskell. He worked to introduce the young Henry James to English society, with the help of his closest and lifelong friend Charles Milnes Gaskell, while in Britain, Henry read and was taken with the works of John Stuart Mill. Henry wrote to his brother Charles that Mill demonstrated to him that democracy is still capable of rewarding a conscientious servant and his years in London led Adams to conclude that he could best provide that knowledgeable and conscientious leadership by working as a correspondent and journalist. In 1868, Henry Adams returned to the United States and settled in Washington, DC, Adams saw himself as a traditionalist longing for the democratic ideal of the 17th and 18th centuries. Accordingly, he was keen on exposing political corruption in his journalism, Adams said, I think that Lee should have been hanged. It was all the worse that he was a good man and its always the good men who do the most harm in the world. In 1870, Adams was appointed professor of history at Harvard. As an academic historian, Adams is considered to have been the first to conduct historical seminar work in the United States, among his students was Henry Cabot Lodge, who worked closely with Adams as a graduate student
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John Hay
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John Milton Hay was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century. Beginning as a secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, Hays highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley. Hay was also an author and biographer and wrote poetry and other literature throughout much of his life, born in Indiana to an anti-slavery family that moved to Illinois when he was young, Hay showed great potential, and his family sent him to Brown University. After graduation in 1858, Hay read law in his uncles office in Springfield, Illinois, Hay worked for Lincolns successful presidential campaign and became one of his private secretaries at the White House. Throughout the American Civil War, Hay was close to Lincoln, in addition to his other literary works, Hay co-authored with John George Nicolay a multi-volume biography of Lincoln that helped shape the assassinated presidents historical image. After Lincolns death, Hay spent several years at posts in Europe, then worked for the New-York Tribune under Horace Greeley. Yet, Hay remained active in politics, and from 1879 to 1881 served as Assistant Secretary of State, afterward, he remained in the private sector, until President McKinley, for whom he had been a major backer, made him Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1897. Hay became Secretary of State the following year, Hay served for almost seven years as Secretary of State under President McKinley, and after his assassination, under Theodore Roosevelt. Hay was responsible for negotiating the Open Door Policy, which kept China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, John Milton Hay was born in Salem, Indiana, on October 8,1838. He was the son of Dr. Charles Hay and the former Helen Leonard. Charles Hay, born in Lexington, Kentucky, hated slavery, a doctor, he practiced in Salem and married there in 1831. Helens father, David Leonard, had moved his family west from Assonet, Massachusetts, in 1818, but died en route to Vincennes, Indiana, Charles was not successful in Salem, and moved, with his wife and children, to Warsaw, Illinois, in 1841. John attended the schools, and in 1849 his uncle Milton Hay invited John to live at his home in Pittsfield, Pike County, and attend a well-regarded local school. Milton was a friend of Springfield attorney Abraham Lincoln and had read law in the firm Stuart, in Pittsfield, John first met John Nicolay, who was at the time a 20-year-old newspaperman. Once John Hay completed his studies there, the 13-year-old was sent to live with his grandfather in Springfield and his parents and uncle Milton sent him to Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, alma mater of his late maternal grandfather. Hay enrolled at Brown in 1855, although he enjoyed college life, he did not find it easy, his Western clothing and accent made him stand out, he was not well prepared academically and was often sick. Hay gained a reputation as a student and became a part of Providences literary circle that included Sarah Helen Whitman. He wrote poetry and experimented with hashish, Hay received his Master of Arts degree in 1858, and was, like his grandfather before him, Class Poet
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Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
