1.
Reston, Virginia
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Reston is a census-designated place in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, within the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area. The population was 58,404 at the 2010 census, the Reston Town Center is home to many businesses, with high-rise and low-rise commercial buildings that are home to shops, restaurants, offices, a cinema, and a hotel. It comprises over 1,000,000 square feet of office space, municipal, government-like services are provided by the nonprofit Reston Association, which is supported by a per-household fee for all residential properties in Reston. In 2012, Reston was ranked 7th in the Best Place to Live in America by CNNMoney Magazine, Reston was conceived as a planned community by Robert E. Simon. Founded on April 10,1964 and named for his initials, it was one of the first modern, post-war planned communities in America, simons family had recently sold Carnegie Hall, and Simon used the funds to create Reston. The first section of the community to be built, Lake Anne Plaza, was designed by James Rossant to emulate the Italian coastal town of Portofino. Lake Anne village was designed with modern architectural themes that extend to an elementary school, a gasoline station. Lake Anne also has an art gallery, several restaurants, the Reston Historic Trust Museum, shops, all are local businesses, as there are no chain stores or chain restaurants allowed in Lake Anne. Close by are the cubist townhouses at Hickory Cluster that were designed by the noted modernist architect, Charles M. Goodman, in the International Style. Other sections of the town, such as Hunters Woods, South Lakes, the land on which Reston sits was initially owned by Lord Fairfax during the 18th century. Wiehle bought the later in the 1880s. He died after construction of several buildings and his sons did not share his vision, and sold the land to A. Smith Bowman, who built a bourbon distillery on the site while maintaining a farm on most of the area, a 7, 300-acre tract. An office retail development and a road are named for him, in 1961, Robert E. Simon bought most of the land, except for 60 acres on which the Bowman distillery continued to operate until 1987. The growth and development of Reston has been monitored by newspaper articles, national magazines, in 1967 the First Lady of the United States, Mrs. Lyndon Johnson, visited Reston to take a walking tour along its pathways as part of her interest in beautification projects. Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin visited Reston elementary schools named for them, the Washington Post featured a road trip to Reston in January 2006, and a relatively new website Beyond DC has a page devoted to Reston with almost 150 photos. Reston experienced increasing traffic congestion as it grew in the late 1970s and this was a time when Restons population was growing but the Dulles Toll Road had not been built. Commuter traffic between Reston and Washington created serious congestion on the roads that connected Reston to Washington DC. In 1984 the toll road opened, and in 1986 the West Falls Church Washington Metro station opened, most recently the Fairfax County Parkway, a major north-south artery, was opened
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
6.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
7.
Scientist
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A scientist is a person engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge that describes and predicts the natural world. In a more restricted sense, a scientist may refer to an individual who uses the scientific method, the person may be an expert in one or more areas of science. The term scientist was coined by the theologian, philosopher and historian of science William Whewell and this article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Scientists perform research toward a comprehensive understanding of nature, including physical, mathematical and social realms. Philosophers aim to provide an understanding of fundamental aspects of reality and experience, often pursuing inquiries with conceptual, rather than empirical. When science is done with a goal toward practical utility, it is called applied science, an applied scientist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is conducting research with the aim of developing new technologies and practical methods. When science seeks to answer questions about aspects of reality it is sometimes called natural philosophy. Science and technology have continually modified human existence through the engineering process, as a profession the scientist of today is widely recognized. Jurisprudence and mathematics are often grouped with the sciences, some of the greatest physicists have also been creative mathematicians and lawyers. There is a continuum from the most theoretical to the most empirical scientists with no distinct boundaries, in terms of personality, interests, training and professional activity, there is little difference between applied mathematicians and theoretical physicists. Scientists can be motivated in several ways, many have a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality, other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige, or the desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of peoples health, the nations, the world, nature or industries. Scientists tend to be motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with other professions which require a similar amount of training. The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country, for instance, there are only 4 full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom and the United States. According to the US National Science Foundation 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines, the figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, 5% of scientists worked for the federal government and about 3. 5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men, 59% of US scientists were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions
8.
Landscape
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A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
9.
Natural resource
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy
10.
Natural hazard
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A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment. Natural hazard events can be grouped into two broad categories, geophysical hazards encompass geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, wildfire, cyclonic storms, flood, drought, and coastal erosion. Biological hazards can refer to an array of disease and infestation. Many geophysical hazards are related, for example, submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis, floods and wildfires can result from a combination of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors. It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally correlated as well, an example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas living on a fault line is a hazard. An avalanche occurs when a large snow mass slides down a mountainside, an avalanche is an example of a gravity current consisting of granular material. In an avalanche, lots of material or mixtures of different types of fall or slide rapidly under the force of gravity. Avalanches are often classified by the size or severity of consequences resulting from the event, an earthquake is the sudden release of energy stored as lithospheric stress that radiates seismic waves. Many earthquakes happen each day, few of which are enough to cause significant damage. Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes as well as from events such as tropical cyclones or other severe storm events. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds and kill thousands of people and this is based on natural events. A landslide is a displacement of sediment, usually down a slope. A sinkhole is a depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings, a volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power, and the eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions occur in places like Kilauea in Hawaii, to megacolossal eruptions from supervolcanoes like Lake Taupo. Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high-temperature clouds of ash, a blizzard is a severe winter stormer icy and windy conditions characterized by low temperature, strong wind and heavy snow. Scientists warn that global warming and climate change may result in more extensive droughts in coming years and these extensive droughts are likely to occur within the African continent due to its very low precipitation levels and high climate. A hailstorm is a hazard where a thunderstorm produces numerous hailstones which damage the location in which they fall
11.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
12.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
13.
Geography
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Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes, Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of geography and physical geography. Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences, Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names, although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns. Names of places. are not geography. know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself and this is a description of the world—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause, just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main fields, human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the environment and how humans create, view, manage. The latter examines the environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water. The difference between these led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography. Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science and it aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns. Physical geography can be divided into broad categories, including, Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and it requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between the human and the geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include, emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography
14.
Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
15.
Hydrology
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Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil, Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-basin management and water quality, oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields. Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering, policy and planning, the term hydrology comes from Greek, ὕδωρ, hýdōr, water, and λόγος, lógos, study. Chemical hydrology is the study of the characteristics of water. Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle, hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of groundwater. Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of technology to hydrology and water resources applications. Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water surfaces and the lower atmosphere. Isotope hydrology is the study of the signatures of water. Surface hydrology is the study of processes that operate at or near Earths surface. Drainage basin management covers water-storage, in the form of reservoirs, water quality includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural solutes. Determining the water balance of a region, mitigating and predicting flood, landslide and drought risk. Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning, designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity. Part of the module in catastrophe modeling. Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation, designing sewers and urban drainage system. Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems, predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation. Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources, assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines. Hydrology has been a subject of investigation and engineering for millennia, for example, about 4000 BC the Nile was dammed to improve agricultural productivity of previously barren lands
16.
Lakewood, Colorado
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The City of Lakewood is a Home Rule Municipality which is the most populous municipality in Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. Lakewood is the fifth most populous city in the State of Colorado, the city population was 142,980 at the 2010 United States Census. Lakewood is west of Denver and is part of the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, the urban/suburban development of the community known as Lakewood was begun in 1889 by Charles Welch and W. A. H. Loveland, who platted a 13-block area along Colfax Avenue west of Denver in eastern Jefferson County, loveland, the former president of the Colorado Central Railroad, retired to the new community of Lakewood after many years of living in Golden. Until 1969, the known as Lakewood had no municipal government, relying instead on several water districts, several fire districts. Lakewood was a community with policing provided by the Jefferson County Sheriff, several volunteer staffed fire districts, however, the community had already existed for about 80 years. The City of Lakewood was incorporated in 1969 as Jefferson City, soon after, an election was held and the citys name was changed to Lakewood. This was due to a dislike of Jefferson City and the perceived notion it would be confused with existing communities in Colorado. At the time of incorporation the city population was already over 90,000, Lakewood never had a traditional downtown area. West Colfax Avenue served the area as U. S. Route 40. As such, Colfax from Harlan west to Kipling and beyond had mostly commercial establishment, several multi-business shopping centers developed followed by much larger centers at JCRS and Westland. The Villa Italia Mall on West Alameda Avenue, twenty blocks south of Colfax, reflected the southward expansion of Lakewood settlement and housed a larger concentration of retail space. As the mall went into decline, the Lakewood City Council developed a plan to demolish the Villa Italia Mall, in 2011, Lakewood was named an All-America City for the first time. Lakewood is located at 39°42′17″N 105°04′53″W at an elevation of 5,518 feet, located at the junction of U. S. Route 6 and Colorado State Highway 121 in central Colorado, the city lies immediately west of Denver and 62 miles north-northwest of Colorado Springs. Lakewood lies in the Colorado Piedmont on the edge of the Great Plains just east of the Front Range of the Southern Rocky Mountains. Green Mountain, a mesa 6,854 feet tall, is located in the far part of the city. The city is located in the watershed of the South Platte River, from north to south, these include Lakewood Gulch, Weir Gulch, Sanderson Gulch, and Bear Creek. Two tributaries of Lakewood Gulch, Dry Gulch and McIntyre Gulch, Turkey Creek, a tributary of Bear Creek, flows northeast through the far southwestern part of the city
17.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
18.
Denver Federal Center
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Denver Federal Center, surrounded by Lakewood, Colorado, is part of the General Services Administration and is home to about 6,200 employees for many Federal government of the United States agencies. The Denver Federal Center encompasses an area of about 670 acres and has 90 buildings comprising over 4,000,000 square feet of office, warehouse, lab and special use space. There are 26 different Federal agencies on-site, making it the largest concentration of Federal agencies outside of Washington, the major employers at the Denver Federal Center include the United States Department of the Interior and the General Services Administration. Special facilities at the Denver Federal Center include the National Ice Core Laboratory, major Jacob Downing, Colorado pioneer and judge, purchased the land in the late 1860s and developed it into a ranch, raising Arabian horses. Downing played a role in settling the West and he introduced new agriculture and wildlife, and helped lay the foundations for the city of Denver. Thomas S. Hayden, a prominent Denver resident, purchased the Downing estate in 1913 and he expanded it into a 20,000 acre cattle ranch. The federal government purchased 2,040.207 acres from the Hayden family in December 1940 for the purpose of building an ordnance plant, to be named The Denver Ordnance Plant. The site was chosen for its setting, because it was far from the nations borders. In late January 1941, the War Department signed a contract with the Remington Arms Company to produce small arms ammunition, construction of the Plant started in early March 1941. Rapidly, the Government built over 200 buildings for the new Denver Ordnance complex, at the height of production in 1943, the Denver Ordnance Plant was the 4th largest “city” in Colorado with a workforce “population” of more than 22,000. These employees worked day and night, producing over six million cartridges a day, when World War II ended, ammunition production ended and the Denver Ordnance Plant became federal surplus property. A portion of the Ordnance Plant facility was converted into office, warehouse and this smaller facility was given a new name, the Denver Federal Center. The Federal Center is bounded on the north by Sixth Avenue, on the East by Kipling Street, the western boundary of the Federal Center is just east of Union Blvd. Building 810, in the southwest corner of the Federal Center was once the largest warehouse west of the Mississippi River and in 1965 was state-of-the-art and it contained all the supplies needed to service all government facilities for the General Services Administration. Today, Building 810 is the home of federal agencies including operations for the U. S. Geological Survey. The distribution facility for all the USGS topographic maps and publications, Building 710 is an underground bunker complex designed to withstand a nuclear blast. The building was constructed by Army Corps of Engineers and completed in 1969 and has a space of 36,000 square feet. It was intended as a base for operations during a nuclear attack and was designed to house 300 people for up to 30 days in the event of a nuclear war
19.
Menlo Park, California
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Menlo Park is a city at the eastern edge of San Mateo County, in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, in the United States. It is bordered by San Francisco Bay on the north and east, East Palo Alto, Palo Alto, and Stanford to the south, Atherton, North Fair Oaks, and Redwood City to the west. Menlo Park is one of the most educated cities in the state of California, Menlo Park had 32,026 inhabitants according to the 2010 United States Census. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 17.4 square miles. The total area is 43. 79% water, Menlo Park is long and narrow on a northeast to southwest axis. The northeast portion borders the San Francisco Bay and includes the Dumbarton Bridge that connects Menlo Park to Fremont on the east side of the bay, the city shoreline includes the citys largest park, Bedwell Bayfront Park 160 acres and the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. San Francisquito Creek marks much of the southeast border of the city, west Menlo Park along Alameda de las Pulgas nearly separates the southwestern part of the city from the rest. The extreme southwest is clipped by Interstate 280, the Bayshore Freeway traverses Menlo Park northwest to southeast near the shoreline and somewhat parallel to it to the southwest is El Camino Real. The intersection of El Camino Real and Santa Cruz Avenue is considered the heart of the city, nearby, the Menlo Park Civic center is bounded by Ravenswood Avenue, Alma Street, Laurel Street and Burgess Drive. It contains the offices, library, police station and Burgess Park which has various recreational facilities. Other major roads include Sand Hill Road in the Sharon Heights area, the residential areas of Menlo Park are unofficially divided into several neighborhoods. Belle Haven is the neighborhood east of the Bayshore Freeway. Between Middlefield road and Bayshore are the neighborhoods of the Willows, Suburban Park, Lorelei Manor, Flood Triangle, Vintage Oaks, between Middlefield and El Camino Real are Felton Gables, Linfield Oaks, and Park Forest. West of El Camino Real until the hills are the neighborhoods of Downtown Menlo Park, Central Menlo Park, in the hills are Sharon Heights and Stanford Hills. The area of Menlo Park was inhabited by the Ohlone people, in 1795 the Rancho de las Pulgas land grant was made that include the area of the current city. In 1851 two Irish immigrants, Dennis J. Oliver and his brother-in-law D. C, mcGlynn, purchased a 1, 700-acre tract of land on the former Rancho de las Pulgas. In the 1854 they erected a gate with an arch bearing the inscription Menlo Park. The word Menlo derived from the former home of Menlo in County Galway, Ireland
20.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
21.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
22.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
23.
Louisiana Purchase
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The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory by the United States from France in 1803. The U. S. paid fifty million francs and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs for a total of sixty-eight million francs, the Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U. S. states and two Canadian provinces. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves, the Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. Napoleon in 1800, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, however, Frances failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition, they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Constitution did not contain provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient. Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics and it was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. Following French defeat in the Seven Years War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi, the United States controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea, as the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired piece by piece. The risk of power taking it from a weakened Spain made a profound reconsideration of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckneys Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27,1795, gave American merchants right of deposit in New Orleans, Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, in 1798 Spain revoked this treaty, prohibiting American use of New Orleans, and greatly upsetting the Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30,1803, another ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later, in part because during winter conditions the news of the New Orleans formalities did not reach Upper Louisiana. The March 9–10,1804, event is remembered as Three Flags Day, James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs, the Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U. S. history
24.
Hayden Geological Survey of 1871
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The Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 explored the region of northwestern Wyoming that later became Yellowstone National Park in 1872. It was led by geologist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden. S, Congress to pass the legislation creating the park. Hayden along with John Wesley Powell, Clarence King and George Wheeler were the leaders of these great surveys, in March 1871, a sum of $40,000 was appropriated by Congress to finance Haydens fifth survey to explore mostly the territories of Idaho and Montana. After the passage of the Sundry Civil bill, Hayden immediately applied to the Secretary of War for permission to draw on equipment, stores and this was authorized, together with a small escort when deemed necessary and the public service will permit. Likewise, the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads agreed to carry Haydens men, Hayden had an experienced assistant, James Stevenson. S. The two were now able to outfit and equip members of Haydens survey at Fort D. A, during the weeks leading up to the expedition the scientists and other men were to make up the party that would venture into the Yellowstone region. In the spring of 1871, Hayden selected the members of the team,32 in all, from among friends and colleagues, seven previous survey participants. Included in the party was William Henry Jackson, his photographer from his 1870 survey and Thomas Moran, both Allen and Peale kept private journals of the expedition which when discovered in later years have brought great insight to the daily operations of the survey team. The party traveled north, reaching Taylors Bridge 43. 491775°N112. 032509°W /43.491775, -112. 032509 on the Snake River on June 25,1871. On June 30,1871, the party had reached into Montana, camping just over the Continental Divide near Monida Pass 44. 55861°N112. 30556°W /44.55861. Hayden and his party reached Virginia City, Montana 45. 294107°N111. 94123°W /45.294107, -111. 94123 on July 4,1871 and Fort Ellis near Bozeman. By this time, Thomas Moran, the guest artist had joined the survey. At Fort Ellis, both George Allen, the botanist and Cyrus Thomas, the statistician and entomologist, then left the party for health reasons, while José. After resupplying and coordinating with the U. S. Army at Fort Ellis, as the survey team traveled up the Yellowstone River in what is now called Paradise Valley, they confirmed what Hayden already knew, that the trail was unsuitable for their wagons. Abandoning their wagons at the camp, the survey headed into Yankee Jim Canyon 45°11′43″N 110°54′05″W late on July 20,1871. On July 21,1871 the Hayden survey entered the region at the Gardner River proceeding up that river to what is now called Mammoth Hot Springs where they explored and camped for two days. At Mammoth, they found two men, named J. C. McCartney and H. R. Horr, had laid claim to 320 acres and established a ranch. These entrepreneurs eventually established a hotel at Mammoth and were not evicted from the area until many years after the park was established
25.
Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869
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Powell retraced part of the 1869 route on a second expedition in the winter of 1871-72. Powell had spent much of his youth rafting the Mississippi River, a Union major during the American Civil War, he lost his right arm to amputation in 1862 after he was hit by a musket ball at the Battle of Shiloh. Prior to coming west, Powell had been a professor of geology at the Illinois State Normal School, the expedition set out from Green River Station on May 24,1869, with a company of ten men including Powell. The company included Powells brother Walter, as well as a group of seasoned mountain men, the complete roster included, John Wesley Powell Walter H. Powell, a captain in the Civil War and Johns brother John C. None of them, however, had any significant whitewater experience on the rivers of the West, Powell purchased four modified, round-bottomed Whitehall boats for the expedition. Nearly seven thousand pounds of food and supplies, enough to last ten months, were divided equally between these three boats, the fourth boat, the Emma Dean, was smaller and lighter, only sixteen feet long and built of pine. This was Powells personal boat, and was rigged with a strap that Powell could clutch with his hand to keep his balance while standing on deck. Each boat would be rowed by two oarsmen, with only Powell and Oramel Howland, the expeditions official mapmaker, excused from rowing duties. Early on the Green River, the Powell Expedition lost one of their large freight boats, No one was killed, but many crucial supplies were lost, including all of the expeditions barometers. Fortunately, Powell and his men managed to some of the barometers - they were the only means Powell had at his disposal to determine altitude. Knowing the altitude was essential for producing good maps, and it allowed Powell to estimate how much vertical drop remained before the journeys endpoint, which had a known elevation. The Powell expedition named many of the landmarks and geological features along the Green and Colorado rivers, including the Flaming Gorge, the Gates of Lodore, of the ten men that started out from Green River Station, six completed the entire journey. Frank Goodman left the expedition on July 6 during the resupply at the Uinta River Indian Agency and he walked away and lived for some years with the Paiutes of eastern Utah. Eventually, he settled in Vernal, Utah, where he married and raised a family, the other three adventurers to leave the expedition fared worse. They hiked out of the canyon and were never seen again, historians still dispute their fate, but it is often proposed that they were killed by local Shivwits Indians in a case of mistaken identity. Another story suggests that they were executed by Mormons who mistook them for spies, on August 30, Powell and the five others reached safety at the Mormon settlement of Callville near the mouth of the Virgin River. The expedition was dramatized in the 1960 Disney film Ten Who Dared, the Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons. Seeing Things Whole, The Essential John Wesley Powell, the American Experience, Lost in the Grand Canyon - Companion site to the PBS series about Jown Wesley Powells Colorado River journey
26.
Wheeler Survey
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The Wheeler Survey was a survey of a portion of the United States lying west of the 100th meridian. It comprised multiple expeditions, and was supervised by First Lieutenant George Montague Wheeler, the survey team included Lieutenant Montgomery M. Macomb. This plan necessitated what became known as the Wheeler Survey, the surveys main goal was to make topographic maps of the southwestern United States. Photographers on the expedition included Timothy H. OSullivan of New York, many of their photographs are now on file at the Library of Congresss Prints and Photographs Division. The Wheeler Survey lasted until 1879, when the survey, along with the King and Powell Surveys, were terminated, Wheeler Peak in Nevada, Wheeler Peak in New Mexico, and the scenic Wheeler Geologic Area in southern Colorado are named for George Wheeler. A Guide to the Field notebooks of the Wheeler Survey, NC319, special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno
27.
Clarence King
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Clarence Rivers King was an American geologist, mountaineer, and author. He served as the first director of the United States Geological Survey from 1879 to 1881, King was noted for his exploration of the Sierra Nevada. Clarence King was the son of James Rivers King and Florence Little King. Clarences father was part of a firm engaged in trade with China, which kept him away from home a great deal. His only two siblings had died by 1848. He then attended schools in Boston and New Haven, and at age thirteen was accepted to the prestigious Hartford High School and he was a good student and a versatile athlete, of short stature but unusually strong. His mother received an income from the King family business until it met with a series of problems, after a few years of straitened circumstances, during part of which Clarence suffered from a serious depression, his mother married George S. Howland in July 1860. Howland financed Clarences enrollment in the Sheffield Scientific School affiliated with Yale College in 1860, at Yale King specialized in applied chemistry and also studied physics and geology. King graduated with a Ph. B. in July 1862 and he and several friends borrowed one of Yales rowboats that summer for a trip along the shores of Lake Champlain and a series of Canadian rivers, then returned to New Haven for the fall regatta. King began to more about geology, attended a lecture by Louis Agassiz. They associated with a group of American artists, writers, but he was anxious to see the mountains of the American West, and his friend Jim Gardner was miserable in law school. By May 1863 King, Gardiner, and an acquaintance named William Hyde traveled by railroad to Missouri and then joined a wagon train, which they left at Carson City, Nevada. In July 1864, King and Cotter made the first ascent of a peak in the Eastern Sierra that King named Mount Tyndall in honor of one of his heroes, from there they discovered several higher peaks, including the one that came to be named Mount Whitney. They returned to the East Coast by way of Nicaragua the following winter, King suffered from several bouts of malaria in the spring and summer of 1865 while Whitney, also in the East, worked on securing funding for further survey projects. They returned to San Francisco in the spring, and King returned to Yosemite in the summer of 1866 to make more field notes for Whitney. When King heard of the death of his stepfather, he and Gardiner resigned from the Whitney survey and once again sailed to New York. They had been developing a plan for an independent survey of the Great Basin region for some time, King made a persuasive argument for how his research would help develop the west. He received federal funding and was named U. S, Geologist of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, commonly known as the Fortieth Parallel Survey, in 1867
28.
John Wesley Powell
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John Wesley Wes Powell was a U. S. soldier, geologist, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He is famous for the 1869 Powell Geographic Expedition, a river trip down the Green and Colorado rivers. Powell served as director of the U. S. Geological Survey and proposed, for development of the arid West. Powell was born in Mount Morris, New York, in 1834 and his father, a poor itinerant preacher, had emigrated to the U. S. from Shrewsbury, England, in 1830. His family moved westward to Jackson, Ohio, then Walworth County, Wisconsin, before settling in rural Boone County, as a young man he undertook a series of adventures through the Mississippi River valley. In 1855, he spent four months walking across Wisconsin, during 1856, he rowed the Mississippi from St. Anthony, Minnesota, to the sea. In 1857, he rowed down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi River, in 1858 he rowed down the Illinois River, then up the Mississippi and the Des Moines River to central Iowa. At age 25, he was elected in 1859 to the Illinois Natural History Society, Powell studied at Illinois College, Illinois Institute, and Oberlin College, over a period of seven years while teaching, but was unable to attain his degree. During his studies Powell acquired a knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin, Powell had a restless nature and a deep interest in the natural sciences. This desire to learn natural sciences was against the wishes of his father. In 1860 when Powell was on a tour he decided that the Civil War was inevitable, he decided to study military science. Powells loyalties remained with the Union and the cause of abolishing slavery, on May 8,1861, he enlisted at Hennepin, Illinois, as a private in the 20th Illinois Infantry. He was described as age 27, height 5 6-1/2 tall, light complected, gray eyes, auburn hair and he was elected sergeant-major of the regiment, and when the 20th Illinois was mustered into the Federal service a month later, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant. He enlisted in the Union Army as a cartographer, topographer, during the Civil War, he served first with the 20th Illinois Volunteers. While stationed at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, he recruited a company that became Battery F of the 2nd Illinois Light Artillery with Powell as captain. On November 28,1861, Powell took a leave to marry the former Emma Dean. At the Battle of Shiloh, he lost most of his arm when struck by a minie ball while in the process of giving the order to fire. The raw nerve endings in his arm would continue to cause him pain for the rest of his life
29.
Charles Doolittle Walcott
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Charles Doolittle Walcott was an American paleontologist, administrator of the Smithsonian Institution from 1907 to 1927, and geologist. He became known for his discovery in 1909 of well-preserved fossils in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia, Canada and he was described by Stephen Jay Gould as the finest symbol that I have ever encountered for the embodiment of conventional beliefs. Walcott was born in New York Mills, New York and his grandfather, Benjamin S. Walcott, moved from Rhode Island in 1822. His father, also Charles Doolittle Walcott, died when Charles Jr. was only two, Walcott was the youngest of four children. He was interested in nature from an age, collecting minerals and bird eggs and, eventually. He attended various schools in the Utica area but left at the age of eighteen without completing high school and his interest in fossils solidified as he became a commercial fossil collector. On January 9,1872, Walcott married Lura Ann Rust and she died on January 23,1876. He lost this job after two years but was recruited to the newly formed US Geological Survey as a geological assistant. In 1876, he became the assistant to James Hall, State Geologist of New York, Walcott also became a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1879, Walcott joined the US Geological Survey and rose to become its director in 1894 and he married Helena Breese Stevens in 1888. They had four children between 1889 and 1896, Charles Doolittle Walcott, Sydney Stevens Walcott, Helena Breese Walcott, Walcott was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1896. In 1902, he met with Andrew Carnegie and became one of the founders and incorporators of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and he served in various administrative and research positions in that organization. In 1921 Walcott was awarded the inaugural Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, Walcott became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1907 after the death of Samuel Pierpont Langley, holding the latter post until his own death. He was succeeded by Charles Greeley Abbot, because of Walcotts responsibilities at the Smithsonian, he resigned as director of the United States Geological Survey. As part of the celebration of Darwins birth, Walcott was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Cambridge in 1909. He served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1923 and he was an advisor to then-president, Theodore Roosevelt. Walcott had an interest in the movement and assisted its efforts. In 1910, the year after his discovery of Cambrian fossils in the Burgess shale, Walcott returned to the area accompanied by his sons Stuart and Sidney
30.
George Otis Smith
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George Otis Smith was an American geologist. Smith was born in Hodgdon, Maine and he graduated from Colby College in 1893 and earned a Ph. D. from Johns Hopkins University in 1896. He served as director of United States Geological Survey from 1907 to 1922 and 1923 to 1930 and he also served as the first chairman of the Federal Power Commission under Herbert Hoover from 1930 to 1933. Smith was the Geologist-in-charge of the Section of Petrography of the Geologic Branch, succeeded Charles Doolittle Walcott as Director in May 1907 and continued as Director until December 1930. Smith had joined the Survey after receiving his doctorate from Johns Hopkins University in 1896, Smith was particularly interested in a business policy for the public domain. He also believed that the work of the Survey should be primarily although not exclusively practical, Director Smith was a member of the Commission, and the Geological Surveys resource data provided the basis for much of the Commissions report. In 1924, Smith unsuccessfully urged resumption of research in much the same terms as Walcott had used in 1898. In December 1930, Hoover appointed Smith as chairman of the newly reorganized Federal Power Commission, in January 1931 the Senate purported to reconsider its consent to the appointment of Smith, and other members of the Commission, because it did not approve of their choice of subordinates. President Hoover did not recognise the Senates authority to withdraw its consent to the appointment of officials after they had been commissioned, in May 1932 the US Supreme Court held that the appointments were effective. Notes on crystals of scapolite, gypsum, and fayalite, Johns Hopkins University Circular, pp. 81–83 Smith, George Otis. The volcanic series of the Fox Islands, ME Johns Hopkins University Circular, pp. 12–13 Smith, the rocks of Mount Rainier United States Geological Survey Annual Report, vol.18, Part 2, pp. 416–423 Smith, George Otis. Description of the Tintic special district, Utah Geological Atlas Folio, Report, GF-0065,8 pp. Smith, George Otis. Contributions to the geology of Washington, geology and physiography of central Washington U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Report, P0019,101 pp. Smith, work of the United States Geological Survey Mining World, pp. 136–137 Smith, George Otis. The policy of the Geological Survey Science, pp. 401–403 Smith, Military contribution of civilian engineers Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol.30, no.3, pp. 399–404 Smith, George Otis. Topographic and geologic maps The Military Engineer, vol.17, no.95, pp. 381–395 Rickard, George Otis Smith an appreciation Mining and Metallurgy, vol.25, no.447, pp.191 Smith, Philip Sidney. Memorial to George Otis Smith Proceedings of the Geological Society of America, pp
31.
Walter Curran Mendenhall
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Walter Curran Mendenhall, was the fifth director of the US Geological Survey. Mendenhall was born in Marlboro, Ohio to William King Mendenhall and he graduated from Ohio Normal University. He married Alice May Boutelle, the couple had two daughters, Margaret Boutelle Mendenhall and Alice Curran Mendenhall, in December 1930, Hoover appointed George Otis Smith to the newly reorganized Federal Power Commission and then appointed Walter C. Mendenhall and smith were both 59 years old, Mendenhall had joined the Survey in 1894, fresh from Ohio Normal University, and had mapped in the Appalachian coal fields. In 1898, he had one of the pioneer geologists in Alaska. An early member of the Land Classification Board, he became its chairman in 1911, for eight years before becoming Director, Mendenhall had been the Chief Geologist. King, Powell, Walcott and Mendenhall all were members of the National Academy of Sciences, mendenhalls directorate was pivotal in the history of the Geological Survey. A year after Mendenhall became Director, the Federal budget was cut as the effects of the depression began to be felt. The Tennessee Valley Authority, established in May 1933, turned to the Survey to meet its need for maps of the entire valley, Mendenhall died in Chevy Chase, Maryland,1957. Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Progress in physics in the nineteenth century Sun Publishing, Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound Alaska USGS Professional Paper No.10. Mendenhall, Walter Curran, and Schrader, F. C, Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Development of underground waters in the central coastal plain region of Southern California USGS Water Supply Paper No.138. Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Development of underground waters in the western region of southern California USGS Water Supply Paper No.139. Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Geology of the Central Copper River region, Alaska USGS Professional Paper No.41, Leighton, Morris Morgan, Walter Curran Mendenhall AAPG Bulletin, March 1958, v.42, no. 3, p. 682-690 Deming, D. Walter Curran Mendenhall, Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Some desert watering places in southeastern California and southwestern Nevada USGS Water Supply Paper No.224. Mendenhall, Walter Curran, Ground waters of the Indio region, California, works by or about Walter Curran Mendenhall at Internet Archive Portrait of Walter Curran Mendenhall via the US Geological Survey Photograph of Walter Curran Mendenhall via the US Geological Survey
32.
William Embry Wrather
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William Embry Wrather was an American geologist. He was born on a farm near Brandenburg in Meade County and he died in his home in Washington, DC on Thursday, November 28,1963. He was the son of Richard Anselm and Glovy Washington Wrather. Wrather moved to Chicago at the age of 14 to live with relatives, Wrather entered the University of Chicago in 1902 and received his ph. B. in Geology in 1907. During the summer of 1907, Wrather was an assistant on a US Geological Survey party in the mountains of western Montana. Wrather worked temporarily in clerical positions before going to work for Guffey Petroleum from 1908-1916, on December 30,1910, he married his high school sweetheart, Alice Mildred Dolling in Chicago, Illinois. In 1916, Wrather resigned to search for new oil fields, in 1918 his efforts contributed to the identification of the Desdemona field in Comanche County, Texas. Wrathers interest in the Desdemona field amounted to three quarters of a million dollars, Wrather then moved to Dallas an opened an office as a consulting geologist. Wrather was a member of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. He served as Secretary-Treasurer in 1918 and as Chairman of the Research Committee from 1923 to 1933 and he was a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee for the Chicago Worlds Fair in 1933. He also served as President of the Texas State Historical Association for seven years, in 1940, Wrather was selected General Chairman for the Dallas annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, of which he became a member in 1917 and a Fellow in 1925. In 1943, he was appointed Treasurer of the Association and he served in capacity of 11 years. Wrather was also a First Vice President of the Geological Society of America and he served as president of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers in 1948. In 1951, he was chosen to be a Life Trustee of the National Geographic Society, in 1942, Wrather came to Washington, DC to be the Assistant Chief of the Foreign Economic Administration for Metals and Minerals. In the fall of 1943, Wrather was a member of the mission sent by the Petroleum Administrator for War. In January 1956, after Director Wrather retired because of illness and age,3, pp. 331–333, May 1928 Wrather, William Embry and Frederic H. Lahee. Cover multitude of services Oil & Gas Journal, vol,4, p. P71-P76 Pratt, Wallace E. William Embry Wrather AAPG Bulletin, October 1964, v.48, no. 10, p. 1733-1738 William Embry Wrather bio, U. S. Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior Portrait of William Embry Wrather via the US Geological Survey Photograph of William Embry Wrather via the US Geological Survey
33.
Thomas Brennan Nolan
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Thomas Brennan Nolan was an American geologist. The mineral nolanite is named in his honor, after Director William Embry Wrather retired because of illness and age in 1955, Assistant Director Thomas B. Nolan became the United States Geological Surveys seventh director in January 1956. During his 11 years as Assistant Director, Nolan had many times, in 1959, the Survey compiled a photogeologic map of the Earths satellite, the Moon, and began studies of tektites and impact craters. On May 25,1961, President John F. Nolan, “Gold Hill mining district, Utah“ USGS Professional Paper No.177 Miesch, Alfred T. and Nolan, Thomas B. “Geochemical prospecting studies in the Bullwhacker mine area, Eureka district, Nevada” USGS Bulletin 1000-H Nolan, merriam, C. W. Williams, J. S. “Stratigraphic section in the vicinity of Eureka, Nevada“ USGS Professional Paper No.276 Nolan, Thomas B. “Report on El Guineo and Matrullas dam sites, Toro Negro Project, Porto Rico” USGS Open-File Report No.559 Nolan, “Methods of constructing block diagrams for use in mining geology” Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists, vol. U. S. Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior Robinson, evans, H. T. Jr. Schaller, W. T. and Fahey, J. J. Nolanite, a new mineral from Beaverlodge, Saskatchewan. Portrait of Thomas Brennan Nolan via the US Geological Survey Photograph of Thomas Brennan Nolan via the US Geological Survey Nolanite mineralogical information Nolan, Thomas B
34.
William Thomas Pecora
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William Thomas Pecora was an American geologist. Willam Thomas Pecora was born on February 1,1913, in Belleville, New Jersey, son of Cono, both parents were born in southern Italy, in the village of SantArsenio. Pecora was the ninth of 10 children, four boys and six girls and his family was in the wholesale import business. After graduation, he stayed on at Princeton as a geology tutor, in the summer of 1934, he was a field assistant to Erling Dorf, working in Montana on Paleozoic stratigraphy. Pecora started graduate studies at Harvard University in 1935, concentrating on optical mineralogy, Pecora received a grant form the Holden Fund to finance fieldwork in 1937–1939 in the western fringe of the Bear Paw Mountains. His doctoral thesis was a study of the Boxelder laccolith. He received his Ph. D. from Harvard University in 1940, Pecora was the United States intercollegiate fencing champion in 1933 and went to Germany at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin as a member of the United States Olympic fencing team. He married Ethelwyn Elizabeth Carter from Franklin County, Kentucky on April 7,1947 and they had two children, William Carter Pecora born in 1949 and Ann Stewart Pecora born in 1953. In 1949, he started a large-scale geologic mapping program of eight fifteen-minute quadrangles in the Bearpaw Mountains, the first four of these maps was published in 1957 as Miscellaneous Geologic Investigation Maps and the other four were published in bulletins starting in 1960 and ending in 1963. In a 1962 paper, Pecora concentrated on the deposits in the Bearpaw Mountains. In 1957, Pecora was selected as Chief of the Branch of Geochemistry and he established programs in geochronology, experimental petrology, and mineralogy. In 1961, he returned to research and he was named Chief Geologist in 1964 and a year later was appointed Director of the United States Geological Survey by President Lyndon B. Johnson. As Director, he pressed for programs that would be responsive to emerging problems, such as investigations of gold resources and off-shore oil. He established the National Center of Earthquake Research in response to problems revealed by the 1964 Alaska earthquake, Pecora also addressed the discovery of large oil reserves of oil and gas on the north coast of Alaska in 1968. Under his Direction, the U. S. Geological Survey made a study of the geologic aspects of the proposed pipeline route. He was an member of the Surveys Pick and Hammer shows. He died at age 59 on July 19,1972 at George Washington University Hospital after having surgery for diverticulitis the previous month, a statement from President Nixon called him a remarkable civil servant and an internationally respected figure in the scientific community. The mineral pecoraite was named for him, as was the Pecora escarpment in Antarctica, the William T. Pecora Award was established in 1974 to honor Pecora, and is sponsored jointly by the Department of the Interior and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
35.
Vincent Ellis McKelvey
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Vincent Ellis McKelvey was an American geologist. He was married to Genevieve Bowman McKelvey and they had one son, Gregory McKelvey of Spokane, Washington. Dr. McKelvey was an earth scientist who spent 46 years with the United States Geological Survey, dr. McKelvey was recognized as an international authority on deep-sea mineral deposits. He joined the Geological Survey, a branch of the Department of the Interior, dr. McKelvey was named chief geologist of the Geological Survey in 1971 shortly before he became its ninth director, a post he held through 1977. The McKelvey diagram, a representation of how to classify a particular mineral resource based on the value of its production. In 1971, after William Thomas Pecora became Under Secretary of the Interior, Chief Geologist Vincent E. McKelvey, McKelvey, a graduate of Syracuse University with a doctorate from the University of Wisconsin, had served in several research and administrative capacities in the Geological Survey. In 1973, the Geological Survey moved its National Headquarters from downtown Washington to a new building designed expressly for its needs in Reston, Virginia. In 1976, Congress transferred jurisdiction of the Petroleum Reserve in Alaska from the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Interior, effective June 1,1977. Responsibility for administration of the petroleum exploration program on the Reserve. The new activity brought with it a 50-percent increase in funds, in September 1977, Secretary of the Interior Cecil Andrus announced that he had accepted McKelveys resignation as Director but that McKelvey would remain with the Survey as a research scientist. McKelvey Forum on Mineral and Energy Resources A building on the Menlo Park, 1689-A McKelvey, V. E. and Nancy A. Wright and Roger W. Bowen, Analysis of the world distribution of metal-rich subsea manganese nodules US Geological Survey Circular No. Investigations needed to stimulate the development of Jordans mineral resources US Geological Survey Open-file Report No, Subsea mineral resources and problems related to their development US Geological Survey Circular No. Search for uranium in the United States US Geological Survey and the US Atomic Energy Commission,476,1954 Search for uranium in the United States US Geological Survey bulletin No. 1030-A,1955 Search for uranium in western United States US Geological Survey and the US Atomic Energy Commission
36.
Henry William Menard
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Henry William Menard was an American geologist. He earned a B. S. and M. S. from the California Institute of Technology in 1942 and 1947, in 1949, he completed a Ph. D. in marine geology at Harvard University. Menard is perhaps best known for his promotion of the theory of plate tectonics before it was accepted in the scientific community. Menard served many roles during his career as a marine geologist, field worker, theorist, educator, popularizer, entrepreneur and statesman. Menards historical and sociological writings are respected by historians of science, Menard began his professional career in 1949, in the Sea Floor Studies Section of San Diegos Navy Electronics Laboratory. He joined the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1955 as associate professor of geology, menards field work was extensive, involving 1,000 aqua-lung dives and 20 oceanographic expeditions from 1949 until 1978 when he became Director of the U. S. G. S. His research focused on the morphology of the ocean floor, during the 1950s, Menard also started a scuba-diving business with a few colleagues that included consulting for AT&T on the laying of cable. He became a professor of the University of California, San Diego in 1961. Two years were spent at Churchill College, following a year in Washington, D. C. as technical advisor in the Office of Science and Technology, Menard served as Director of the University of Californias Institute of Marine Resources. In April 1978, H. William Menard became the United States Geological Surveys tenth Director, Menard had been a marine geologist with the Naval Electronics Laboratory in San Diego for several years and then had become a member of the faculty of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In 1965-66, he was associated with the Office of Science, after his return to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1981, Menard continued to teach, write, and do research. S. Geological Survey Museum Collection Photograph of Dr. Henry William Menard from U. S. Geological Survey Photographic Library Photograph of Henry William Menard from U. S. Geological Survey History
37.
Dallas Lynn Peck
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Dallas Lynn Peck was an American geologist and vulcanologist. Peck was a native of Cheney, Washington and he received his bachelors and masters degrees in geology from the California Institute of Technology. He received a doctorate in geology from Harvard University in 1960, dr. Peck graduated from the California Institute of Technology and Harvard University. He was born March 28,1929, in Cheney, WA and he spent his early career studying the volcanoes and volcanic rocks of Hawaii and the western United States. In the mid-1960s, he helped train U. S. astronauts on what to expect on the lunar landscape and he also was among the first U. S. scientists to work with the Soviet Union and China in cooperative earthquake research in the 1970s. His memberships included the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Geophysical Union, Peck died on August 21,2005 at Inova Fairfax Hospital in Fairfax, Virginia of complications from open-heart surgery in June,2005. Dallas Peck was an authority on volcanoes who served as director of the U. S. Geological Survey from 1981 to 1993 and he spent his entire career at the U. S. Geological Survey, starting in 1951. Peck worked in California and Hawaii before moving to the Washington and he was chief of the geologic division from 1977 until he was appointed director of the survey. During his tenure, he expanded the scope of the work on mineral resources, global change, water quality. In 1995 he retired from the USGS, but continued his research as an emeritus scientist until his death, the Dallas Peck Outstanding Scientist Emeritus Award is names in his honor. He received the Interior Departments awards for meritorious and distinguished service as well as the Presidential Meritorious Executive Award and he received the Distinguished Alumni Award from the California Institute of Technology in 1985. A mountain range in Antarctica was named after him in 1989, Geologic Map of the Yosemite Quadrangle, Central Sierra Nevada, California USGS IMAP No.2751 Yosemite Quadrangle, Central Sierra Nevada, California—Analytic Data USGS Open File Report No. 2001-252 Karst hydrogeology in the United States, with Joseph W. Troester, 88-476 Merced Peak Quadrangle, central Sierra Nevada, California, analytic data, with G. K. Van Kooten USGS Professional Paper No, 1170-D Geologic map of the Merced Peak quadrangle, central Sierra Nevada, California USGS Geologic Quadrangle No.1531 Cooling and vesiculation of Alae lava lake, Hawaii USGS Professional Paper No. 935-B The eruption of August 1963 and the formation of Alae lava lake, 62-102 Geologic map of Oregon west of the 121st meridian, prepared under the direction of F. G. Peck USGS IMAP No.325 Geologic reconnaissance of the Western Cascades in Oregon north of latitude 43 degrees USGS Open File Report No, vol.212, no.4502 pages 1484-1485 Drew, Lawrence J. Directions
38.
Gordon P. Eaton
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Gordon Pryor Eaton is an American geologist. Eaton was born in Dayton, Ohio and he currently resides in Bryan, Texas, with his wife, Virginia. At Wesleyan he was a member of Delta Upsilon Fraternity, Dr. Eaton held a number of academic positions. Eaton taught as his alma mater from 1955–1959, from 1959 to 1967, he was an assistant professor, associate professor, and chair of the Department of Geological Sciences at University of California, Riverside. From 1986 to 1990, Eaton served as President of Iowa State University, on March 24,1994, Dr. Gordon P. Eaton became the 12th Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, from October 1990 to March 1994, he served as the Director of Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University in Palisades, New York. From 1986 to 1990, Dr. Eaton was President of the Iowa State University in Ames, Dr. Eaton is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Geological Society of America, and the American Geophysical Union. He is listed in Whos Who in America, Whos Who in the Midwest, Whos Who in the World, Whos Who in Science and Engineering and he was a member of committee on the formation of the National Biological Survey, National Research Council. He has also served on the Board on Earth Sciences and Resources, Eaton Hall on the campus of Iowa State University is named for Dr. Eaton. Epeirogeny in the Southern Rocky Mountains region, evidence and originGeosphere,5, pp. 764–784, Oct 2008 Once a geologist, always a. the path to a university presidency. And back again The Compass, vol.79, no.1, pp. 27–28,2005 Disinformation, misinformation, or myths. Geotimes, vol.42, no.8, pp.5, Aug 1997 The new U. S. Geological Survey, environment, resources, Eaton Papers, 1972-1991 Portrait of Gordon Eaton from U. S. Geological Survey Museum Collection Photograph of Gordon P. Eaton from the U. S. Geological Survey
39.
Charles G. Groat
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Charles G. Chip Groat is an American geologist. Dr. Groat served as professor at the University of Texas at Austin, in the Department of Geological Sciences. From 1978-1990, Dr. Groat was Executive Director for the American Geological Institute and he served as Executive Director at the Center for Coastal, Energy, and Environmental Resources, at Louisiana State University. He was also Director of the Universitys Environmental Science and Engineering Ph. D, program and a Professor of Geological Sciences. Dr. Groat became the 13th Director of the U. S. Geological Survey on November 13,1998 and he was appointed by President Bill Clinton and retained by President George W. Bush. Groat resigned as Director on June 17,2005, Dr. Groat became the founding president and CEO of the Water Institute of the Gulf formed in 2011. It’s good for the state, and it’s good for science, the study narrowly defined hydraulic fracturing as only referring to the injection of fluid under pressure to create pathways. The Initiative director characterized Groat as a gas industry insider, in response, Groat stated, The results were determined by the individual investigators, not me and I did not alter their conclusions. Officials at the University of Texas were previously unaware of his compensation by Plains, Professor Groat retired from the University of Texas of Austin effective November 30,2012. The University accepted the findings and promised an overhaul of its conflict-of-interest policies. Photograph of Charles G. Groat from the U. S. Geological Survey http, //www. louisianaeconomicdevelopment. com/led-news/articles/coastal-progress. aspx. i=Water%20Management&id=32
40.
Mark Myers
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Mark D. Myers is an American geologist who served as the fourteenth Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. He was nominated by President George W. Bush on May 3,2006, confirmed by the U. S. Senate, dr. Myers replaced prior director Charles G. Groat, who had resigned effective June 17,2005. Anticipating the inauguration of Barack Obama as U. S. president, Myers resigned as USGS director on January 8,2009, Myers grew up in La Crosse, Wisconsin where he graduated from high school. He earned degrees in geology from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, receiving his B. S. in 1977, Myers worked for ARCO in Louisiana where he met his wife, Alice. After two years in Louisiana he was transferred to Alaska, in 1987, he entered the Ph. D. program in geology at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. In 1990, he joined the Alaska Division of Oil and Gas as a Petroleum Geologist and he then served as Senior Staff Geologist for Exploration at ARCO Alaska Inc. and Phillips Alaska Inc. In 2000 Myers was chosen as Alaska State Geologist and Director of Alaskas Division of Oil and Gas, which included the Alaska Geological and Geophysical Survey. On September 3,2010, Chancellor Rogers of the University of Alaska Fairbanks announced that Myers had accepted the position of UAF Vice Chancellor for research, slated to begin on January 24,2011. He served as a pilot and intelligence officer in the U. S. Air Force Reserve from 1977 until 2003, Myers is slated to be Bill Walkers DNR Commissioner. USGS Goals for the Coming Decade by Myers, M. D. et al, science,12 October 2007, Vol.318. 2007 Core lithofacies analysis and fluvio-tidal environments in the AK94 CBM-1 well, near Wasilla, Alaska by Flores, Romeo M, Myers, Mark D, Stricker, Gary D, Houle, US Geological Survey Professional Paper No.1614. Pp. 57–72,1999 Depositional processes and reservoir continuity within coarse grained basinal lowstand deposits of the middle Brookian sequence, dissertation - University of Alaska at Fairbanks. Facies variations in the Fish River sequence by Myers, Mark D. Smith, AAPG Bulletin, vol.74, no.5, pp. 727–728, May 1990 Sedimentology of Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene strata of the Beaufort-Mackenzie Basin, Canada by Myers, Mark D, Crowder, R Keith, McGowen, Joe H. Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America, vol.21, no.5, pp.121, Mar 1989 Photograph of Mark Myers from the U. S. Geological Survey
41.
Marcia McNutt
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Marcia Kemper McNutt is an American geophysicist who became president of the National Academy of Sciences as of July 1,2016. She was previously editor-in-chief of the journal Science, McNutt holds a visiting appointment at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. She is a member of the NAS advisory committee for the Division on Earth and Life Studies, McNutt chaired the NAS climate intervention committee who delivered two reports in 2015. McNutt was the 15th director of the United States Geological Survey as well as adviser to the United States Secretary of the Interior. McNutts father was a business owner and her mother was a college-educated homemaker. She was valedictorian of her class at the Northrop Collegiate School in Minneapolis and she received a bachelors degree in physics summa cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa, from Colorado College in 1973. As a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellow, she then studied geophysics at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography where she earned a PhD in earth sciences in 1978 and her dissertation was titled Continental and Oceanic Isostasy. McNutt is a NAUI-certified scuba diver and she trained in demolition and explosives handling with the U. S. Navy UDT. Marcia Kemper McNutt was married first to Marcel Hoffmann, who died in 1988 and they had three daughters, Meredith McNutt Hoffmann and identical twins Dana and Ashley Hoffmann. Ashley Hoffmann was Miss Rodeo California in 2009, Marcia McNutt is also a horse enthusiast and enjoys barrel racing on her mare Lulu. McNutt is one of six women scientists featured in the 1995 PBS series, McNutt and Ian Young, an MBARI ships captain, were married in 1996. After a brief appointment at the University of Minnesota, McNutt worked for three years on earthquake prediction at the US Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California, in 1982, she became assistant professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 1988 was appointed Griswold Professor of Geophysics. She served as director of the Joint Program in Oceanography and Applied Ocean Science and Engineering, an effort of MIT. She participated in 15 major oceanographic expeditions and served as chief scientist on more than half of them and she published about 100 peer-reviewed scientific articles. Her research has included studies of ocean island volcanism in French Polynesia, continental break-up in the Western United States, McNutt has made notable contributions to the understanding of the rheology and strength of the lithosphere. She also showed how subducting ocean plates could weaken and identified a large topographic feature called the South Pacific superswell, McNutt was president and CEO of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute from 1997 to 2009. During that time the RV Western Flyer, MBARIs research vessel, made expeditions from Canada to Baja California, MBARI built the Monterey Accelerated Research System, the first deep-sea cabled observatory in the continental United States. In July 2009, McNutt was announced as President Obamas nominee to be the director of the United States Geological Survey
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Suzette Kimball
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Suzette M. Kimball is an American geologist, environmental scientist, and the 16th director of the United States Geological Survey, a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior. She has held positions at the USGS including Eastern Regional Director. Prior to joining the USGS, she served in the National Park Service as a coordinator in the Global Climate Change Program, Southeast Regional Chief Scientist. Some selected references include, Chen, Zi-Qiang, Carl H. Hobbs III, John F. Wehmiller, late Quaternary paleochannel systems on the continental shelf, south of the Chesapeake Bay entrance. Kimball, Suzette, James K. Dames, and Carl Heywood Hobbs, investigation of Isolated Sand Shoals on the Inner Shelf of Southern Virginia, Final Report. College of William and Mary, School of Marine Science, Virginia Institute of Marine Science,1991, boon, John Daniel, Suzette M. Kimball, Daniel Ary Hepworth, and Kyung Duck Suh. Chesapeake Bay Wave Climate, Thimble Shoals Wave Station, Report and Summary of Wave Observations, division of Geological and Benthic Oceanography, Virginia Institute of Marine Science and School of Marine Science, College of William and Mary,1990. Dolan, Robert, Fred Anders, and Suzette Kimball, National Atlas, Coastal Erosion and Accretion. Anders, Fred J. Steven G. Underwood, and Suzette M. Kimball, beach and nearshore sediment sampling on a developed barrier, Fenwick Island, Maryland. Regional wave climate and shoreline response, biography of Suzette Kimball from the U. S. Geological Survey
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Scioto River
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The Scioto River is a river in central and southern Ohio more than 231 miles in length. It rises in Auglaize County in west central Ohio, flows through Columbus, Ohio, where it collects its largest tributary, the Olentangy River, too small for modern commercial shipping, its primary economic importance is for recreation and drinking water. The lower Scioto River valley is large compared to the width of the river and is extensively farmed, meltwaters from retreating glaciers carved the valley exceptionally wide. Valley bottoms are smooth, and flood deposits created during and since the most recent Glacial period cause floodplain soils to be very productive, as a result, farms line much of the lower Scioto where it flows through low, rolling hills covered in hardwood trees. The geologic history of the Scioto River is tied to the destruction of the Teays River network during the Ice Ages, the north flowing Teays River was dammed by glaciers, and damming of other rivers led to a series of floods as lakes overflowed into adjacent valleys. Glacial Lake Tight is estimated to have been two-thirds the size of modern Lake Erie, valleys beyond the reach of glaciers were reorganized to create the Ohio River, and the Scioto River replaced the Teays River. The Scioto River flows through segments of the Teays River valley, in the cities of Columbus and Dublin, the river has cut a gorge in fossil-bearing Devonian limestone, and many tributary streams have waterfalls, such as Hayden Falls. The Scioto River valley was home to many Native American cultures, the best known group is the Mound Builders of the Hopewell tradition. Numerous burial mounds can be seen near Chillicothe at the Hopewell Culture National Historic Park, the former strength of these cultures is demonstrated in settler accounts from as far east as Virginia. The name Scioto is derived from the Wyandot word skɛnǫ·tǫ’ deer (compare Shenandoah, during the antebellum years, the Scioto River provided a route to freedom for many slaves escaping from the South, as they continued north after crossing the Ohio River. Towns such as Chillicothe became important stops on the Underground Railroad, a traditional fiddle tune in the Appalachian repertoire, “Big Scioty”, takes its name from the river. The melody is attributed to the Hammons family of West Virginia, in 2012, the river dropped to record- or near-record-low water levels as a result of the acute effects of the 2012 North American drought in Ohio. Threats facing the river include agricultural pollutants from upstream and urban-generated pollutants such as contaminated street runoff, rapid residential and commercial development in the watershed is increasing stormwater runoff. There are two dams on the river. Griggs Dam in Columbus was built in 1904–1908 to impound a water supply for the city, farther upstream, at Shawnee Hills, the OShaughnessy Dam was built in 1922–1925 creating a larger reservoir which was billed at the time as the finest inland waterway in the United States. Both dams are operated by the city of Columbus, the removal of the Main Street Dam in downtown Columbus, which was built in 1921, began in November 2013. The removal was proposed in the 2010 Strategic Plan for downtown Columbus. Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus Downtown Development Corporation, Franklin County Board of Commissioners, Metro Parks, The Columbus Foundation, and Battelle
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O'Shaughnessy Dam (Ohio)
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The OShaughnessy Dam is located on the Scioto River near Dublin, Ohio, United States. The dam forms OShaughnessy Reservoir, which is a source of drinking water for the city of Columbus. It was completed in 1925 following recommendations of then superintendent Jerry OShaughnessy, at the time, the reservoir was described as the finest inland waterway in the United States. Located 10 miles upstream of the smaller Griggs Dam, it provides an area for various forms of recreation in addition to its water supply duties. The reservoir holds 6.3 billion US gallons over an area of 845 acres. The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium is located on the east bank of the reservoir, in 1990, the dam was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The city of Columbus installed a hydroelectric operation on the west side of the dam, the turbines can only be operated when there is sufficient flow, which means the dam cannot continuously produce electricity. With a head of 18 feet, the two turbines together produce 5 megawatts, USGS Real-Time Water Data, Scioto River below OShaughnessy Dam Ohio DNR fishing map of OShaughnessy Reservoir
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Dublin, Ohio
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Dublin is a city in Franklin, Delaware, and Union counties in the U. S. state of Ohio. The population was 41,751 at the 2010 census, Dublin is a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. Each year in late May or early June, the city hosts the Memorial Tournament, consequently, numerous golf aficionados choose to make Dublin their home. There are also several golf courses in Dublin. The Riviera Golf Club was home to the American-Italian Golf Association, tartan Fields Golf Club hosted the LPGAs Wendys Championship for Children from 2002 through 2006. Dublin also has a golf course financed by the Muirfield association. Other annual events include the July 4 music event, a St. Patricks Day parade, and the Dublin Irish Festival, which is one of the largest Irish-American festivals. Although its earliest settlements date back to 1802, the village that became Dublin did not begin to take shape until the arrival of the Sells family from Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. Brothers Peter and Benjamin Sells purchased 400 acres of land on the west bank of the Scioto River as a gift for their brother John. In 1808, John Sells brought his family to the region, and by 1810 he had begun to survey lots for the new village with his partner, by 1833, Dublin contained several mills and only one store. In 1970, Dublin was still a town with only 681 residents. However, the construction of Interstate 270 facilitated a population boom, spearheaded by the acquisition of corporate headquarters such as Ashland Inc. In addition, the growth of the Muirfield Village Golf Club, Dublin was officially declared a city in 1987, after reaching a population of 5,000 residents. As part of this boom Dublin significantly expanded its area, annexing parts of Washington, Perry, Concord, Dublin is located at 40°6′33″N 83°8′25″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.80 square miles. The Scioto River passes through Dublin, in this area the river and its tributaries cut deep gorges through the limestone bedrock, and the riverbed is stony. Some of these tributaries feature waterfalls, located on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau, Dublin has relatively flat topography. Nevertheless, there are numerous ravines surrounding the tributaries of the Scioto River, elevations range from 780 feet above sea level where the Scioto River leaves the city at Hayden Run Road, while the high point is 1000 feet at Glacier Ridge Metro Park
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Earthquake
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An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
