1.
Claves Records
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Claves Records is a Swiss classical record label, which was founded in 1968 by Marguerite Dütschler-Hüber in Thun. The label specialised in Swiss music and artists such as flutist Peter-Lukas Graf and Lieder recitals by performers including Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Teresa Berganza, claves also launched the recording career of María Bayo. Claves Records SA was formally founded in 2000, in 2004, the label was acquired by a foundation and then by Olivier Verrey who runs the company with other board members. Its first managing director was Antonin Scherrer who was succeed by Thierry Scherz, In 2010 Patrick Peikert succeeded Scherz as managing director
2.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
3.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
4.
Hand percussion
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Hand percussion is a term used to indicate a percussion instrument of any type from any culture that is held in the hand. They can be made from wood, metal or plastic and are usually either shaken and it is a useful category in terms of a large percussion orchestra in that it identifies all instruments that are not drums or pitched percussion such as marimba and xylophone. A shaker is any instrument that makes a noise when shaken, historically they were naturally occurring items such as seed pods. A caxixi is a basketwork shaker with a gourd base. Gourds are used all over the world and covered with a net with shells or seeds to create an instrument such as the shekere and this can be a wood, metal or plastic instrument which has ridges on its body. Often known as Guiro, rhythms are created by running a stick up. Gourds or bamboo have traditionally used as they have a resonant hollow body. A common type from Asia is a carved wooden frog which has ridges cut on its back and its mouth, cowbells originate from the bells tied around the necks of livestock. They are any type of hand held bell tapped with fingers and they occur all over the world and are used extensively in Latin Percussion music and often found as part of a standard Rock Drum Kit. The name cowbell usually refers to a single bell, the Agogô bell usually refers to a double or triple bell. The triangle is a piece of steel bent in the shape of a triangle tapped with another piece of steel and it is suspended on one hand which can be open and closed to alter the sound. Very commonly used in South American Music to give a persistent high pitched pulse, tapping two sticks together is the simplest form of hand percussion, and has developed a place in traditional music all over the world. Indigenous Australians use clapping sticks alongside the didgeridoo, and claves are a part of South American Music. There are a variety of hand held drums such as tamborim which fall into the Hand Percussion category
5.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
6.
Idiophone
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An idiophone is any musical instrument that creates sound primarily by the instrument as a whole vibrating—without the use of strings or membranes. It is the first of the four divisions in the original Hornbostel–Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. The early classification of Victor-Charles Mahillon called this group of instruments autophones, most percussion instruments that are not drums are idiophones. Hornbostel–Sachs divides idiophones into four main sub-categories, the first division is the struck idiophones. This includes most of the percussion instruments familiar in the West. They include all idiophones made to vibrate by being struck, either directly with a stick or hand or indirectly, various types of bells fall into both categories. The other three subdivisions are rarer, other classifications use six main sub-categories, Concussion idiophones are instruments that produce sound by being struck against one another. Percussion idiophones produce sound by being struck with a foreign object. Examples of non-vibrating objects are mallets, hammers, and sticks, scraper idiophones are instruments that are scraped with a stick or other foreign objects to give off a sound. Plucked idiophones produce sound by plucking a flexible tongue from within the instrument itself, lastly, friction idiophones are rubbed to increase vibration and sound intensity. Idiophones are made of materials that give off unique sounds, the majority of idiophones are made out of glass, metal, ceramics, and wood. Idiophones are considered part of the section in an orchestra. A number of idiophones that are struck, such as vibraphone bars and cymbals
7.
Dowel
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A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made from wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod, dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including axles in toys, detents, structural reinforcements in cabinet making, to make a dowel, a piece of wood is split or whittled to a size slightly bigger than desired and then driven through the hole in the dowel plate. The sharp edges of the hole shear off the excess wood, a second approach to cutting dowels is to rotate a piece of oversized stock past a fixed knife, or alternatively, to rotate the knife around the stock. Machines based on this principle emerged in the 19th century, frequently, these are small bench-mounted tools. For modest manufacturing volumes, wood dowels are typically manufactured on industrial dowel machines based on the principles as the rotary cutters described above. Such machines may employ interchangeable cutting heads of varying diameters, thus enabling the machines to be changed to manufacture different dowel diameters. Typically, the mechanism is open-ended, with material guides at the machines entry, since the 19th century, some of these dowel machines have had power feed mechanisms to move the stock past the cutting mechanism. High-volume dowel manufacturing is done on a shaper, which simultaneously forms multiple dowels from a single piece of rectangular stock. These machines employ two wide, rotating cutting heads, one above the stock and one below it, the heads have nearly identical cutting profiles so that each will form an array of adjoined, side-by-side half dowels. The wooden dowel rod used in woodworking applications is commonly cut into dowel pins, some woodworkers make their own dowel pins, while others purchase dowel pins precut to the required length and diameter. When dowels are glued into blind holes, a common case in dowel-based joinery, there must be a path for air. If no provision is made to relieve the pressure of air and glue. An old solution to this problem is to plane a flat on the side of the dowel, some dowel pins are Fluted with multiple parallel grooves along their length to serve the same purpose. When two pieces of wood are to be joined by dowels embedded in holes, there are numerous methods for aligning the holes. Dowel centers are simple and inexpensive tools for aligning opposing blind holes, various commercial systems, such as Dowelmax, have been devised to solve this problem. Alternative joinery methods may be used in place of conventional dowel pins, such as Miller dowels, biscuit joiners, spline joints, and proprietary tools such as the Domino jointer. The word dowel was used in Middle English, it appears in Wycliffes Bible translation in a list of the parts of a wheel. and the spokis, cognates with other Germanic languages suggest that the word is much older
8.
Rosewood
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Rosewood refers to any of a number of richly hued timbers, often brownish with darker veining but found in many different hues. All genuine rosewoods belong to the genus Dalbergia and it is best known as Brazilian Rosewood, but also as Bahia rosewood. This wood has a sweet smell, which persists for many years. Another classic rosewood comes from Dalbergia latifolia known as Indian rosewood or sonokeling and it is native to India and is also grown in plantations elsewhere in Pakistan. Madagascar rosewood, known as bois de rose, is prized for its red color. It is overexploited in the wild, despite a 2010 moratorium on trade and illegal logging, throughout southeast Asia Dalbergia oliveri is harvested for use in woodworking. It has a fragrant and dense grain near the core, however the outer sapwood is soft. Dalbergia cultrata that has variegated burgundy to light color, a blackwood timber is sold as Burmese Rosewood. Products built with rosewood based engineered woods are sold as Malaysian Rosewood or as Dalbergia oliveri, some rosewood comes from Dalbergia retusa, also known as the Nicaraguan rosewood or as palisander is controlled by CITES under Appendix 2 which allows some commercial activity. Several species are known as Guatemalan rosewood or Panama rosewood, D. tucerencis, D. tucarensis, stevensonii, also on CITES Appendix 2, is used for marimba keys, guitar parts, clarinets and other musical and ornamental applications. Not all species in the large genus Dalbergia yield rosewoods, only about a species do. The woods of some species in the genus Dalbergia are notable—even famous—woods in their own right, African blackwood, cocobolo, kingwood. The woods of some species are usable for tool handles at best. The timber trade will sell many timbers under the name due to some similarities. A fair number of these come from other legume genera. Another that may be found in market from Southeast Asia is Pterocarpus indicus, Dalbergia sissoo is timber from rosewood species from India and Bangladesh, usually known as Sheesham or North-Indian Rosewood. It is extremely dense and has mild rot resistance, but it is porous and its exterior is soft and it is used for making cabinets, flooring and carving. It is exported as quality veneers, due to its after work quality when sealed and dyed, it is often sold as genuine rosewood or as teak
9.
Ebony
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Ebony is a dense black hardwood, most commonly yielded by several different species in the genus Diospyros, which also contains the persimmons. Ebony is dense enough to sink in water and it is finely-textured and has a very smooth finish when polished, making it valuable as an ornamental wood. The word ebony derives from the Ancient Egyptian hbny, via the Ancient Greek ἔβενος, by way of Latin, mauritius ebony, Diospyros tesselaria, was largely exploited by the Dutch in the 17th century. Some species in the genus Diospyros yield an ebony with similar physical properties, ebony has a long history of use, with carved pieces having been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs. By the end of the 16th century, fine cabinets for the trade were made of ebony in Antwerp. Within a short time, such cabinets were also being made in Paris, where their makers became known as ébénistes, many plectra, or guitar picks, are made from this black wood. Traditionally, the pieces in chess sets were made from ebony. Modern East Midlands-style lace-making bobbins, also being small, are made of ebony. Due to its strength, many handgun grips and rifle fore-end tips are made of ebony, as a result of unsustainable harvesting, many species yielding ebony are now considered threatened. Africa in particular has had most of its indigenous ebony cut down illegally, in some countries like Sri Lanka, ebony is a protected species and selling of ebony logs is illegal, due to the woods rarity and high price. In 2012, the Gibson Guitar company was raided by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for violations of the Lacey Act of 1900, pete Lowry, ebony and rosewood expert at the Missouri Botanical Garden, calls the Madagascar wood trade the equivalent of Africas blood diamonds. Ebony, when ground into fine dust, results in a flammable, due to the high toxicity of ebony in powdered form, its use in construction work requires government certification in several South Asian countries. African Blackwood Calamander wood Ebonite Ebonol Illegal logging in Madagascar Red List—For recommendations found under the IUCN
10.
Dalbergia melanoxylon
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Dalbergia melanoxylon is a flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, native to seasonally dry regions of Africa from Senegal east to Eritrea and south to the north-eastern parts of South Africa. The tree is an important timber species in its areas, it is used in the manufacture of musical instruments. It is a tree, reaching 4–15 m tall, with grey bark. The leaves are deciduous in the dry season, alternate, 6–22 cm long, pinnately compound, the flowers are white and produced in dense clusters. The fruit is a pod 3–7 cm long, containing one to two seeds, the dense, lustrous wood ranges from reddish to pure black. It is generally cut into small billets or logs with its sharply demarcated bright yellow white sapwood left on to assist in the slow drying so as to prevent cracks developing, good quality A grade African blackwood commands high prices on the commercial timber market. The tonal qualities of African blackwood are particularly valued when used in instruments, principally clarinets, oboes, transverse flutes, piccolos, Highland pipes. The timber is used mainly because of its machinability and dimensional stability, deering Banjo Company uses blackwood to construct the tone ring in its John Hartford model banjo. Deering indicates that this reduces weight versus brass/bronze tone rings, furniture makers from the time of the Egyptians have valued this timber. A story states that it has even used as ballast in trading ships. The German knife companies Wüsthof and J. A. Henckels sell knives with blackwood handles due to the woods moisture repellent qualities, due to overuse, the mpingo tree is severely threatened in Kenya and is needing attention in Tanzania and Mozambique. The trees are being harvested at a rate, partly because of illegal smuggling of the wood into Kenya. African blackwood is no longer regarded as ebony, a name now reserved for a number of timbers yielded by the genus Diospyros. The genus Dalbergia yields other famous timbers such as Brazilian rosewood, Dalbergia cearensis, other names by which the tree is known include babanus and grenadilla, which appear as loanwords in various local English dialects. The Mpingo Conservation & Development Initiative is involved in research, awareness raising, in order to achieve this, the MCDI is helping communities to get Forest Stewardship Certification. The African blackwood Conservation Project works around Mount Kilimanjaro replanting African blackwood trees and it also works with adult and womens groups in the promotion of environmentally sound land uses. Clarinets for Conservation is based in Moshi, Tanzania and aims to raise awareness, small growers in Naples, Florida have been successful in growing African blackwood there. Growth habit in Florida yields taller, larger trees, and the rich soil combined with ample nutrients, hopefully, ventures like this will be able to take strain off African reserves and allow this timber to be used in the future
11.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
12.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
13.
Cuban music
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The music of Cuba, including its instruments, performance and dance, comprises a large set of unique traditions influenced mostly by west African and European music. Due to the nature of most of its genres, Cuban music is often considered one of the richest and most influential regional musics of the world. For instance, the son cubano merges an adapted Spanish guitar, melody, harmony, almost nothing remains of the original native traditions, since the native population was exterminated in the 16th century. Since the 19th century Cuban music has been popular and influential throughout the world. It has been perhaps the most popular form of music since the introduction of recording technology. Cuban music has contributed to the development of a variety of genre and musical styles around the globe, most notably in Latin America. Examples include rhumba, Afro-Cuban jazz, salsa, soukous, many West African re-adaptations of Afro-Cuban music, Spanish fusion genres, large numbers of African slaves and European, mostly Spanish, immigrants came to Cuba and brought their own forms of music to the island. European dances and folk musics included zapateo, fandango, paso doble, later, northern European forms like minuet, gavotte, mazurka, contradanza, and the waltz appeared among urban whites. There was also an immigration of Chinese indentured laborers later in the 19th century, the African slaves and their descendants made many percussion instruments and preserved rhythms they had known in their homeland. The most important instruments were the drums, of which there were originally about fifty different types, today only the bongos, congas, also important are the claves, two short hardwood batons, and the cajón, a wooden box, originally made from crates. Claves are still used often, and wooden boxes were used during periods when the drum was banned. In addition, there are other instruments in use for African-origin religious ceremonies. Chinese immigrants contributed the corneta china, a Chinese reed instrument still played in the comparsas, or carnival groups, the great instrumental contribution of the Spanish was their guitar, but even more important was the tradition of European musical notation and techniques of musical composition. Hernando de la Parras archives give some of our earliest available information on Cuban music and he reported instruments including the clarinet, violin and vihuela. There were few professional musicians at the time, and fewer still of their songs survive, one of the earliest is Ma Teodora, supposed to be related to a freed slave, Teodora Ginés of Santiago de Cuba, who was famous for her compositions. The piece is said to be similar to 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century Spanish popular songs, Cuban music has its principal roots in Spain and West Africa, but over time has been influenced by diverse genres from different countries. Important among these are France, and the United States, Cuban music has been immensely influential in other countries. The African beliefs and practices certainly influenced Cubas music, polyrhythmic percussion is an inherent part of African music, as melody is part of European music
14.
Son cubano
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Son cubano is a genre of music and dance that originated in the highlands of eastern Cuba during the late 19th century. It is a genre that amalgamates elements of Spanish and African origin. Among its fundamental Hispanic components are the style, lyrical metre. On the other hand, its characteristic clave rhythm, call and response structure, around 1909 the son reached Havana, where the first recordings were made in 1917. This marked the start of its expansion throughout the island, becoming Cubas most popular, while early groups had between three and five members, during the 1920s the sexteto became the genres primary format. By the 1930s, many bands had incorporated a trumpet, becoming septetos, and in the 1940s a larger type of ensemble featuring congas and piano became the norm, the cojunto. Besides, the son became one of the ingredients in the jam sessions known as descargas that flourished during the 1950s. The international presence of the son can be traced back to the 1930s when many bands toured Europe and North America, similarly, radio broadcasts of son became popular in West Africa and the Congos, leading to the development of hybrid genres such as Congolese rumba. In the 1960s, New Yorks music scene prompted the rapid success of salsa, in Spanish, the word son, from Latin sonus, denotes a pleasant sound, particularly a musical one. In eastern Cuba, the term began to be used to refer to the music of the highlands towards the late 19th century, to distinguish it from similar genres from other countries, the term son cubano is most commonly used. In Cuba, various qualifiers are used to distinguish the variants of the genre. These include son montuno, son oriental, son santiaguero and son habanero, Son singers are generally known as soneros, and the verb sonear describes not only their singing but also their vocal improvisation. The adjective soneado refers to songs and styles which incorporate the tempo and syncopation of the son, generally, there is an explicit diffenrece between styles that incorporate elements of the son partially or totally, as evidenced by the distinction between bolero soneado and bolero-son. The term sonora refers to conjuntos with smoother trumpet sections such as Sonora Matancera and Sonora Ponceña, although the history of Cuban music dates back to the 16th century, the son is a relatively recent musical invention whose precursors emerged in the mid-to-late 19th century. Musicologists agree that the ancestors of the son appeared in Cubas Oriente Province. These forms flourished in the context of rural parties such as guateques, where bungas were known to perform, such early guitars are thought to have given rise to the tres some time around 1890 in Baracoa. The addition of a section composed of percussion instruments such as the bongó. Due to the very little historiographical and ethnomusicological research devoted to the son and this fallacy stemmed from the apocryphal origin story of a folk song known as Son de Má Teodora
15.
Clave (rhythm)
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The clave is a rhythmic pattern used as a tool for temporal organization in Afro-Cuban music. It is present in a variety of such as Abakuá music, rumba, conga, son, mambo, salsa, songo, timba. The five-stroke clave pattern represents the core of many Afro-Cuban rhythms. The clave pattern originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where it essentially the same function as it does in Cuba. In ethnomusicology, clave is known as a key pattern, guide pattern, phrasing referent, timeline. The clave pattern is used in North American popular music as a motif or simply a form of rhythmic decoration. Clave is also the name of the played on claves. Just as a keystone holds an arch in place, the clave pattern holds the rhythm together in Afro-Cuban music, the two main clave patterns used in Afro-Cuban music are known in North America as son clave and the rumba clave. Both are used as bell patterns across much of Africa, son and rumba clave can be played in either a triple-pulse or duple-pulse structure. The contemporary Cuban practice is to write the duple-pulse clave in a measure of 44. It is also written in a measure in ethnomusicological writings about African music. Although they subdivide the beats differently, the 128 and 44 versions of each share the same pulse names. The correlation between the triple-pulse and duple-pulse forms of clave, as well as patterns, is an important dynamic of sub-Saharan-based rhythm. Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative, son clave has strokes on,1, 1a, 2&, 3&,4. || Both clave patterns are used in rumba, what we now call son clave used to be the key pattern played in Havana-style yambú and guaguancó. Some Havana-based rumba groups still use son clave for yambú, the musical genre known as son probably adopted the clave pattern from rumba when it migrated from eastern Cuba to Havana at the beginning of the 20th century. During the nineteenth century, African music and European music sensibilities were blended together in original Cuban hybrids, Cuban popular music became the conduit through which sub-Saharan rhythmic elements were first codified within the context of European music theory. The first written music based on clave was the Cuban danzón
16.
Bell pattern
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A bell pattern is a rhythmic pattern of strking a hand-held bell or other instrument of the Idiophone family, to make it emit a sound at desired intervals. It is often a key pattern, in most cases it is a bell, such as an agogô, gankoqui, or cowbell, or a hollowed piece of wood. In formal music, bell patterns are played on the metal shell of the timbales. Gerhard Kubik notes that key patterns originated within those parts of Africa where Kwa languages, use of the patterns has since spread throughout the greater Niger–Congo language family. The use of bells in sub-Saharan African music is linked to the early iron-making technology spread by the great Bantu migrations. The spread of the African bell patterns is probably similarly linked, throughout Africa, wherever these gongs have occurred they have been manufactured by the same process of welding the two halves together along a wide flange. Kubik observes that at the broadest level, the various key patterns are all interrelated, key patterns exist in their own right, as well as in relation to the three inner reference levels of elementary pulsation, main reference beat, and primary cycle. Express the rhythm’s organizing principle, defining rhythmic structure, as scales or tonal modes define harmonic structure, put simply, key patterns epitomize the complete rhythmic matrix. Key patterns are generated through cross-rhythm and they typically consist of 12 or 16 pulses, and have a bipartite structure, which evenly divides the pattern into two rhythmically opposed cells of 6 or 8 pulses each. The key pattern defines the period, the first cell is antecedent. The asymmetrical array of attack-points contradicts the metrical symmetry of the two cells, the most commonly used key pattern in sub-Saharan Africa is the seven-stroke figure known in ethnomusicology as the standard pattern. The standard pattern is expressed in both a triple-pulse and a duple-pulse structure, many North American percussionists refer to the triple-pulse form as the 6/8 bell. The standard pattern has strokes on,1, 1a, 2& 2a, 3&,4, 12/8,1 & a 2 & a 3 & a 4 & a || X. X. X || 4/4,1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a || X. X. X || The axatse part which accompanies the 12-pulse standard pattern in Ewe music is verbalized as. The pas sound the standard pattern by striking the gourd against the knee, the tis sound pulses in between the bell strokes, by raising the gourd in an upward motion and striking it with the free hand. As is common with many African rhythms, the part begins on the second stroke of the bell. By ending at the beginning of the cycle, the axatse part contributes to the nature of the overall rhythm
17.
Music of Africa
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The traditional music of Africa, given the vastness of the continent, is historically ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and nations of Africa having many distinct musical traditions. Traditional music in most of the continent is passed down orally and is not written, the music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music and many Caribbean genres, such as soca, calypso and zouk. Latin American music genres such as the rumba, conga, bomba, cumbia and samba were also founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music. North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East, eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Arab world, like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa, its music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes. North African music has a range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber. The regions art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music, with these may be grouped the music of Sudan and of the Horn of Africa, including the music of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Somali music is pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic scale such as the major scale. The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four modes, tezeta, bati, ambassel. Three additional modes are variations on the above, tezeta minor, bati major, some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. The ethnomusicological pioneer Arthur Morris Jones observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Sub-Saharan African music traditions constitute one main system, similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the profound homogeneity of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principles. African traditional music is frequently functional in nature, performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience. None of this is performed outside its intended context and much of it is associated with a particular dance. Some of it, performed by musicians, is sacral music or ceremonial. The southern region includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia, the central region includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, including Pygmy music. Southern, Central and West Africa are similarly in the broad Sub-Saharan musical tradition, besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex hard melisma and yodel, a wide array of musical instruments are used. Additionally, string instruments are used, with the lute-like oud. Other percussion instruments include many rattles and shakers, such as the kosika, rain stick, bells, also, Africa has lots of other types of drums, and lots of flutes, and lots of stringed and wind instruments
18.
Brazilian music
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The music of Brazil encompasses various regional music styles influenced by African, European and Amerindian forms. Instrumental music is largely practiced in Brazil, with styles ranging from classical to popular. Among the later, Pixinguinha, Hermeto Pascoal and Egberto Gismonti are significant figures, notable classical composers include Heitor Villa-Lobos, Carlos Gomes and Cláudio Santoro. The country also has a community of modern/experimental composition, including electroacoustic music. The first registration of musical activity in Brazil comes from the activities of two Jesuit priests in 1549, ten years later, they had already founded settlements for indigenous people, with a musical-educational structure. One century later, the Reduções of the southern Brazil, which were founded by Spaniard Jesuits, had a cultural development. Some of the reports of time show the fascination of the indigenous people for European music. The indigenous people took part in the music, with both the construction of musical instruments and practice of vocal and instrumental performance. In the 18th century, there was intense activity in all the more developed regions of Brazil. The previously few private orchestras became more common and the churches presented a variety of music. At this time, the first outstanding Brazilian composers were revealed, the musical pieces were mostly sacred music. Some of the composers of this period were Lobo de Mesquita, Manoel Dias de Oliveira, Francisco Gomes da Rocha, Marcos Coelho Neto. All of them were active, but in many cases few pieces have survived until the present day. Some of the most famous pieces of this period are the Magnificat by Manoel Dias de Oliveira, in the city of Arraial do Tejuco, nowadays Diamantina, there were ten conductors in activity. In Ouro Preto about 250 musicians were active, and in all of the territory of Minas Gerais almost a thousand musicians were active, a crucial factor for the changes in the musical life was the arrival of the Portuguese Royal family to Rio de Janeiro in 1808. Until then, Rio de Janeiro was musically similar to other centers of Brazil but was even less important than Minas Gerais. The presence of the Portuguese Royal family, in exile, radically changed this situation, later, John VI ordered the construction of a sumptuous theater, called the Royal Theater of São João. The works of these strongly influenced the Brazilian music of this time
19.
The Beatles
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The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. They acquired the nickname the Fab Four as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, from 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul, Revolver, Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, The Beatles and Abbey Road, after their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of cancer in November 2001. The Beatles are the band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act, according to the RIAA, the Beatles are also the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazines list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, as of 2016 and they have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 and they were also collectively included in Time magazines compilation of the twentieth centurys 100 most influential people. In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he, in February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, after a month of Harrisons persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennons Quarry Bank friends had left the group, the three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles, allan Williams, the Beatles unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960
20.
And I Love Her
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And I Love Her is a song recorded by English rock band the Beatles, written mainly by Paul McCartney. The Beatles performed And I Love Her just once outside Abbey Road Studios, on 14 July 1964 they played it for an edition of the BBCs Top Gear radio show, a majority of the composition modulates back and forth between the key of E and its relative minor C#m. It also changes keys altogether just before the solo, to Gm and it ends on the parallel major of the key of Fs relative minor, D. This technique is known as Picardy third resolution, the song was written mainly by McCartney, though John Lennon claimed in an interview with Playboy that his major contribution was the middle eight section. Beatles publisher Dick James lends support to claim, saying that the middle eight was added during recording at the suggestion of producer George Martin. According to James, Lennon called for a break and within half an hour wrote. a very constructive middle to a commercial song. McCartney, on the hand, maintains that the middle eight is mine. I would say that John probably helped with the middle eight, the And in the title was an important thing – And I Love Her, it came right out of left field, you were right up to speed the minute you heard it, McCartney said. The title comes in the verse and it doesnt repeat. You would often go to town on the title, but this was almost an aside, McCartney credits George Harrison with composing the signature guitar riff, saying it made a stunning difference to the song. McCartney called And I Love Her the first ballad I impressed myself with, Lennon called it McCartneys first Yesterday. Recorded by the Beatles over three days, in Abbey Road Studio Two, the sessions were produced by George Martin, the second engineer was Richard Langham. Work began at 2, 30pm on Tuesday 25 February 1964, the first day of the sessions for the Hard Days Night soundtrack, Take 1 was incomplete, but Take 2 was complete. However, the Beatles decided a lighter touch was required, Take 2 was eventually released on Anthology 1 in 1995. This version was missing the middle-eight, instrumentation on this session was Paul McCartney – lead vocal,1963 Höfner 500/1 bass guitar through Vox AC-100 bass amp. Although Starr swapped his drums for bongos and claves halfway through the session and it was during this session that they stopped for a tea break and to write the middle eight. A brief fragment of Take 11 can be heard in the credits of Episode 8 of Anthology. Take 20 saw the track laid down, while Take 21 was an overdub of McCartneys double-tracked lead vocal
21.
Magic Bus (song)
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Magic Bus is a song written by Pete Townshend during the time that My Generation was being recorded in 1965. However, it was not recorded by The Who until 1968 and it has become one of the bands most popular songs and has been a concert staple, although when released, the record only reached number 26 in the United Kingdom and number 25 in the United States. The songs arrangement uses a Latin percussion instrument known as claves and these are pairs of small wooden sticks that make a distinctive high pitched clicking noise when struck together. The Who previously used this instrument on the song Disguises. The song makes use of the Bo Diddley beat, the song was not recorded by The Who at the time it was written, but the bands management and music publisher circulated a Townshend demo recording of the song in 1966. A version was released as a single in the UK in April 1967 by a band called The Pudding, in the UK on Decca. The song is performed as a duet, where the Rider. In the song he asks the Driver, usually Townshend, if he can buy the bus from him, after haggling for a while, the driver finally lets him have it and he vows to drive it to his girlfriends house every day. However, on 25 July 2007, Universal Japan re-released the album in a sleeve that includes the long alternate version of Magic Bus in fake stereo. This longer mix features a vocal track, an extended middle section. The song appeared in the bands 1979 film The Kids Are Alright taken from the 1968 single performance and it was subsequently released on The Kids Are Alright film soundtrack. That version is the single version, but slowed down, resulting in the song being a semi-tone lower in pitch. The Polydor CD Remaster of The Kids Are Alright, issued in 2000, mistakenly states Remixed stereo version, the 2014 compilation The Who Hits 50. Features the alternate vocal version at 4,34 in mono. Magic Bus was first performed during The Whos 1968 tour and was part of the set from 1971 to 1976. It was played less frequently after Keith Moons death in 1978, when played live, the song typically featured a lengthy instrumental jam, with some performances lasting over 15 minutes. A notable performance can be heard on the album Live at Leeds and this version stretches out to nearly eight minutes, with Roger Daltrey joining the jam playing harmonica. This recording was used during the montage sequence in the final act of Martin Scorseses film Goodfellas as well as the opening sequence of Cameron Crowes Jerry Maguire
22.
The Who
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The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964. Their classic line-up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered one of the most influential bands of the 20th century, selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows. The Who developed from a group, the Detours, and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements, featuring auto-destructive art by destroying guitars. Their first single as the Who, I Cant Explain, reached the UK top ten, followed by a string of singles including My Generation, Substitute and Happy Jack. In 1967, they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single I Can See for Miles, the groups fourth album, 1969s rock opera Tommy, included the single Pinball Wizard and was a critical and commercial success. Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival, along with the live album Live at Leeds, with their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend, and the follow-up to Tommy, Lifehouse, was abandoned. Songs from the project made up 1971s Whos Next, which included the hit Wont Get Fooled Again, the group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots, and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975. They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976, the release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after. Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity, releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia, after Townshend became weary of touring, the group split in 1982. The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985, a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and they resumed regular touring in 1999, with drummer Zak Starkey. After Entwistles death in 2002, plans for a new album were delayed, Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who, releasing Endless Wire in 2006, and continued to play live regularly. They are cited as an influence by rock, punk rock and mod bands. The founding members of the Who, Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend and John Entwistle, grew up in Acton, London and went to Acton County Grammar School. Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their year of Acton County. Both were interested in rock, and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richards début single, Entwistle moved to guitar, but struggled with it due to his large fingers, and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy. He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home, after Acton County, Townshend attended Ealing Art College, a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who. Daltrey, who was in the year above, had moved to Acton from Shepherds Bush and he had trouble fitting in at the school, and discovered gangs and rock and roll
23.
Night Court
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Night Court is an American television situation comedy that aired on NBC from January 4,1984, to May 31,1992. The setting was the shift of a Manhattan municipal court, Criminal Court Part 2, presided over by a young, unorthodox judge. The series was created by comedy writer Reinhold Weege, who had worked on Barney Miller in the 1970s. Night Court, according to the first season DVD, was created without comedian/magician Harry Anderson in mind, Anderson had developed a following with his performances on Saturday Night Live and made several successful appearances as con man Harry the Hat on another NBC sitcom, Cheers. In later seasons, while Anderson remained the key figure, John Larroquette became a popular personality winning a number of awards, the comedy style of Night Court changed as the series progressed. During its initial seasons, the show was compared to Barney Miller. But, while the characters appearing in the courtroom were often whimsical, bizarre or humorously inept, in an early review of the show, Time magazine called Night Court, with its emphasis on non-glamorous, non-violent petty crime, the most realistic law show on the air. Gradually, however, Night Court abandoned its initial real world setting, in the opening episode of Season 4, a ventriloquist dummy talks on his own without the ventriloquist to Dan, who panics and shouts while backing away slowly down the hall. When asked by Harry why they claimed West Virginia at first, Bob replies and it was just the first exotic place that popped into my head. The Wheelers were notoriously unlucky and were brought in on hilariously pathetic circumstances. He was very young for a new judge, being only 34 when he took the bench at Criminal Court Part 2 and his zany antics and goofball sense of humor were tempered by infinite compassion and sincere belief that everyone had good in them. Harry could be a little self-righteous at times, but more often than not was the compass of the show. Harry loved movies and fashions from the 1940s, was vocal in his disdain for modern music, the public defenders, Gail Strickland as uptight by-the-book public defender Sheila Gardner. Paula Kelly as Liz Williams, prior to the addition of Mac to the show, ellen Foley as Billie Young, a public defender and potential romantic interest for Harry Stone during Season 2. Post had been Reinhold Weeges first choice for the part but due to her other commitments could not take it, the Sullivan character was attractive, honest to a fault, and somewhat naïve. She was the romantic interest for Stone and a regular target for Dan Fieldings lechery throughout the series run. She had various Princess Diana memorabilia collections such as a set of porcelain thimbles and it was hinted that he frequented dominatrices. He was the source of witty and sometimes cruel remarks regarding almost every other character
24.
George Gershwin
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George Jacob Gershwin was an American composer and pianist. Gershwins compositions spanned both popular and classical genres, and his most popular melodies are widely known, among his best-known works are the orchestral compositions Rhapsody in Blue and An American in Paris as well as the opera Porgy and Bess. Gershwin studied piano under Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark, Henry Cowell and he began his career as a song plugger, but soon started composing Broadway theatre works with his brother Ira Gershwin, and Buddy DeSylva. He moved to Paris intending to study with Nadia Boulanger, who refused him, after returning to New York City, he wrote Porgy and Bess with Ira and the author DuBose Heyward. Initially a commercial failure, Porgy and Bess is now considered one of the most important American operas of the twentieth century, Gershwin moved to Hollywood and composed numerous film scores until his death in 1937 from a malignant brain tumor – glioblastoma multiforme. Gershwins compositions have been adapted for use in films and for television. Many celebrated singers and musicians have covered his songs, Gershwin was of Russian Jewish and Ukrainian Jewish ancestry. His grandfather, Jakov Gershowitz, had served for 25 years as a mechanic for the Imperial Russian Army to earn the right of travel and residence as a Jew. His teenage son, Moishe Gershowitz, worked as a cutter for womens shoes. Moishe Gershowitz met and fell in love with Roza Bruskina, the daughter of a furrier in Vilnius. She and her family moved to New York due to increasing anti-Jewish sentiment in Russia, Moishe, faced with compulsory military service if he remained in Russia, moved to America as soon as he could afford to. Once in New York, he changed his first name to Morris, Gershowitz lived with a maternal uncle in Brooklyn, working as a foreman in a womens shoe factory. When he married Rose on July 21,1895, Gershowitz soon Americanized his name to Gershwine. Their first child was born on December 6,1896, Gershwin then moved his family into a second-floor apartment on Brooklyns Snediker Avenue. Their second son, soon to be renamed George, was born at there on September 26,1898 and his birth certificate identifies him as Jacob Gershwine, with the surname pronounced Gersh-vin in the Russian and Yiddish immigrant community. He was named after his grandfather, the one time Russian army mechanic, American practice by then was to give children a first and a middle name, but had no other. He changed the spelling of his name to Gershwin when he became a professional musician, George and Ira lived in many different residences, as their father changed dwellings with each new enterprise which he became involved in. Mostly, the boys grew up around the Yiddish Theater District and they frequented the local Yiddish theaters, with George occasionally appearing onstage as an extra
25.
Steve Reich
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Stephen Michael Steve Reich is an American composer who, along with La Monte Young, Terry Riley, and Philip Glass, pioneered minimal music in the mid to late 1960s. Reichs style of composition influenced many composers and groups and his innovations include using tape loops to create phasing patterns, and the use of simple, audible processes to explore musical concepts. These compositions, marked by their use of figures, slow harmonic rhythm and canons, have significantly influenced contemporary music. Reichs work took on a character in the 1980s with the introduction of historical themes as well as themes from his Jewish heritage. Writing in The Guardian, music critic Andrew Clements suggested that Reich is one of a handful of living composers who can claim to have altered the direction of musical history. The American composer and critic Kyle Gann has claimed that Reich may. be considered, by general acclamation, Reich was born in New York City to the Broadway lyricist June Sillman and Leonard Reich. When he was one old, his parents divorced. He is the half-brother of writer Jonathan Carroll and he was given piano lessons as a child and describes growing up with the middle-class favorites, having no exposure to music written before 1750 or after 1900. At the age of 14 he began to study music in earnest, after hearing music from the Baroque period and earlier, Reich studied drums with Roland Kohloff in order to play jazz. While attending Cornell University, he minored in music and graduated in 1957 with a B. A. in Philosophy, Reichs B. A. thesis was on Ludwig Wittgenstein, later he would set texts by that philosopher to music in Proverb and You Are. For a year following graduation, Reich studied composition privately with Hall Overton before he enrolled at Juilliard to work with William Bergsma, subsequently, he attended Mills College in Oakland, California, where he studied with Luciano Berio and Darius Milhaud and earned a masters degree in composition. At Mills, Reich composed Melodica for melodica and tape, which appeared in 1986 on the three-LP release Music from Mills, Reich worked with the San Francisco Tape Music Center along with Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Morton Subotnick, Phil Lesh and Terry Riley. He was involved with the premiere of Rileys In C and suggested the use of the eighth note pulse, Reichs early forays into composition involved experimentation with twelve-tone composition, but he found the rhythmic aspects of the number twelve more interesting than the pitch aspects. Reich also composed soundtracks for Plastic Haircut, Oh Dem Watermelons. The soundtrack of Plastic Haircut, composed in 1963, was a short tape collage, the Watermelons soundtrack used two 19th-century minstrel tunes as its basis, and used repeated phrasing together in a large five-part canon. The music for Thick Pucker arose from street recordings Reich made walking around San Francisco with Nelson, who filmed in black and white 16mm. A fourth film from 1965, about 25 minutes long and tentatively entitled Thick Pucker II, was assembled by Nelson from outtakes of that shoot, Nelson was not happy with the resulting film and never showed it. Reich was influenced by fellow minimalist Terry Riley, whose work In C combines simple musical patterns, offset in time, to create a slowly shifting, Reich adopted this approach to compose his first major work, Its Gonna Rain
26.
Clapstick
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Clapsticks or clappers are a type of drumstick, percussion mallet or claves that serve to maintain rhythm in Aboriginal voice chants. Unlike drumsticks, which are used to strike a drum. As an ancestral instrument that may accompany the didgeridoo, it is sometimes referred to as musicstick or just Stick. In the language of the Yolngu Aborigines of Northeast Arnhem Land, near Darwin, boomerang clapsticks are similar to regular clapsticks but they can be shaken for a rattling sound and be clapped together. The usual technique employed when using clapsticks is to clap the sticks together to create a rhythm that goes along with the song
27.
Lummi stick
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Lummi sticks, named after the Lummi Native American peoples, are hardwood cylindrical sticks, usually roughly 7 inches long and 0.75 inches in diameter, used as percussive musical instruments. They are generally struck against one another, and used frequently in musical education to teach rhythm, another variety, called simply a rhythm stick, is 12 inches long and painted blue. These are generally cylindrical or fluted, and come in sets containing an equal number of both. The sticks are used in school education in the US. A similar stick game is the Ti Rakau of the Māori people, played with meter-long sticks
28.
Godfried T. Toussaint
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Godfried T. Toussaint is a Professor of Computer Science and the Head of the Computer Science Program at New York University Abu Dhabi in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Other interests include meander, compass and straightedge constructions, instance-based learning, music information retrieval and he is a co-founder of the Annual ACM Symposium on Computational Geometry, and the annual Canadian Conference on Computational Geometry. Along with Selim Akl, he is an author and namesake of the efficient Akl–Toussaint algorithm for the construction of the hull of a planar point set. This algorithm exhibits a computational complexity with expected value linear in the size of the input, three other well known proximity graphs are the nearest neighbor graph, the Urquhart graph, and the Gabriel graph. The first is contained in the spanning tree, and the Urquhart graph contains the RNG. Since all these graphs are nested together they are referred to as the Toussaint hierarchy and he recently spent a year in the Music Department at Harvard University doing research on musical similarity, a branch of music cognition. Since 2005 he has also been a researcher in the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and he applies computational geometric and discrete mathematics methods to the analysis of symbolically represented music in general, and rhythm in particular. In 2004 he discovered that the Euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor of two numbers implicitly generates almost all the most important traditional rhythms of the world and his application of mathematical methods for tracing the roots of Flamenco music were the focus of two Canadian television programs. In 1978 he was the recipient of the Pattern Recognition Societys Best Paper of the Year Award, in 1985 he was awarded a two-year Izaak Walton Killam Senior Research Fellowship by the Canada Council for the Arts. In 1988 he received an Advanced Systems Institute Fellowship from the British Columbia Advanced Systems Institute, in 1995 he was given the Vice-Chancellors Research Best-Practice Fellowship by the University of Newcastle in Australia. In 1996 he won the Canadian Image Processing and Pattern Recognition Societys Service Award for his contribution to research. In May 2001 he was honored with the David Thomson Award for excellence in graduate supervision, in 2009 he won a Radcliffe Fellowship from the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University to carry out a research project on the phylogenetics of the musical rhythms of the world. G. T. Toussaint, The Geometry of Musical Rhythm, Chapman and Hall/CRC, G. T. Toussaint, Computational Geometry, Editor, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam,1985. G. T. Toussaint, Computational Morphology, Editor, North-Holland Publishing Company, gassend, J. ORourke, and G. T. Toussaint, “All polygons flip finitely. Surveys on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Twenty Years Later, J. E. Goodman, J. Pach, J. ORourke and G. T. Toussaint, Pattern recognition, Chapter 51 in the Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry, Eds. J. E. Goodman and J. ORourke, Chapman & Hall/CRC, New York,2004, J. A. Calvo, K. Millett, and E. Rawdon, American Mathematical Society, Contemporary Mathematics Vol.304,2002, pp. 269–285. J. ORourke and G. T. Toussaint, Pattern recognition, Chapter 43 in the Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry, J. E. Goodman and J. ORourke, CRC Press, New York,1997, pp. 797–813. G. T. Toussaint, “A graph-theoretical primal sketch, ” in Computational Morphology, G. T. Toussaint, G. T. Toussaint, “Movable separability of sets, ” in Computational Geometry, G. T. Toussaint, Ed
29.
Castanets
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Castanets are a percussion instrument, used in Kalo, Moorish, Ottoman, ancient Roman, Italian, Spanish, Sephardic, Swiss, and Portuguese music. The instrument consists of a pair of concave shells joined on one edge by a string and they are held in the hand and used to produce clicks for rhythmic accents or a ripping or rattling sound consisting of a rapid series of clicks. They are traditionally made of hardwood, although fibreglass is becoming increasingly popular, in practice a player usually uses two pairs of castanets. One pair is held in hand, with the string hooked over the thumb. Each pair will make a sound of a different pitch. The origins of the instrument are not known, the practice of clicking hand-held sticks together to accompany dancing is ancient, and was practiced by both the Greeks and the Egyptians. In more modern times, the bones and spoons used in Minstrel show, during the baroque period, castanets were featured prominently in dances. Composers like Jean-Baptiste Lully scored them for the music of dances which included Spaniards, Egyptians, Ethiopians, in addition, they are often scored for dances involving less pleasant characters such as demons and nightmares. Their association with African dances is even stated in the ballet Flore by Lully, Les Africains inventeurs des danses de Castagnettes entrent dun air plus gai. A rare occasion where the accompanying instrument is given concertant solo status is Leonardo Baladas Concertino for Castanets. The Conciertino für Kastagnetten und Orchester by the German composer Helmut M. Timpelan, in cooperation with the castanet virtuoso, see also the tocatta festiva for castanets by Allan Stephenson. Sonia Amelio has also performed her castanet arrangements as a concert soloist, also referred to as clackers in the United States. Castanets are often played by singers or dancers, contrary to popular belief, castanets are not commonly used in the flamenco dance, except for two specific forms, zambra and siguiriyas. In fact, Spanish folk dance Sevillanas is the style typically performed using castanet, escuela bolera, a balletic dance form, is also accompanied by castanets. The name is derived from the form of castaña, the Spanish word for chestnut. In Andalusia they are referred to as palillos instead. Castanets were used to evoke a Spanish atmosphere in Georges Bizets opera and they are also found in the Dance of the Seven Veils from Richard Strauss opera Salome and in Richard Wagners Tannhäuser. An unusual variation on the standard castanets can be found in Darius Milhauds Les Choëphores, other uses include Rimsky-Korsakovs Capriccio espagnol, Ravels Rapsodie espagnole, Francis Poulencs Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra in D minor and Karl Jenkinss Tangollen
30.
Ching (instrument)
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Ching are finger cymbals played in Cambodian and Thai theater and dance ensembles. Joined by a cord that runs through the center, ching are bowl-shaped, about 5 centimeters in diameter, and made of bronze alloy—iron, copper, and gold. They are struck together in a pattern to keep time and regulate the melody. The rhythm typically consists of alternating the accented closed stroke with an unaccented open ching stroke, the name ching is probably onomatopoeic for this open sound. A Thai ensemble consists of stringed fiddles, flutes, zither, xylophones, gong circles, drums, melody in both Thai and Khmer musics is regulated by cyclic patterns realized on the drums and ching. Evidence of the ching has been found in Angkor, the great temple-city of Khmer civilization, scenes carved in the walls of the temple depict celestial dancers with their musical instruments, including small cymbals. Music of Cambodia Music of Thailand
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Clash cymbals
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Clash cymbals are cymbals played in matched pairs by holding one cymbal in each hand and striking the two together. In musical scores, clash cymbals are normally indicated as cymbals or sometimes simply C. C, if another type of cymbal, for example a suspended cymbal, is required in an orchestral score, then for historical reasons this is often also indicated cymbals. Some composers and arrangers use the plural cymbals or crash cymbals to indicate clash cymbals, composers will often mix clash cymbals and suspended cymbal on the same part. There are a number of used to indicate which is desired. Whenever with stick or with mallet is written, a cymbal is used. A return to clash cymbals can be specified with the Italian phrase a 2, since piatti is the Italian term for cymbal, this may be an awkward, redundant term. Clash cymbals are played by a standing player. In a marching band context, the player prepares for the crash by holding the cymbals parallel a few inches apart, with the vertical, one at waist height. They are struck together by bringing the upper cymbal down and the lower up to meet in approximately the middle and this allows the cymbals to resonate freely. For softer strokes, in preparation the cymbals are not quite vertically but at a slight angle, but still parallel. The follow through is reduced or even omitted after softer strokes, some of these serve a functional purpose—waving cymbals after a grand stroke allows for the clash to resonate more clearly. Others are purely decorative—a cymbal line moving in quick pace during a show can simulate airplanes or dragons. Also, there are techniques for playing cymbals, many of them very different from those listed above. In an orchestral or wind band context, the cymbals are held parallel a few inches apart at chest height. For best crashes, the cymbals are held just off vertical, for piano crashes the cymbals are brought together from centimetres apart and allowed to fizz for a millisecond. Whereas for forte crashes, using arms in an upward sweeping motion, the cymbals are brought together with equal force from both left and right hand. Ideally, the player would allow the edge furthest away from their body to make contact first and they are rarely held almost horizontal, with the left cymbal on bottom. This is widely recognised as terrible technique, and does not bring out anything from the other than a very weak crash with no depth of sound or timbre
32.
Clapper (musical instrument)
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A clapper is a basic form of percussion instrument. It consists of two solid pieces that are clapped together producing sound. A straightforward instrument to produce and play, they exist in forms in many different cultures around the world. Clappers can take a number of forms and be made of a variety of material. Wood is most common, but metal and ivory have also been used, the plastic thundersticks that have recently come to be popular at sporting events can be considered a form of inflated plastic clapper. Several specific forms of clapper have their own names, such as the Chinese guban or the Korean bak, in the classical music of Thailand, a similar instrument is called krap. In Vietnam, the coin clapper called sinh tiền is widely used, in medieval French music, clappers called tablettes or cliquettes were used. In the Western symphony orchestra, a called the whip is occasionally used in the percussion section. The term is not to be confused with bell clapper, in music, a whip or slapstick is a clapper consisting of two wooden boards joined by a hinge at one end. When the boards are brought together rapidly, the sound is reminiscent of the crack of a whip and it is often used in modern orchestras, bands, and percussion ensembles. There are two types of whips, the first has two planks of wood connected by a hinge, with a handle on each. The percussionist holds the instrument by the handles and hits the two pieces of wood together, creating a loud whip noise and this second type of whip is technically a separate instrument called a slapstick. The whip is sometimes indicated in scores by the words for whip or a term indicating the clapper construction. This list is alphabetical, but is by no means exhaustive
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Paiban
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The paiban is a clapper made from several flat pieces of hardwood or bamboo, which is used in many different forms of Chinese music. There are many different types of paiban, and the instrument is referred to as bǎn, tánbǎn, mùbǎn. Typical materials used for the paiban include zitan, hongmu, or hualimu, or bamboo and it is held vertically by one hand and clapped together, producing a sharp clacking sound. When used together with a small drum the two instruments are referred to collectively as guban, somewhat confusingly, the clapper is sometimes also referred to, without the drum, as guban. When used as part of a guban, the paiban is used in genres of shuochang, as well as in Beijing opera, kunqu. It is also used in music, such as Jiangnan sizhu Chaozhou xianshi, Sunan chuida, nanguan, shifan luogu. A photo of paiban made from three different types of wood
34.
Spoon (musical instrument)
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Spoons can be played as a makeshift percussion instrument, or more specifically, an idiophone related to the castanets. Playing the spoons originated in England as playing the bones, in which the sides of a pair of cow rib bones were rattled in the same way. It is played by hitting one of the other Fire tongs style, A pair of spoons is held tight with concave sides facing out, when the pair is struck, the spoons sharply hit each other and then spring back to their original position. The spoons are typically struck against the knee and the palm of the hand, the fingers and other body parts may also be used as striking surfaces to produce different sounds, rhythms, and visual effects. Salad serving style, one spoon between little, ring, and long finger, the other spoon between ring, thumb, and index finger in such a way that they can be rotated with ring finger as the common axis. They can be hit to each other at the sides by gathering the fingers. Castanets style, two in hand one held down by the thumb, one between ring and middle finger. In the United States spoons as instrument are associated with American folk music, minstrelsy and these musical genres make use of other everyday objects as instruments, such as the washboard and the jug. In addition to tableware, spoons that are joined at the handle are available from musical instrument suppliers. As percussion, spoons accompany fiddle playing and other folk sets, an example is seen in Midsomer Murders Series 6, episode 2, where Detective Sergeant Gavin Troy plays the spoons at a house party joining a fiddle player who is entertaining the guests. The guests also contribute percussion by hand clapping in time with the music, the song This Old Man refers to a related concept, except with sheep bones instead of spoons. In Canada, the spoons accompany fiddle playing in Québecois and Acadian music, also, Newfoundland and the Atlantic Provinces popularly play the spoons at family gatherings. Playing the spoons is rarely seen in Western Canada, the spoons in Greece, as a percussion instrument are known as koutalakia, which means also, spoon. The dancers hold the wooden koutalakia, to accompany with a variety of knocks their dance rhythms, the most of them, are very beautifully sculpted or painted. Spoons are often used in ethnic Russian music and are known as lozhki, the use of spoons for music dating at least from the 18th century. Typically, three or more wooden spoons are used, the convex surfaces of the bowls are struck together in different ways. For example, two spoons are held by their handles in the hand, and the third, held in the right hand, is used to hit the two spoons in the left hand. The hit, in a motion, produces a typical sound
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