1.
Three-volume novel
–
The three-volume novel was a standard form of publishing for British fiction during the nineteenth century. It was a significant stage in the development of the modern Western novel as a form of popular literature, the format does not correspond closely to what would now be considered a trilogy of novels. Furthermore, a librarian had three volumes earning their keep, rather than one. The particular style of fiction, of a complicated plot reaching resolution by distribution of marriage partners. Three volume novels began to be produced by the Edinburgh-based publisher Archibald Constable in the early 19th century and this continued until Constables company collapsed in 1826 with large debts, bankrupting both him and Scott. As Constables company collapsed, the publisher Henry Colburn quickly adopted the format, the number of three-volume novels he issued annually rose from six in 1825 to 30 in 1828 and 39 in 1829. Under Colburns influence, the published novels adopted a format of three volumes in octavo, priced at 31 shillings and sixpence. The price and format remained unaltered for nearly 70 years, until 1894, the standardized cost of a three volume novel was equivalent half the weekly income of a modest, middle-class household. And was enough to deter even comparatively well-off members of the public from buying them, instead, they were borrowed from commercial circulating libraries, the most well known being owned by Charles Edward Mudie. Mudie was able to buy novels for stock at round half the retail price - five shilling per volume and he charged his subscribers one guinea a year for the right to borrow one volume at a time. A subscriber who wished to borrow three volumes, in order to read the novel without having to make two additional trips to the library, had to pay a higher annual fee. The system encouraged publishers and authors to produce as many novels as possible, due to the almost-guaranteed, the normal three-volume novel was around 900 pages in total at 150–200,000 words, the average length was 168,000 words in 45 chapters. It was common for novelists to have contracts specifying a set number of pages to be filled, if they ran under, they could be made to produce extra, or break the text up into more chapters — each new chapter heading would fill a page. In 1880, the author Rhoda Broughton was offered £750 by her publisher for her two-volume novel Second Thoughts, however, he offered her £1200 if she could add a third volume. This was a used for the first publications of many of the works of Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope. Many novels by such as Wilkie Collins and George Eliot were first published in serial form in weekly and monthly magazines that began to become popular in the middle of the 19th century. Publishers also offered cheap, reprint editions of works, priced at one to two shillings. Although there was often a lengthy delay before reprint editions were released and those who wished to access the latest books had no choice but to borrow three volume editions from a subscription library
Three-volume novel
–
An 1885 cartoon from the magazine
Punch, mocking the cliched language attributed to three-volume novels
2.
Cartoon
–
A cartoon is a type of two-dimensional illustration. An artist who creates cartoons is called a cartoonist, the concept originated in the Middle Ages and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, it came to refer to humorous illustrations in magazines and newspapers, in the 21st century, cartoons could be published on the Internet. A cartoon is a drawing made on sturdy paper as a study or modello for a painting. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days. Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or pounced over the cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster. Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, tapestry cartoons, usually coloured, were followed with the eye by the weavers on the loom. In modern print media, a cartoon is an illustration or series of illustrations and this usage dates from 1843, when Punch magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster, Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips. Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher, many consider New Yorker cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon. The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes names like Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson is noteworthy in the area of newspaper cartoon illustration, the sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester Chet Browns All in Sport. Editorial cartoons are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites, although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social and/or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels, editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters and Gerald Scarfe. Comic strips, also known as cartoon strips in the United Kingdom, are daily in newspapers worldwide. In the United States, they are not commonly called cartoons themselves, nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are usually referred to as cartoonists
Cartoon
–
John Leech, Cartoon no.1: Substance and Shadow, 1843, satirized preparatory cartoons for frescoes in the Palace of Westminster, creating the modern meaning of "cartoon".
Cartoon
–
Example of a modern cartoon. The text was excerpted by cartoonist Greg Williams from the Wikipedia article on
Dr. Seuss.
Cartoon
–
Nast depicts the
Tweed Ring: "Who stole the people's money?" / "'Twas him."
3.
Stereotype
–
In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
Stereotype
–
An 18th-century Dutch engraving of the peoples of the world, depicting the inhabitants of
Asia, the
Americas and
Africa as savages. Shown below are an
Englishman, a
Dutchman, a
German and a
Frenchman.
Stereotype
–
Police officers buying doughnuts and coffee, an example of perceived stereotypical behavior in North America.
Stereotype
–
An anti-semitic 1873 caricature depicting the stereotypical physical features of a Jewish male.
Stereotype
–
A magazine feature from Beauty Parade from March 1952 stereotyping women drivers. It features
Bettie Page as the model.
4.
Fact
–
A fact is something that has occurred or is correct. The usual test for a statement of fact is verifiability—that is, standard reference works are often used to check facts. Scientific facts are verified by repeatable careful observation or measurement, the word fact derives from the Latin factum, and was first used in English with the same meaning, a thing done or performed, a meaning now obsolete. The common usage of something that has occurred or is the case dates from the middle of the sixteenth century. Fact is sometimes used synonymously with truth, as distinct from opinions, falsehoods and this use is found in such phrases as, It is a fact that the cup is blue or Matter of fact, and. Not history, nor fact, but imagination, filmmaker Werner Herzog distinguishes between the two, claiming that Fact creates norms, and truth illumination. Fact also indicates a matter under discussion deemed to be true or correct, alternatively, fact may also indicate an allegation or stipulation of something that may or may not be a true fact. This alternate usage, although contested by some, has a history in standard English. Fact may also indicate findings derived through a process of evaluation, including review of testimony, direct observation, or otherwise and this use is reflected in the terms fact-find and fact-finder. Facts may be checked by reason, experiment, personal experience, roger Bacon wrote If in other sciences we should arrive at certainty without doubt and truth without error, it behooves us to place the foundations of knowledge in mathematics. In philosophy, the fact is considered in epistemology and ontology. Questions of objectivity and truth are closely associated with questions of fact, a fact can be defined as something that is the case—that is, a state of affairs. Facts may be understood as information that makes a sentence true. Facts may also be understood as things to which a true sentence refers. The statement Jupiter is the largest planet in the system is about the fact Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Engels version of the theory of truth explains that what makes a sentence true is that it corresponds to a fact. This theory presupposes the existence of an objective world, the Slingshot argument claims to show that all true statements stand for the same thing - the truth value true. If this argument holds, and facts are taken to be what true statements stand for, any non-trivial true statement about reality is necessarily an abstraction composed of a complex of objects and properties or relations
Fact
5.
Analogy
–
Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another, or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy. Analogy plays a significant role in solving, as well as decision making, perception, memory, creativity, emotion, explanation. It lies behind basic tasks such as the identification of places, objects and people, for example, in face perception and it has been argued that analogy is the core of cognition. Specific analogical language comprises exemplification, comparisons, metaphors, similes, allegories, and parables, phrases like and so on, and the like, as if, and the very word like also rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message including them. Analogy is important not only in language and common sense but also in science, philosophy. In cognitive linguistics, the notion of conceptual metaphor may be equivalent to that of analogy, Analogy has been studied and discussed since classical antiquity by philosophers, scientists, and lawyers. The last few decades have shown a renewed interest in analogy, in ancient Greek the word αναλογια originally meant proportionality, in the mathematical sense, and it was indeed sometimes translated to Latin as proportio. From there analogy was understood as identity of relation between any two ordered pairs, whether of mathematical nature or not, kants Critique of Judgment held to this notion. Kant argued that there can be exactly the same relation between two different objects. The same notion of analogy was used in the US-based SAT tests, for example, Hand is to palm as foot is to ____. This relation is not apparent in some definitions of palm and sole, where the former is defined as the inner surface of the hand. Analogy and abstraction are different cognitive processes, and analogy is often an easier one and this analogy is not comparing all the properties between a hand and a foot, but rather comparing the relationship between a hand and its palm to a foot and its sole. While a hand and a foot have many dissimilarities, the focuses on their similarity in having an inner surface. A computer algorithm has achieved human-level performance on multiple-choice analogy questions from the SAT test, the algorithm measures the similarity of relations between pairs of words by statistical analysis of a large collection of text. It answers SAT questions by selecting the choice with the highest relational similarity, Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle actually used a wider notion of analogy. They saw analogy as a shared abstraction, analogous objects did not share necessarily a relation, but also an idea, a pattern, a regularity, an attribute, an effect or a philosophy. These authors also accepted that comparisons, metaphors and images could be used as arguments, analogies should also make those abstractions easier to understand and give confidence to the ones using them
Analogy
–
In several
cultures, [
which?] the
Sun is the source of an analogy to
God.
Analogy
–
Rutherford's model of the
atom (
modified by
Niels Bohr) made an analogy between the atom and the
solar system.
Analogy
–
According to Shelley (2003), the study of the
coelacanth drew heavily on analogies from other fish.
6.
Exaggeration
–
Exaggeration is a representation of something in an excessive manner. exaggerating. It is the opposite of minimisation, inflated praise in the form of flattery and puffery has a similarly lengthy history. Exaggerating is also a type of deception, as well as a means of malingering – magnifying small injuries or discomforts as an excuse to avoid responsibilities, character assassination typically involves deliberate exaggeration or manipulation of facts. Cognitive behavioral therapy views magnification as unconscious, unrealistic mental processing or cognitive distortion and this is better known as making a big deal out of nothing. Whereas probability overestimation refers to exaggerating the likelihood of an event, closely related is overgeneralizing, where one takes a single negative event and see it as a never-ending pattern of defeat. Another form of exaggeration is inflation of the difficulty of achieving a goal after attaining it. Psychoanalysis considered that neurotic exaggerations were the products of displacement – overvaluations for example being used to maintain a repression elsewhere, thus a conflict over ambivalence may be resolved by means of exaggerating ones love for a person so as to keep an unconscious hatred in further check. Alarmism is excessive or exaggerated alarm about a real or imagined threat e. g. the increases in deaths from infectious disease, the alarmist person is subject to the cognitive distortion of catastrophizing – of always expecting the worst of possible futures. Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a comic device. It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits, catherine Tate is an example of a comedian who uses exaggeration. Catherine Tate creates characters who are so over the top as to be almost cartoon-like and her comedy is never meant to offend any viewer and is always based on satire and grotesque exaggeration. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics, slapstick is the recourse to humor involving exaggerated physical activity which exceeds the boundaries of common sense. These exaggerated depictions are found in childrens cartoons, and light film comedies aimed at younger audiences. Paradoxical laughter is an expression of humor which is unwarranted by external events. It may be uncontrollable laughter which may be recognised as inappropriate by the person involved, freud considered the compulsive laughter which so often occurs on mournful occasions the by-product of ambivalence. The boastful soldier or Miles Gloriosus has for thousands of years formed part of the Western stage, the original miles gloriosus in Plautus is a son of Jove and Venus who has killed an elephant with his fist and seven thousand men in one days fighting. In other words, he is trying to put on a good show, overacting is the exaggeration of gestures and speech when acting. It may be unintentional, particularly in the case of a bad actor, or be required for the role, for the latter, it is commonly used in comical situations or to stress the evil characteristics of a villain
Exaggeration
–
Fishing stories are often associated with exaggeration.
Rabelais '
Pantagruel got a
sea serpent when fishing.
Exaggeration
–
Charicature from 1796, parodizing the fashion of one or two feathers issuing vertically from a woman's headdress, as are also women's neo-classically influenced gown styles (rather new in England in 1796), and men's ultra-tight trousers (or "calf-clingers" in the slang of the period).
Exaggeration
–
Hamlet, by William Morris Hunt.
7.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
8.
Stereotype (printing)
–
The composition of individual cast metal types into lines with leading and furniture, tightly locked into a forme, was labor-intensive and costly. The printer would incur further expense through loss of the type for other uses while held in formes, publishers who did not accurately predict sales were forced into the expense of paying for the type to be reset for subsequent editions. English sources often describe the process as having been invented in 1725 by William Ged, however, Count Canstein had been publishing stereotyped Bibles in Germany since 1712 and an earlier form of stereotyping from flong was described in Germany in 1702. It is even possible that the process was used as early as the century by Johannes Gutenberg or his heirs for the Mainz Catholicon. Wide application of the technique, with improvements, is attributed to Charles Stanhope in the early 1800s, printing plates for the Bible were stereotyped in the US in 1814. Over time, stereotype became a metaphor for any set of ideas repeated identically or with minor changes. In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers words, and in their printing senses became synonymous, the term stereotype derives from Greek στερεός solid, firm and τύπος blow, impression, engraved mark and in its modern sense was coined in 1798. The Era of Charles Mahon, Third Earl of Stanhope, Stereotyper, wet Mat Stereotyping in Germany in 1690. Historical Treatises, Abstracts, and Papers on Stereotyping
Stereotype (printing)
–
A stereotype mold ("flong") being made
Stereotype (printing)
–
Stereotype casting room of the Seattle Daily Times, ca. 1900
9.
Printing plate
–
Offset printing is a commonly used printing technique in which the inked image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. The modern web process feeds a large reel of paper through a press machine in several parts, typically for several metres. Development of the press came in two versions, in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin, and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of the United States for printing on paper. Lithography was initially created to be a method of reproducing artwork. This printing process was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the plates were produced from limestone. In fact, the word lithograph historically means an image from stone or printed from stone, tin cans were popular packaging materials in the 19th century, but transfer technologies were required before the lithographic process could be used to print on the tin. The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and this development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoes 1843 rotary printing press—a press that used a metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business, photoengraving, a process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey, were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs, Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that when printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, the printed page was clearer and sharper. After further refinement, the Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903, by 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco. The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time, charles and Albert Harris modeled their press on a rotary letter press machine. One of the most important functions in the process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model, finalizing the files, Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include, newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, compared to other printing methods, offset printing is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include, consistent high image quality
Printing plate
–
Web-fed offset lithographic press at speed.
Printing plate
–
Sheet-fed offset press
10.
Onomatopoeia
–
An onomatopoeia is a word that phonetically imitates, resembles or suggests the sound that it describes. As an uncountable noun, onomatopoeia refers to the property of such words, common occurrences of onomatopoeias include animal noises such as oink, miaow, roar or chirp. Although in the English language, the term means the imitation of a sound. For words that imitate sounds, the term Ηχομιμητικό is used, Ηχομιμητικό derives from Ηχώ, meaning echo or sound, and μιμητικό, meaning mimetic or imitation. Some other very common English-language examples include hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, moo, machines and their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia, as in honk or beep-beep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom or brum for the engine. When someone speaks of an involving a audible arcing of electricity. Human sounds sometimes provide instances of onomatopoeia, as when mwah is used to represent a kiss, for animal sounds, words like quack, moo, bark or woof, roar, meow/miaow or purr, cluck and baa are typically used in English. Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs, some languages flexibly integrate onomatopoeic words into their structure. This may evolve into a new word, up to the point that it is no longer recognized as onomatopoeia, verba dicendi are a method of integrating onomatopoeia and ideophones into grammar. Sometimes things are named from the sounds they make, in English, for example, there is the universal fastener which is named for the onomatopoeic of the sound it makes, the zip or zipper. In Tamil and Malayalam, the word for crow is kaakaa and this practice is especially common in certain languages such as Māori and, therefore, in names of animals borrowed from these languages. Although a particular sound is heard similarly by people of different cultures, for example, the snip of a pair of scissors is cri-cri in Italian, riqui-riqui in Spanish, terre-terre or treque-treque in Portuguese, krits-krits in modern Greek and katr-katr in Hindi. Similarly, the honk of a horn is ba-ba in Mandarin, tut-tut in French, pu-pu in Japanese, bbang-bbang in Korean, bært-bært in Norwegian, fom-fom in Portuguese. Onomatopoeic effect can also be produced in a phrase or word string with the help of alliteration and consonance alone, the most famous example is the phrase furrow followed free in Samuel Taylor Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. It may be noted that the words followed and free are not onomatopoeic in themselves, similarly, alliteration has been used in the line as the surf surged up the sun swept shore. To recreate the sound of breaking waves, in the poem I, She, comic strips and comic books made extensive use of onomatopoeia. Crane had fun with this, tossing in an occasional ker-splash or lickety-wop along with what would become the standard effects. Words as well as images became vehicles for carrying along his increasingly fast-paced storylines, in 2002, DC Comics introduced a villain named Onomatopoeia, an athlete, martial artist and weapons expert who often speaks sounds
Onomatopoeia
–
A sign in a shop window in Italy proclaims "No Tic Tac", in imitation of the sound of a clock.
11.
Robert Jay Lifton
–
Robert Jay Lifton is an American psychiatrist and author, chiefly known for his studies of the psychological causes and effects of war and political violence and for his theory of thought reform. He was a proponent of the techniques of psychohistory. Lifton was born in 1926, in Brooklyn, New York, in 1942, he enrolled at Cornell University at the age of 16 and was admitted to New York Medical College in 1944, graduating in 1948. He interned at the Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn in 1948-49, and had his psychiatric training at the Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn. From 1951 to 1953 he served as an Air Force psychiatrist in Japan and Korea, to which he attributed his interest in war. He married the childrens writer Betty Jean Kirschner in 1952 and has two children and she died in Boston on November 19,2010, from complications of pneumonia. Lifton calls cartooning his avocation, he has published two books of cartoons about birds. During the 1960s, Robert Jay Lifton, together with his mentor Erik Erikson and MIT historian Bruce Mazlish, formed a group to apply psychology, meetings were held at Liftons home in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. The Wellfleet Psychohistory Group, as it known, focused mainly on psychological motivations for war, terrorism. In 1965, they received sponsorship from the American Academy of Arts, a collection of research papers by the group was published in 1975, Explorations in Psychohistory, The Wellfleet Papers. In addition to interviews with 25 Americans and Europeans, Lifton interviewed 15 Chinese who had fled after having been subjected to indoctrination in Chinese universities, the term thought-terminating cliché was popularized in this book. Lifton found that when the POWs returned to the United States their thinking soon returned to normal, a 1989 reprint edition was published by University of North Carolina Press. His book on Hiroshima survivors won the 1969 National Book Award in Science, totalism, a word first used in Thought Reform, is Liftons term for the characteristics of ideological movements and organizations that desire total control over human behavior and thought. Liftons usage differs from theories of totalitarianism in that it can be applied to the ideology of groups that do not wield governmental power, in Liftons opinion, though such attempts always fail, they follow a common pattern and cause predictable types of psychological damage in individuals and societies. In his later work, Lifton has focused on defining the type of change to which totalism is opposed, following his work with Hiroshima survivors, Lifton became a vocal opponent of nuclear weapons, arguing that nuclear strategy and warfighting doctrine made even mass genocide banal and conceivable. In 1993 he said, Whats happening there merits the use of the word genocide, there is an effort to systematically destroy an entire group. Its even been conceptualized by Serbian nationalists as so-called ethnic cleansing and that term signifies mass killing, mass relocation, and that does constitute genocide. Lifton regards terrorism as a serious threat due to the proliferation of nuclear and chemical weapons
Robert Jay Lifton
–
Robert Jay Lifton
12.
Social conditioning
–
Social conditioning is the sociological process of training individuals in a society to respond in a manner generally approved by the society in general and peer groups within society. The concept is stronger than that of socialization, which is the process of inheriting norms, customs, the social structure in which an individual finds him or herself influences and can determine their social actions and responses. Social conditioning represents the environment and personal experience in the nature and nurture debate, society in general and peer groups within society set the norms which shape the behavior of actors within the social system. Though society shapes individuals, however, it was the individual who made society to begin with, Social conditioning is directly related to the particular culture that one is involved in. In You May Ask Yourself, Dalton Conley, a professor of Sociology at New York University and its transmitted to us through different processes, with socialization — our internalization of societys values, beliefs and norms — being the main one. The particular manner or influence that one is exposed to is associated by the herd that he or she is involved in, Social conditioning bases its principals on the natural need for an animal to be a part of a pack. Sigmund Freud, known as the father of psychoanalysis, recorded his observations of dynamics in Group Psychology. In his work, he refers to Wilfred Trotter as the conditions its members, Freud states opposition to the herd is as good as separation from it. Such fear causes the members and even leaders of a particular group to go along with the decisions a group based in accordance to its culture. On a micro scale, the individual is conditioned to partake in the norms of the said group even if they contradict his or her personal moral code. The consequences of such protest result in isolation, such, in accordance to Freud, is one of the greatest punishments than can be instilled on an individual. This would result in the inability of an individual to practice his or her instinctual impulses and these instincts, in accordance to Freud, are the motives behind actions that the individual may take. Out of fear of isolation and to secure the practice of instinctual impulses, edward Bernays, Freuds nephew and the father of propaganda and public relations, used many of his uncles theories in order to create new methods in marketing. In Propaganda, he published that If we understand the mechanism and motives of the mind, it is now possible to control. He used the theory in order to create public relations. His theories and applications in social conditioning continue throughout his work, Bernays continued the application of his work as he associates the method in which a minority elite use social conditioning to assert their dominance and will power. In You May Ask Yourself, Dalton Conley describes this ideal with hegemony and he states that the term refers to a historical process in which a dominant group exercises moral and intellectual leadership throughout society by winning the voluntary consent of popular masses. Bernays believed that this was a functionalist approach, such influence is made possible by persistent repetition
Social conditioning
–
Ivan Pavlov
Social conditioning
–
Margaret Mead
13.
George Orwell
–
Eric Arthur Blair, better known by the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of injustice, opposition to totalitarianism. Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism and he is best known for the allegorical novella Animal Farm and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, in British India. His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a clergyman, although the gentility passed down the generations, the prosperity did not, Eric Blair described his family as lower-upper-middle class. His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service and his mother, Ida Mabel Blair, grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters, Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger, when Eric was one year old, his mother took him and his sister to England. His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a monument of historical importance. In 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire, Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, they did not see the husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mothers diary from 1905 describes a lively round of social activity, before the First World War, the family moved to Shiplake, Oxfordshire where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field, on being asked why, he said, You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up. Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers and he said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wellss A Modern Utopia. During this period, he enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacinthas brother and sister. At the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames and it was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903. His mother wanted him to have a school education, but his family could not afford the fees. Ida Blairs brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprians School, Eastbourne, Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win a scholarship, in September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprians. He boarded at the school for the five years, returning home only for school holidays
George Orwell
–
Orwell's
press card portrait, 1943
George Orwell
–
Blair family home at
Shiplake
George Orwell
–
Playing fields at St. Cyprian's. Blair's time at the school inspired his essay "
Such, Such Were the Joys ".
George Orwell
–
Blair pictured in a passport photo during his Burma years
14.
Nineteen Eighty-Four
–
Nineteen Eighty-Four, often published as 1984, is a dystopian novel published in 1949 by English author George Orwell. The novel is set in Airstrip One, a province of the superstate Oceania in a world of war, omnipresent government surveillance. The superstate and its residents are dictated to by a political regime euphemistically named English Socialism, shortened to Ingsoc in Newspeak, the tyranny is ostensibly overseen by Big Brother, the Party leader who enjoys an intense cult of personality, but who may not even exist. The Party seeks power entirely for its own sake and it is not interested in the good of others, it is interested solely in power. The protagonist of the novel, Winston Smith, is a member of the Outer Party, who works for the Ministry of Truth and his job is to rewrite past newspaper articles, so that the historical record always supports the party line. The instructions that the workers receive portray the corrections as fixing misquotations and never as what they really are, forgeries and falsifications. A large part of the Ministry also actively destroys all documents that have not been edited and do not contain the revisions, in this way, Smith is a diligent and skillful worker but secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion against Big Brother. The heroine of the novel, Julia, is based on Orwells second wife, as literary political fiction and dystopian science-fiction, Nineteen Eighty-Four is a classic novel in content, plot and style. Many of its terms and concepts, such as Big Brother, doublethink, thoughtcrime, Newspeak, Room 101, telescreen,2 +2 =5, and memory hole, have entered into common use since its publication in 1949. Nineteen Eighty-Four popularised the adjective Orwellian, which describes official deception, secret surveillance, in 2005, the novel was chosen by Time magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place on lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 13 on the editors list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 8 on the BBCs survey The Big Read, on 4 December 1948, he sent the final manuscript to the publisher Secker and Warburg and Nineteen Eighty-Four was published on 8 June 1949. By 1989, it had translated into sixty-five languages, more than any other novel in English at the time. Warburg suggested changing the title to a more commercial one. In the novel 1985, Anthony Burgess suggests that Orwell, disillusioned by the onset of the Cold War, intended to call the book 1948. The introduction to the Penguin Books Modern Classics edition of Nineteen Eighty-Four reports that Orwell originally set the novel in 1980, the final title is also a permutation of 1948, the year of composition. The novel is in the domain in Canada, South Africa, Argentina, Australia. It will be in the domain in the United Kingdom and Brazil in 2021
Nineteen Eighty-Four
–
British first edition cover
Nineteen Eighty-Four
–
A 1947 draft manuscript of the first page of Nineteen Eighty-Four, showing the editorial development.
Nineteen Eighty-Four
–
Nikolai Yezhov walking with Stalin in the top photo from the mid 1930s. Following his execution in 1940, Yezhov was edited out of the photo by Soviet censors. Yezhov became an "unperson."
Nineteen Eighty-Four
15.
Totalitarian
–
Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. A distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is an ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning. The concept of totalitarianism was first developed in the 1920s by the Weimar German jurist, and later Nazi academic, Carl Schmitt, Schmitt used the term, Totalstaat, in his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state, The Concept of the Political. The concept became prominent in Western political discourse as a concept that highlights similarities between Fascist states and the Soviet Union, the term was later assigned a positive meaning in the writings of Giovanni Gentile, Italy’s most prominent philosopher and leading theorist of fascism. He used the term “totalitario” to refer to the structure and goals of the new state, according to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human, Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state. Churchill was then a backbencher MP representing the Epping constituency, in a radio address two weeks later Churchill again employed the term, this time applying the concept to a Communist or a Nazi tyranny. And went on to say Democracy is not an end but a means to the conquest of the new state, when the time comes, either parliament submits or we will eliminate it. G. Wells, Henry Miller or twopenny color postcards, every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it. During a 1945 lecture series entitled The Soviet Impact on the Western World, only the blind and incurable could ignore the trend towards totalitarianism, said Carr. Isabel Paterson, in The God of the Machine, used the term in connection with the Soviet Union, in The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt argued that Nazi and State communist regimes were new forms of government, and not merely updated versions of the old tyrannies. According to Arendt, the source of the appeal of totalitarian regimes is their ideology, which provides a comforting, single answer to the mysteries of the past, present. For Nazism, all history is the history of race struggle, once that premise is accepted, all actions of the state can be justified by appeal to Nature or the Law of History, justifying their establishment of authoritarian state apparatus. In addition to Arendt, many scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds, each one of these describes totalitarianism in slightly different ways. Is only concerned with power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty. Authoritarianism does not attempt to change the world and human nature, in contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life, and morals of citizens. The officially proclaimed ideology penetrates into the deepest reaches of societal structure and it also mobilizes the whole population in pursuit of its goals. Friedrich and Brzezinski argue that a system has the following six, mutually supportive, defining characteristics. Single mass party, typically led by a dictator, system of terror, using such instruments as violence and secret police
Totalitarian
–
Benito Mussolini
Totalitarian
–
Adolf Hitler
Totalitarian
–
Mao Zedong and
Joseph Stalin in Moscow, December 1949
Totalitarian
–
A number of thinkers, including
Zbigniew Brzezinski, have argued that Nazi and Soviet regimes were equally totalitarian.
16.
Eichmann in Jerusalem
–
Eichmann in Jerusalem, A Report on the Banality of Evil is a book by political theorist Hannah Arendt, originally published in 1963. Arendt, a Jew who fled Germany during Adolf Hitlers rise to power, Arendts subtitle famously introduced the phrase the banality of evil, which also serves as the final words of the book. Eichmann attempted to follow the spirit of the laws he carried out, in Kants formulation of the categorical imperative, the legislator is the moral self, and all men are legislators, in Eichmanns formulation, the legislator was Hitler. Eichmanns inability to think for himself was exemplified by his consistent use of stock phrases, Eichmann was a joiner his entire life, in that he constantly joined organizations in order to define himself, and had difficulties thinking for himself without doing so. As a youth, he belonged to the YMCA, the Wandervogel, in 1933, he failed in his attempt to join the Schlaraffia, at which point a family friend Ernst Kaltenbrunner encouraged him to join the SS. At the end of World War II, Eichmann found himself depressed because it then dawned on him that thenceforward he would have to live without being a member of something or other, despite his claims, Eichmann was not, in fact, very intelligent. As Arendt details in the second chapter, he was unable to complete either high school or vocational training. Arendt noted that, during both his SS career and Jerusalem trial, Eichmann tried to cover up his lack of skills and education, and even blushed when these facts came to light. Arendt confirms several points where Eichmann actually claimed he was responsible for certain atrocities, moreover, Eichmann made these claims even though they hurt his defense, hence Arendts remark that Bragging was the vice that was Eichmanns undoing. Arendt also suggests that Eichmann may have preferred to be executed as a war criminal than live as a nobody and this parallels his overestimation of his own intelligence and his past value in the organizations in which he had served, as stated above. During his imprisonment before his trial, the Israeli government sent no fewer than six psychologists to examine Eichmann and these psychologists found not only no trace of mental illness, but also no evidence of abnormal personality whatsoever. Arendt suggests that this most strikingly discredits the idea that the Nazi criminals were manifestly psychopathic, humanly speaking, no more is required, and no more can reasonably be asked, for this planet to remain a place fit for human habitation. Beyond her discussion of Eichmann himself, Arendt discusses several aspects of the trial, its context. She points out that the war criminals tried at Nuremberg were indicted for crimes against the members of various nations, Arendts book introduced the expression and concept the banality of evil. She never denied that Eichmann was an anti-semite, nor that he was responsible for his actions. This concept has been frequently misunderstood, Arendt certainly did not disagree about the fact of gratuitous cruelty, but banality of evil is unrelated to this question. Similarly, the first attempted rebuttal of Arendts thesis relied on a misreading of this phrase, Arendt sparked controversy with Eichmann in Jerusalem upon its publishing and the years since. Arendt has long been accused of blaming the victim in the book, dr. Jacob Robinson published And the Crooked Shall be Made Straight, the first full-length rebuttal of her book
Eichmann in Jerusalem
–
Cover of the 1965 edition of Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil
17.
Hannah Arendt
–
Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden, the daughter of Martha and Paul Arendt. She grew up in Königsberg and Berlin, at the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Arendts family was assimilated and she later remembered, With us from Germany. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it, Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering antisemitism as an adult. Arendt later wrote about Varnhagen that she was my very closest woman friend, during the philosophy course taught by Heidegger, she fell in love with her married professor, and a relationship began. In 1929, when Heidegger failed to recognize her at a station, Arendt was devastated, writing, When I was a small child. I had read the tale about Dwarf Nose, whose nose gets so long nobody recognizes him anymore. My mother pretended that had happened to me, I still vividly recall the blind terror with which I kept crying, but I am your child, I am your Hannah. —That is what it was like today. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, the dissertation was published in 1929. In 1932, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings, Heidegger wrote back to her and in his letter did not seek to deny the rumors, and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. Arendt was prevented from habilitating because she was Jewish and she researched antisemitism for some time before being arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1933. While in France, she worked to support and aid Jewish refugees, in 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship. In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, like many others, Arendt was able to leave Gurs after a few weeks, and left France in 1941 with her husband and her mother, traveling via Portugal to the United States. They relied on visas illegally issued by the American diplomat Hiram Bingham, varian Fry, another American humanitarian, paid for their travel and helped obtain the visas. Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community, from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, during World War II, Arendt worked for Youth Aliyah, a Zionist organization, which saved thousands of children from the Holocaust and settled them in the British Mandate of Palestine
Hannah Arendt
–
Hannah Arendt from a 1988 German stamp among the
Women in German history series
18.
Nazi Party
–
Its precursor, the German Workers Party, existed from 1919 to 1920. The party emerged from the German nationalist, racist, and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, the party was created as a means to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism. Pseudo-scientific racism theories were central to Nazism, the Nazis propagated the idea of a peoples community. Their aim was to unite racially desirable Germans as national comrades, while excluding those deemed either to be political dissidents, to maintain the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, and the physically and mentally handicapped. They imposed exclusionary segregation on homosexuals, Africans, Jehovahs Witnesses, the partys leader since 1921, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. Hitler rapidly established a regime known as the Third Reich. The term Nazi derives from the name given in German to a party member Nationalsozialist and was coined in response to the German term Sozi, members of the party referred to themselves as Nationalsozialisten, rarely as Nazis. The term Parteigenosse was commonly used among Nazis, with the feminine form Parteigenossin used when it was appropriate, the term was in use before the rise of the party as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backward peasant, characterising an awkward and clumsy person. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the name in intentional association to the long-time existing Sozi to the dismissive Nazi. In 1933, when Adolf Hitler assumed power of the German government, usage of the designation Nazi diminished in Germany, the use of Nazi Germany, and Nazi regime, was popularised by anti-Nazis and German exiles abroad. Thereafter, the spread into other languages and eventually was brought back to Germany after the Second World War. The party grew out of political groups with a nationalist orientation that formed in the last years of World War I. In 1918, a called the Freien Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden was created in Bremen. On 7 March 1918, Anton Drexler, an avid German nationalist, Drexler saw the situation of political violence and instability in Germany as the result of the new Weimar Republic being out-of-touch with the masses, especially the lower classes. These were all well-known themes popular with various Weimar paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps, though very small, Drexlers movement did receive attention and support from some influential figures. Supporter Dietrich Eckhart brought military figure Count Felix Graf von Bothmer, later in 1918, Karl Harrer, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Politischer Arbeiterzirkel. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and racism directed against the Jews and they became one of many völkisch movements that existed in Germany at the time
Nazi Party
–
NSDAP membership book
Nazi Party
–
National Socialist German Workers' Party Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei
Nazi Party
–
Mein Kampf in its first edition cover.
Nazi Party
–
Hitler with Nazi Party members in 1930
19.
Adolf Eichmann
–
Otto Adolf Eichmann was a German Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer and one of the major organisers of the Holocaust. In 1960, Eichmann was captured in Argentina by Mossad, Israels intelligence service, following a widely publicised trial in Israel, he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in 1962. After an unremarkable career, Eichmann briefly worked for his fathers mining company in Austria. He worked as an oil salesman beginning in 1927, and joined the Nazi Party. Eichmann drew up plans for a Jewish reservation, first at Nisko in south-east Poland and later in Madagascar, as the Nazis began the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, their Jewish policy changed from emigration to extermination. To co-ordinate planning for the genocide, Heydrich hosted the regimes administrative leaders at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942, Eichmann collected information for Heydrich, attended the conference, and prepared the minutes. Eichmann and his staff became responsible for Jewish deportations to extermination camps, after Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944, Eichmann oversaw the deportation of much of that countrys Jewish population. Most of the victims were sent to Auschwitz concentration camp, where 75 to 90 per cent were murdered upon arrival, by the time the transports were stopped in July 1944,437,000 of Hungarys 725,000 Jews had been killed. Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that between 5.5 and 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis, after Germanys defeat in 1945, Eichmann fled to Austria. He lived there until 1950, when he moved to Argentina using false papers, information collected by Mossad, Israels intelligence agency, confirmed Eichmanns location in 1960. During the trial, Eichmann did not deny the veracity of the Holocaust or his role in organising it, found guilty on many of the charges, he was sentenced to death by hanging and executed on 1 June 1962. Otto Adolf Eichmann, the eldest of five children, was born in 1906 to a Calvinist Protestant family in Solingen and his parents were Adolf Karl Eichmann, a bookkeeper, and Maria, a housewife. The elder Adolf moved to Linz, Austria, in 1913 to take a position as manager for the Linz Tramway and Electrical Company. After the death of Maria in 1916, Eichmanns father married Maria Zawrzel, Eichmann attended the Kaiser Franz Joseph Staatsoberrealschule in Linz, the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before. He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs, including a Wandervogel woodcraft and he left without attaining a degree and joined his fathers new enterprise, the Untersberg Mining Company, where he worked for several months. From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a clerk for the Oberösterreichische Elektrobau AG radio company. Next, between 1927 and early 1933, Eichmann worked in Upper Austria and Salzburg as district agent for the Vacuum Oil Company AG. During this time, he joined the Jungfrontkämpfervereinigung, the section of Hermann Hiltls right-wing veterans movement
Adolf Eichmann
–
Adolf Eichmann in 1942
Adolf Eichmann
–
Adolf Eichmann's
Lebenslauf (résumé) attached to his application for promotion from SS-
Hauptscharführer to SS-
Untersturmführer in 1937
Adolf Eichmann
–
Memorial at a bus stop near the site of Eichmann's office, Referat IV B4 (Office of Jewish Affairs) at Kurfurstenstrasse 115, now occupied by a hotel.
Adolf Eichmann
–
Hungarian woman and children arrive at
Auschwitz-Birkenau, May or June 1944 (photo from the
Auschwitz Album)
20.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
21.
Catch-phrase
–
A catchphrase is a phrase or expression recognized by its repeated utterance. Such phrases often originate in popular culture and in the arts, some become the de facto or literal trademark or signature of the person or character with whom they originated, and can be instrumental in the typecasting of a particular actor. People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh and he found that all of the participants in his study had used film quotes in conversation at one point or another. They overwhelmingly cited comedies, followed distantly by dramas and action adventure flicks, horror films, musicals and childrens films were hardly ever cited. List of catchphrases List of political catchphrases List of exclamations by Robin Category, Catchphrases Barba, Catchy Phrases, over 2000 Catchy Slogans Ideas, Powerful Copy Connectors, Catchy Phrases for Business Tag lines, Magnetic Blog Triggers. Catchphrase, Slogan and Cliché, the origins and meanings of our favourite expressions, a Dictionary of Catch Phrases, American and British, from the sixteenth century to the present day Lanham, Maryland, Scarborough House,1992. Planet Simpson, How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation
Catch-phrase
–
A man and a youth, each leading a horse. Advertising catch phrase: buy me and you'll get a good bargain. Attic black-figured
lekythos,
Louvre museum
22.
Figure of speech
–
A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is figurative language in the form of a single word or phrase. It can be a repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity, however, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. The earliest known text listing them, though not explicitly as a system, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium, of unknown authorship, quintillian then mentioned them in Institutio Oratoria. Philo of Alexandria also listed them as addition, subtraction, transposition, figures of speech come in many varieties. The aim is to use the language inventively to accentuate the effect of what is being said, a few examples follow, Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran is an example of, where the consonant r is used repeatedly. Whereas, Sister Suzy sewing socks for soldiers is a form of alliteration called sibilance. Both are commonly used in poetry and she would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains is a variety of zeugma called a syllepsis. Run up refers to ascending and also to manufacturing, the effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a pun, that she might be climbing up the curtains. The ellipsis or omission of the use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said. Military Intelligence is an oxymoron is the use of direct sarcasm to suggest that the military would have no intelligence and this might be considered to be a satire and an aphorism. An Einstein is an example of synecdoche, as it uses a name to represent a class of people. I had butterflies in my stomach is a metaphor, referring to a feeling as if there were flying insects in ones stomach. To say it was like having some butterflies in my stomach would be a simile, because it uses the word like which is missing in the metaphor. That filthy place was really dirty is an example of tautology as there are the two words filthy and dirty having almost the same meaning and are repeated so as to make the more emphatic. Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two categories, schemes and tropes. Schemes are figures of speech that change the ordinary or expected pattern of words, for example, the phrase, John, my best friend uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes change the meaning of words
Figure of speech
–
Whitehall is a road in the
City of Westminster,
London and used as a figure of speech for central government due to the number of departments located in the area.
23.
Idiom
–
An idiom is a phrase or a fixed expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. Categorized as formulaic language, a figurative meaning is different from the literal meaning. There are thousands of idioms, occurring frequently in all languages and it is estimated that there are at least twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions in the English language. Many idiomatic expressions, in their use, were not figurative but had literal meaning. If the jars were spilled before the counting of votes was complete, anyone would be able to see which jar had more beans, over time, the practice was discontinued and the idiom became figurative. Break a leg, used as a way of wishing good luck in a performance or presentation. By wishing someone bad luck, it is supposed that the opposite will occur, in linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality. That compositionality is the key notion for the analysis of idioms is emphasized in most accounts of idioms and this principle states that the meaning of a whole should be constructed from the meanings of the parts that make up the whole. In other words, one should be in a position to understand the whole if one understands the meanings of each of the parts that make up the whole, the following example is widely employed to illustrate the point, Fred kicked the bucket. Understood compositionally, Fred has literally kicked an actual, physical bucket, the much more likely idiomatic reading, however, is non-compositional, Fred is understood to have died. Arriving at the reading from the literal reading is unlikely for most speakers. What this means is that the reading is, rather. In phraseology, idioms are defined as a sub-type of phraseme, john Saeed defines an idiom as collocated words that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a fossilised term. This collocation of words redefines each component word in the word-group, idioms usually do not translate well, in some cases, when an idiom is translated directly word-for-word into another language, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless. When two or three words are used together in a particular sequence, the words are said to be irreversible binomials. Usage will prevent the words from being displaced or rearranged, for example, a person may be left high and dry but never dry and high. This idiom in turn means that the person is left in their condition rather than being assisted so that their condition improves. Not all Siamese twins are idioms, however, chips and dip is an irreversible binomial, but it refers to literal food items, not idiomatic ones
Idiom
–
Adjectives
Idiom
–
Love is blind
24.
Kitsch
–
Kitsch is art, objects, or design considered to be in poor taste because of excessive garishness or sentimentality, but sometimes appreciated in an ironic or knowing way. Hence, kitsch art is associated with sentimental art. Kitsch is also related to the concept of camp, because of its humorous, the chocolate box artist Thomas Kinkade, whose idyllic landscape scenes were often lampooned by art critics as maudlin and schmaltzy, is considered a leading example of contemporary kitsch. The term is sometimes applied to music or literature. As a descriptive term, kitsch originated in the art markets of Munich in the 1860s and the 1870s, describing cheap, popular, in Das Buch vom Kitsch, Hans Reimann defines it as a professional expression born in a painters studio. The study of kitsch was done almost exclusively in German until the 1970s, modernist writer Hermann Broch argues that the essence of kitsch is imitation, kitsch mimics its immediate predecessor with no regard to ethics—it aims to copy the beautiful, not the good. Kitsch is less about the thing observed than about the observer, according to Roger Scruton, Kitsch is fake art, expressing fake emotions, whose purpose is to deceive the consumer into thinking he feels something deep and serious. Cliché Lowbrow Museum of Bad Art Poshlost Prolefeed Notable examples Dogs Playing Poker Velvet Elvis Adorno, wabi and Kitsch, Two Japanese Paradigms in Æ, Canadian Aesthetics Journal 15. Faszination und Herausforderung des Banalen und Trivialen, cheetham, Mark A. Kant, Art and Art History, moments of discipline. Kitsch, The World of Bad Taste, Universe Books, the Kitsch Style and the Age of Kitsch, in J. Goudsblom and S. Mennell The Norbert Elias Reader. Vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage München, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, frankfurt am Main, S. Fischer Verlag. Incredible Tretchikoff, Life of an artist and adventurer, ISBN 0-8070-6681-8 Holliday, Ruth and Potts, Tracey Kitsch. Cultural Politics and Taste, Manchester University Press, eine Studie über die Entartung der Kunst. The Modern System of the Arts, psychologie du Kitsch, Lart du Bonheur, Denoël-Gonthier Nerdrum, Odd. The Artificial Kingdom, On the Kitsch Experience, University of Minnesota ISBN 0-8166-4117-X Reimann, Hans. Balsam für Herz und Seele, ISBN 978-3-7630-2493-3, Kitsch in Sync, A Consumers Guide to Bad Taste, Plexus Publishing. In John Walkers Glossary of art, architecture & design since 1945, avant-Garde and Kitsch – essay by Clement Greenberg Kitsch and the Modern Predicament – essay by Roger Scruton Why Dictators Love Kitsch by Eric Gibson, The Wall Street Journal, August 10,2009
Kitsch
–
The Widow, kitsch example of late 19th century popular lithograph of a humorous painting by
Frederick Dielman.
Kitsch
–
Cottage-shaped tea pot and milk jug
25.
Meme
–
A meme, a neologism coined by Richard Dawkins, is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate, proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts. A field of study called memetics arose in the 1990s to explore the concepts, criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically. However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible, others have argued that this use of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal. The word meme originated with Richard Dawkins 1976 book The Selfish Gene, later, he argued that his original intentions, presumably before his approval of Humphreys opinion, had been simpler. At the New Directors Showcase 2013 in Cannes, Dawkins opinion on memetics was deliberately ambiguous, examples of memes given in the book included melodies, catchphrases, fashion, and the technology of building arches. The word meme originated with Richard Dawkins 1976 book The Selfish Gene, Dawkins cites as inspiration the work of geneticist L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, anthropologist F. T. Cloak and ethologist J. M. Cullen, for Dawkins, the meme exemplified another self-replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution. T. H. Huxley claimed that The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the physical world, a theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals. Dawkins used the term to refer to any entity that an observer might consider a replicator. He hypothesized that one could view many cultural entities as replicators, Memes generally replicate through exposure to humans, who have evolved as efficient copiers of information and behavior. Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time. Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the selection of genes in biological evolution. Dawkins defined the meme as a unit of transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication. The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics. In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the functions of DNA
Meme
–
Richard Dawkins coined the word meme in his 1976 book
The Selfish Gene.
26.
Siamese twins (linguistics)
–
Siamese twins in the context of the English language refer to a pair or group of words used together as an idiomatic expression or collocation, usually conjoined by the words and or or. The order of elements cannot be reversed, the expressions hammer and sickle, short and sweet, and do or die are various examples of Siamese twins. Many Siamese twins are catchy due to alliteration, rhyming, or their ubiquity in society, ubiquitous collocations like loud and clear and life or death are fixed expressions, making them a standard part of the vocabulary of native English speakers. Some English words are known to have become obsolete in general but are found exclusively in an irreversible binomial. In other cases an English word will be more often in such phrases than on its own. Certain Siamese twins are known for their use in legalese, due to the use of precedent in common law, many lawyers use the same collocations found in documents centuries old. So rather than a person enunciating a narrative or recollecting about a situation, likewise, a person who bequeaths property habitually writes of his heirs and successors and not some alternative construct. While many Siamese twins are literal expressions, some are entirely figurative or mostly figurative, others are somewhat in between these extremes because they are more subtle figures of speech, synecdoches, metaphors, or hyperboles. A few Siamese twins have variations, based on the usage of the phrase, one time-worn expression is time and time again, it is frequently shortened to time and again. A person who is covered in tar and feathers usually gets that way by the action of a mob that tars and feathers undesirable people, similarly, some Siamese twins mean something different depending on the conjunction between the words. For example a give and take refers to two-way or mutual flexibility, another example, a person can do something whether it is right or wrong in contrast to knowing the difference between right and wrong, each word pair has a subtly different meaning. The term Siamese twins originates with Chang and Eng Bunker, the twins from Siam. In the context of the English language, this word was first used and popularised by H. W. Fowler, the most common conjunctions used in a phrase that constitutes Siamese twins are and or or. The structure of any Siamese twins phrase has words that are related in some way, the words constituting a Siamese twins phrase may be synonyms, antonyms, include alliterations or similar-sounding words that often rhyme. Other varieties of Siamese twins may also be possible, examples below are split into various tables, some may belong in more than one table but are listed only once. Pairs of two joined by a conjunction generally appear in increasing numeric order, as in two or three rather than three or two. Some of these are examples of reduplication, known as legal doublets, there are many collocations and merisms which are repetitively used in a legal or official context. Many of these can be found in documents dating back centuries
Siamese twins (linguistics)
–
The expression "
hammer and sickle " is a Siamese twin. The order of the two keys words of this familiar expression cannot be reversed.
27.
Slogan
–
The Oxford Dictionary of English defines a slogan as a short and striking or memorable phrase used in advertising. A slogan usually has the attributes of being memorable, very concise and these attributes are necessary in a slogan, as it is only a short phrase. Therefore, it is necessary for slogans to be memorable, as well as concise in what the organisation or brand is trying to say, the word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic and Irish sluagh-ghairm. Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and their simple rhetorical nature usually leaves little room for detail and a chanted slogan may serve more as social expression of unified purpose than as communication to an intended audience. George E. Shankels research states that, English-speaking people began using the term by 1704, the term at that time meant the distinctive note, phrase or cry of any person or body of persons. Slogans were common throughout the European continent during the Middle Ages, crimmins research suggests that brands are an extremely valuable corporate asset, and can make up a lot of a businesss total value. With this in mind, if we take into consideration Kellers research and these include, name, logo and slogan. Brands names and logos both can be changed by the way the receiver interprets them, therefore, the slogan has a large job in portraying the brand. Therefore, the slogan should create a sense of likability in order for the name to be likable. Dass, Kumar, Kohli, & Thomas research suggests there are certain factors that make up the likability of a slogan. The clarity of the message the brand is trying to encode within the slogan, the slogan emphasizes the benefit of the product or service it is portraying. The creativity of a slogan is another factor that had an effect on the likability of a slogan. Lastly, leaving the name out of the slogan will have a positive effect on the likability of the brand itself. The original usage refers to the usage as a clan motto among Highland clans, marketing slogans are often called taglines in the United States or straplines in the United Kingdom. Europeans use the terms baselines, signatures, claims or pay-offs, sloganeering is a mostly derogatory term for activity which degrades discourse to the level of slogans. Slogans are used to convey a message about the product, service or cause that it is representing and it can have a musical tone to it or written as a song. Slogans are often used to capture the attention of the audience it is trying to reach, if the slogan is used for commercial purposes, often it is written to be memorable/catchy in order for a consumer to associate the slogan with the product it is representing. A slogan is part of the aspect that helps create an image for the product
Slogan
–
In 1995,
FDA's assertion of authority to regulate
tobacco drew heavy opposition from the tobacco community, which erupted into lawsuits and slogans urging "Keep FDA Off the Farm."
28.
Speech
–
Speech is the vocalized form of communication based upon the syntactic combination of lexicals and names that are drawn from very large vocabularies. Each spoken word is created out of the combination of a limited set of vowel. These vocabularies, the syntax that structures them, and their sets of speech sound units differ, creating thousands of different. Most human speakers are able to communicate in two or more of them, hence being polyglots, the vocal abilities that enable humans to produce speech also enable them to sing. A gestural form of human communication exists for the deaf in the form of sign language, speech in some cultures has become the basis of a written language, often one that differs in its vocabulary, syntax and phonetics from its associated spoken one, a situation called diglossia. Speech is researched in terms of the production and speech perception of the sounds used in vocal language. Several academic disciplines study these, including acoustics, psychology, speech pathology, linguistics, cognitive science, communication studies, otolaryngology, another area of research is how the human brain in its different areas such as the Brocas area and Wernickes area underlies speech. It is controversial how far human speech is unique, in animals also communicate with vocalizations. The origins of speech are unknown and subject to much debate, in linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs used to produce sounds, make contact with each other. Often the concept is used for the production of consonants. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, normal human speech is produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds, speech research has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners. Spoken vocalizations are quickly turned from sensory inputs into motor instructions needed for their immediate or delayed vocal imitation and this occurs independently of speech perception. This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary, speech is a complex activity, as a result, errors are often made in speech. Speech errors have been analyzed by scientists to understand the nature of the involved in the production of speech. There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech, among these are, Diseases and disorders of the lungs or the vocal cords, including paralysis, respiratory infections, vocal fold nodules and cancers of the lungs and throat
Speech
–
Paul Broca
Speech
Speech
–
Topics and terminology
29.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
30.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
31.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
32.
David Mason (writer)
–
David Mason is an American writer and the former Poet Laureate of Colorado. David Mason was born and raised in Bellingham, Washington and he studied briefly at the Colorado College, but left after one year to work as a fisherman in Alaska. He returned to the college to earn his B. A. in 1978, Mason and then-wife, Jonna Heinrich, moved to Rochester, New York, where he worked as a gardener. In 1980 they went to Greece, where lived for just over a year in Kardamyli, Greece. While living there he became a friend of the British travel author and war hero, Mason returned to the United States when he was hired to write the screenplay for a film based on a novel he had written. In the end the film was canceled when the company closed its film division. After a part-time teaching stint at Colorado College, he began studying at the University of Rochester under Anthony Hecht and his first marriage ended, and in 1988 he married Scottish photojournalist Anne Lennox. He received his doctorate from The University of Rochester and moved to Moorhead, Minnesota, in 1994, Mason was named the Minnesota Outstanding Professor of the Year. In 1998, Mason returned to his alma mater, Colorado College, in 2010 Mason was named Colorado Poet Laureate, for a four-year term ending in the summer of 2014. He and wife Anne Lennox lived in Colorado Springs, Colorado until the marriage ended in 2012, currently he lives in Manitou Springs, Colorado with his wife, Australian poet Cally Conan-Davies. David Masons collections of poems include The Buried Houses and The Country I Remember and he is coeditor of four major anthologies and has authored dozens of poems, essays, reviews, translations, stories and memoirs. A collection of his work Sea Salt, Poems of a Decade, David Mason is especially noted for his historical novel in verse, Ludlow, about the Ludlow Massacre in Ludlow, Colorado, on April 20,1914. Sea Salt, Poems of a Decade, 2004–2014,2014, essays by David Mason, Two Minds of a Western Poet. Los Angeles, CA, Red Hen Press,2010, los Angeles, CA, Red Hen Press,2007. Ashland, OR, Story Line Press,2004, the Poetry of Life and the Life of Poetry. Ashland, OR, Story Line Press,1996, with Dana Gioia and Meg Schoerke. Twentieth Century American Poetics, Poets on the Art of Poetry, with Dana Gioia and Meg Schoerke. Western Wind, An Introduction to Poetry, rebel Angels,25 Poets of the New Formalism
David Mason (writer)
–
David Mason Outdoors in 2012, taken by Christine Mason
33.
JSTOR
–
JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
–
The JSTOR front page
34.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
–
Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
–
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
–
OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
–
OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
35.
Life magazine
–
Life was an American magazine that ran weekly from 1883 to 1936 as a humor magazine with limited circulation. Time owner Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936, solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name, Life was published weekly until 1972, as an intermittent special until 1978, and as a monthly from 1978 to 2000. After 2000 Time Inc. continued to use the Life brand for special, Life returned to regularly scheduled issues when it became a weekly newspaper supplement from 2004 to 2007. The website life. com, originally one of the channels on Time Inc. s Pathfinder service, was for a time in the late 2000s managed as a joint venture with Getty Images under the name See Your World, LLC. On January 30,2012 the LIFE. com URL became a channel on Time. com. When Life was founded in 1883, it was developed as similar to the British magazine and it was published for 53 years as a general-interest light entertainment magazine, heavy on illustrations, jokes and social commentary. The Luce Life was the first all-photographic American news magazine, the magazines role in the history of photojournalism is considered its most important contribution to publishing. Life was wildly successful for two generations before its prestige was diminished by economics and changing tastes, Life was founded January 4,1883, in a New York City artists studio at 1155 Broadway, as a partnership between John Ames Mitchell and Andrew Miller. Mitchell held a 75 per cent interest in the magazine with the remainder by Miller, both men retained their holdings until their deaths. Miller served as secretary-treasurer of the magazine and was very successful managing the side of the operation. Mitchell, a 37-year-old illustrator who used a $10,000 inheritance to invest in the weekly magazine, Mitchell created the first Life name-plate with cupids as mascots, he later drew its masthead of a knight leveling his lance at the posterior of a fleeing devil. Mitchell took advantage of a new printing process using zinc-coated plates. This edge helped because Life faced stiff competition from the humor magazines Judge and Puck. Edward Sandford Martin was brought on as Lifes first literary editor, the motto of the first issue of Life was, While theres Life, theres hope. The new magazine set forth its principles and policies to its readers and we shall try to domesticate as much as possible of the casual cheerfulness that is drifting about in an unfriendly world. The magazine was a success and soon attracted the leading contributors. Among the most important was Charles Dana Gibson, three years after the magazine was founded, the Massachusetts native first sold Life a drawing for $4, a dog outside his kennel howling at the moon. Encouraged by a publisher who was also an artist, Gibson was joined in Life early days by such illustrators as Palmer Cox
Life magazine
–
Cover art for Life, 27 January 1910 issue, illustration by
Coles Phillips.
Life magazine
–
Logo of Life magazine
Life magazine
–
A cover of the earlier Life magazine from 1911
Life magazine
–
1922 cover, "The
Flapper " by F. X. Leyendecker
36.
TV Tropes
–
TV Tropes is a wiki that collects and expands descriptions and examples on various conventions and devices found within creative works. The nature of the site as commentary on pop culture and fiction has attracted attention and critique from several web personalities, the content of the site was published as free content from April 2008. TV Tropes changed its license in July 2012 to only allow noncommercial distribution of its content while continuing to host the prior submissions under the new license and it is privately owned, as of 2016 it publicly lists two owners besides Eddie. It has also used its informal style to describe topics such as science, philosophy, politics, TV Tropes does not have notability standards for the works it covers. The site includes entries on various series and tropes, an article on a work includes a brief summary of the work in question along with a list of associated tropes. Trope pages are the inverse of articles on works, after describing the trope itself, in this way the wiki is fully interconnected through the various connections made between works and their tropes. For example, the trope I Am Spartacus is a type of scene that appears in multiple works. It refers to scenes where a character is shielded from identification by other characters who are claiming to be that particular character. The trope name references a scene in the film Spartacus. This example is included, along with examples from South Park, Power Rangers in Space, not all examples of a trope may be cases where it is played straight. They may also include cases where the trope is parodied, played with, in addition to the tropes, most articles about a work also have a Your Mileage May Vary page with items that are deemed to be subjective. These items are not usually storytelling tropes, but audience reactions which have defined and titled. TV Tropes does not apply the term to a show, that being a subjective opinion about the show, most articles also have various pages within them. Trope description pages are created through a standardized launching system. In which site members, who are referred to as tropers, while going through YKTTW is not necessary to launch a trope, it is strongly recommended in order to strengthen the trope as much as possible. The site has created its own self-referencing meta-trope, known as TV Tropes Will Ruin Your Life, without identifying each trope as it occurs. Also mentioned is that many frequently-contributing community members self-describe themselves as addicted to the site, in the process, this leads to the discovery of entirely new tropes to analyze, edit, and add examples to. In 2011, TV Tropes branched out into production, and launched Echo Chamber
TV Tropes
–
TV Tropes
37.
Foil (literature)
–
In fiction, a foil is a character who contrasts with another character —usually the protagonist— in order to highlight particular qualities of the other character. In some cases, a subplot can be used as a foil to the main plot and this is especially true in the case of metafiction and the story within a story motif. The word foil comes from the old practice of backing gems with foil in order to make them shine more brightly, a foil usually either differs dramatically or is extremely similar but with a key difference setting them apart. The concept of a foil is also widely applied to any comparison that is made to contrast a difference between two things. In Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, the two characters, Dr. Frankenstein and his creature are both together literary foils, functioning to compare one to the other. In Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice, Marys absorption in her studies places her as a foil to her sister Lydia Bennets lively, similarly, in Shakespeares play Julius Caesar, the character Brutus has foils in the two characters Cassius and Mark Antony
Foil (literature)
–
Don Quixote and his sidekick Sancho Panza, as illustrated by
Gustave Doré: the characters' contrasting qualities are reflected here even in their physical appearances
38.
Protagonist
–
A protagonist is the main character in any story, such as a literary work or drama. The protagonist is at the center of the story, typically makes the key decisions, the protagonist usually affects the main characters circumstances as well, as they are often the primary actor propelling the story forward. If a story contains a subplot, or is a made up of several stories. The word protagonist is used notably in stories and forms of literature and culture that contain stories, in those forms the protagonist may simply be the leading actor, or the principal character in the story. The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflict that test the protagonist, thus revealing the strengths, the earliest known examples of protagonist are dated back to Ancient Greece. At first dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus, but then in Poetics, Aristotle describes how a poet named Thespis introduced the idea of having one actor step out and engage in a dialogue with the chorus. This was the invention of tragedy, which occurred about 536 B. C, then the poet Aeschylus, in his plays, introduced a second actor, inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters. Sophocles then wrote plays that required a third actor, euripides play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists. The protagonist of the first half is Phaedra, who dies partway through the play and her stepson, the titular Hippolytus, assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play. In Ibsen’s play The Master Builder, the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness, the young woman, Hilda Wangel, whose actions lead to the death of Solness, is the antagonist. In Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is the protagonist and he is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet, and the audience is invested in that story. The character of Tybalt opposes Romeo’s desires, he is the antagonist, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for the murder of his father, is the protagonist. The antagonist would be the character who most opposes Hamlet, Claudius, in the novel The Catcher in the Rye, the character Holden Caulfield is the protagonist. He is the character, and the reader is invested in his story. Sometimes, a work will have a false protagonist, who may seem to be the protagonist, the character Marion in Alfred Hitchcocks film Psycho is an example. A novel that contains a number of narratives may have a number of protagonists, alexander Solzhenitsyns The First Circle, for example, depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in a gulag camp. Leo Tolstoys War and Peace, depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war
Protagonist
–
In
Shakespeare 's
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Hamlet is the protagonist. He is set in a tragic situation, where the ghost of his dead father urges him to take revenge on his uncle, who had murdered the father. Portrait of Hamlet by William Morris Hunt, oil on canvas, circa 1864.
39.
Plot (narrative)
–
Plot refers to the sequence of events inside a story which affect other events through the principle of cause and effect. The causal events of a plot can be thought of as a series of sentences linked by, Plots can vary from simple structures such as in a traditional ballad to complex interwoven structures sometimes referred to as an imbroglio. The term plot can serve as a verb and refer to a planning future actions in the story. In the narrative sense, the highlights the important points which have important consequences within the story. The term is similar in meaning to the term storyline, english novelist E. M. Forster described plot as the cause-and-effect relationship between events in a story. According to Forster, The king died, and then the queen died, is a story, while The king died, as a result, according to Dibell, the plot can be described numerically as 1→3 while the story can be described as 1→2→3. A story orders events from beginning to end in a time sequence, teri Shaffer Yamada agrees that a plot does not include memorable scenes within a story which do not relate directly to other events but only major events that move the action in a narrative. Another example of a scene which is not part of the plot occurs in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back. A fabula is the events in the world, whereas a syuzhet is a perspective of those events. Formalist followers eventually translated the fabula/syuzhet to the concept of story/plot and this definition is usually used in narratology, in parallel with Forsters definition. The fabula is what happened in chronological order, in contrast, the syuzhet means a unique sequence of discourse that was sorted out by the author. That is, the syuzhet can consist of picking up the events in non-chronological order, for example, fabula is <a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, …, an>, syuzhet is <a5, a1. He also believed that the events of the plot must causally relate to one another as being necessary or probable. Of the utmost importance is the ability to arouse emotion in the psyche of the audience. Acts are connected by two points or turning points, with the first turning point connecting Act I to Act II. The conception of the structure has been attributed to American screenwriter Syd Field who described plot structure in this tripartite way for film analysis. In his Poetics, Aristotle considered plot the most important element of drama—more important than character, for example. A plot must have, Aristotle says, a beginning, a middle, and an end, of the utmost importance to Aristotle is the plots ability to arouse emotion in the psyche of the audience
Plot (narrative)
–
Plot and Story. Plot is the cause‐and‐effect sequence of events in a story.
40.
Climax (narrative)
–
The climax or turning point of a narrative work is its point of highest tension and drama, or it is the time when the action starts during which the solution is given. The climax of a story is a literary element. e. to construct a dramatization, in the play Hippolytus, by the famous Greek playwright, Euripides, the climax arrives when Phaedra hears Hippolytus react badly because of her love for him. That is the moment that Aphrodites curse is fulfilled. An anticlimax is a situation in a plot in which something which would appear to be difficult to solve is solved through something trivial. Another example could involve the protagonist faced with insurmountable odds and ultimately being killed without accomplishing his goal, dramatic structure Literary element Climax as a rhetorical device
Climax (narrative)
–
The death of Caesar in
Shakespeare 's
Julius Caesar is a well-known climax
41.
Cliffhanger
–
A cliffhanger is hoped to ensure the audience will return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma. Some serials end with the caveat To Be Continued, in movie serials and television series the following episode sometimes begins with a recap sequence. Cliffhangers were especially popular in 1920s and 1930s serials when movie theaters filled the cultural niche later primarily occupied by television, Cliffhangers are often used in television series, especially soap operas that end each episode on a cliffhanger. Prior to the early 1980s, season-ending cliffhangers were rare on U. S. television, the first such season-ender on U. S. TV was in the comedy send-up of soap operas Soap in 1978. Cliffhangers were rare on American television before 1980, as television networks preferred the flexibility of airing episodes in any order. The phenomenal success of the 1980 Who shot J. R. Cliffhangers are also used to open the possibility of a character being killed off due to the actor not continuing to play the role. The cliffhanger has become a genre staple, the heavily serialized television drama True Blood has become notorious for cliffhangers. Not only do the seasons conclude with cliffhangers, but almost every episode finishes at a cliffhanger directly after or during a dramatic moment. Sometimes a movie, book, or season of a show will end with the defeat of the main villain before a second. Occasionally an element other than a villain is also used to tease at a sequel, back to back film production Bluma Zeigarnik Vincent Fröhlich, Der Cliffhanger und die serielle Narration. Word Detective Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention Cliffhanger Film Showings
Cliffhanger
–
Poster of the 1914 "
Perils of Pauline ", which popularized the term cliffhanger in the medium of film.
42.
Conflict (narrative)
–
In works of narrative, conflict is the opposition main characters must face to achieve their goals. Traditionally, conflict is a literary element that creates tension. A narrative is not limited to a single conflict, while conflicts may not always resolve in narrative, the resolution of a conflict creates closure, which may or may not occur at a storys end. Conflict in literature refers to the different drives of the characters or forces involved, conflict may be internal or external—that is, it may occur within a characters mind or between a character and exterior forces. Conflict is most visible two or more characters, usually a protagonist and an antagonist/enemy/villain, but can occur in many different forms. A character may as easily find himself or herself in conflict with a force, such as an animal or a weather event. The literary purpose of conflict is to create tension in the story, there may be multiple points of conflict in a single story, as characters may have more than one desire or may struggle against more than one opposing force. When a conflict is resolved and the reader discovers which force or character succeeds, conflicts may resolve at any point in a story, particularly where more than one conflict exists, but stories do not always resolve every conflict. If a story ends without resolving the main or major conflict, open endings, which can serve to ask the reader to consider the conflict more personally, may not satisfy them, but obvious conflict resolution may also leave readers disappointed in the story. The basic types of conflict in fiction have been codified as man against man, man against nature. Although frequently cited, these three types of conflict are not universally accepted, ayn Rand, for instance, argued that man against nature is not a conflict because nature has no free will and thus can make no choices. Man against man conflict involves stories where characters are against each other. The conflict may be direct opposition, as in a gunfight or a robbery and this type of conflict is very common in traditional literature, fairy tales and myths. One example of the man against man conflict is the struggles between the protagonist and the antagonist stepfather in This Boys Life. Other examples include Dorothys struggles with the Wicked Witch of the West in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Man against nature conflict is an external struggle positioning the hero against an animal or a force of nature, such as a storm or tornado or snow. The man against nature conflict is central to Ernest Hemingways The Old Man and the Sea and it is also common in adventure stories, including Robinson Crusoe. Wild not only takes its name from this conflict, but it is also an example, featuring Bear Grylls. With man against self conflict, the struggle is internal and this is a conflict that is usually associated with an internal conflict
Conflict (narrative)
–
Conflict in narrative comes in many forms. "Man versus man", such as is depicted here in the battle between
King Arthur and
Mordred, is particularly common in traditional literature,
fairy tales and
myths.
43.
Deus ex machina
–
Deus ex machina is a Latin calque from Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός, meaning god from the machine. The term was coined from the conventions of Greek tragedy, where a machine is used to bring actors playing gods onto the stage, the machine could be either a crane used to lower actors from above or a riser that brought actors up through a trapdoor. Preparation to pick up the actors was done behind the skene, the idea was introduced by Aeschylus and was used often to resolve the conflict and conclude the drama. Although the device is associated mostly with Greek tragedy, it appeared in comedies. Aeschylus used the device in his Eumenides, but it was with Euripides that it became a stage machine. More than half of Euripides extant tragedies employ a deus ex machina in their resolution, in Alcestis, the eponymous heroine agrees to give up her own life in order to spare the life of her husband, Admetus. At the end, Heracles shows up and seizes Alcestis from Death, restoring her to life, aristophanes play Thesmophoriazusae parodies Euripides frequent use of the crane by making Euripides himself a character in the play and bringing him on stage by way of the mechane. The effect of the device on Greek audiences was a direct, audiences would have a feeling of wonder and astonishment at the appearance of the gods, which would often add to the moral effect of the drama. Shakespeare used the device in As You Like It, Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Cymbeline and it was also used in John Gays The Beggars Opera where the author uses a character to break the action and rewrite the ending as a reprieve of the hanging of MacHeath. Both in Shakespeares and Gays plays the deus ex machina happens with breaking the illusion often in the form of an episodic narrator exposing the play itself. This is different from the use of the deus ex machina in the ancient examples with the coming from a participant in the action in the form of a god. It is natural for the gods to be considered participants and not outside sources because of their privileged position and it is these attributes that allow the Greek gods to believably wrap up and solve the series of events. During the politically turbulent 17th and 18th centuries, the deus ex machina was sometimes used to make a controversial thesis more palatable to the powers of the day. Aristotle was the first to use deus ex machina as a term to describe the technique as a device to resolve the plot of tragedies and it is generally deemed undesirable in writing and often implies a lack of creativity on the part of the author. In H. G. Wellss The War of the Worlds, in the novel Lord of the Flies, the rescue of the savage children by a passing navy officer is viewed by some critics as a deus ex machina. The abrupt ending conveys the terrible fate that would have afflicted the children if the officer had not arrived at that moment. J. R. R. Tolkien coined the term eucatastrophe to refer to a turn of events that ensures the protagonist does not meet some impending fate. He also referred to the Great Eagles that appear in places in The Hobbit
Deus ex machina
–
Deus ex machina in classical theatre: Euripides'
Medea, performed in 2009 in Syracuse, Italy.
44.
Dramatic structure
–
Dramatic structure is the structure of a dramatic work such as a play or film. Many scholars have analyzed dramatic structure, beginning with Aristotle in his Poetics and this article focuses primarily on Gustav Freytags analysis of ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama. In his Poetics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle put forth the idea that A whole is what has a beginning and middle and end. This three-part view of a plot structure prevailed until the Roman drama critic Horace advocated a 5-act structure in his Ars Poetica, renaissance dramatists revived the use of the 8-act structure. Under Freytags pyramid, the plot of a story consists of five parts, exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and dénouement/resolution/revelation/catastrophe. According to Freytag, a drama is divided into five parts, or acts, which refer to as a dramatic arc, exposition, rising action, climax, falling action. Freytags Pyramid can help organize their thoughts and ideas when describing the main problem of the drama, the rising action, the climax. Although Freytags analysis of structure is based on five-act plays, it can be applied to short stories and novels as well. Exposition can be conveyed through dialogues, flashbacks, characters thoughts, background details, in-universe media, in the rising action, a series of events build toward the point of greatest interest. The rising action of a story is the series of events that immediately after the exposition of the story. These events are generally the most important parts of the story since the entire plot depends on them to set up the climax, the climax is the turning point, which changes the protagonist’s fate. If the story is a comedy and things were going bad for the protagonist, if the story is a tragedy, the opposite state of affairs will ensue, with things going from good to bad for the protagonist, often revealing the protagonists hidden weaknesses. During the falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist, the falling action may contain a moment of final suspense, in which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt. The dénouement comprises events from the end of the action to the actual ending scene of the drama or narrative. Conflicts are resolved, creating normality for the characters and a sense of catharsis, or release of tension and anxiety, etymologically, the French word dénouement is derived from the word dénouer, to untie, from nodus, Latin for knot. It is the unraveling or untying of the complexities of a plot, the comedy ends with a dénouement, in which the protagonist is better off than at the storys outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe, in which the protagonist is worse off than at the beginning of the narrative, in Shakespeares tragedies, the dénouement is usually the death of one or more characters. Freytags analysis was intended to apply to ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama, contemporary dramas increasingly use the fall to increase the relative height of the climax and dramatic impact
Dramatic structure
–
"Freytag's pyramid", symbolizing his theory of dramatic structure
45.
Eucatastrophe
–
For Tolkien, the term appears to have had a thematic meaning that went beyond its literal etymological meaning in terms of form. In his definition as outlined in his 1947 essay On Fairy-Stories, Eucatastrophe has been labelled as a form of deus ex machina, due to both sharing an impossible problem being suddenly resolved. However, differences between the two have also noted, such as its inherent connection to an optimistic view on the unfolding of events in the narrative of the world. In his view, Eucatastrophe can also occur without the use of a deus ex machina, Eucatastrophe has been observed in the climax of The Lord of the Rings. Though victory seems assured for Sauron, the One Ring is permanently destroyed as a result of Gollums attack on Frodo at Mount Doom, another example of eucatastrophe is the recurring role of the eagles as unexpected rescuers throughout Tolkiens writing. Tolkien described Bilbos eucatastrophic emotion at the appearance in The Hobbit as one of the key moments of the book. Happy ending Peripeteia Mazur, Eric Michael, ed. Encyclopedia of Religion, the Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays
Eucatastrophe
–
The prince arrives to break the spell which has kept
Sleeping Beauty and her kingdom asleep for 100 years. A classic and well-known use of eucatastrophe. [
citation needed] Illustration by
Gustave Doré
Eucatastrophe
–
The climax of
The Lord of The Rings, as portrayed by
Ted Nasmith.
46.
Foreshadowing
–
Foreshadowing is a literary device by which an author hints what is to come. Foreshadowing is a device in which an important plot-point is mentioned early in the story. It is used to avoid disappointment and it is also sometimes used to arouse the reader. A hint that is designed to mislead the audience is referred to as a red herring, a similar device is the flashforward. However, foreshadowing only hints at a possible outcome within the confinement of a narrative, a flashforward is a scene that takes the narrative forward in time from the current point of the story in literature, film, television, and other media. Foreshadowing is sometimes employed through characters explicitly predicting the future, by analogy to foreshadowing, the literary critic Gary Morson described its opposite, sideshadowing. Found notably in the novels of Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. This, according to Morson, increases the verisimilitude of the fiction because the audience knows that in life, unlike in novels. This sense of structurelessness invites the audience to interpret and question the events that actually do come to pass
Foreshadowing
–
In this
Arthur Rackham illustration, the
Rhinemaidens warn
Siegfried of a curse, foreshadowing the disasters of
Götterdämmerung.
47.
Flashforward
–
FlashForward is a U. S. television series, adapted for television by Brannon Braga and David S. Goyer, which aired for one season on ABC between September 24,2009, and May 27,2010. It is based on the 1999 novel Flashforward by Canadian science fiction writer Robert J. Sawyer, during this blackout, people see what appear to be visions of their lives on April 29,2010, a global flashforward six months into the future. In May 2010, ABC announced that FlashForward had been cancelled, the season finale for Season 1 was shot before it was known the show would be cancelled and showed another flashforward event happening more than 20 years in the future. This more closely followed the book, which featured a flashforward that viewed 21.5 years into the future. Meanwhile, personal revelations contained within the flashforwards occupy the lives of the principal characters. Other characters grapple with similarly unexpected or surprising revelations in their flashforwards, joseph Fiennes as FBI Special Agent Mark Benford – Marks flashforward guides the investigation of the events of October 6. The husband of Olivia Benford and father of Charlie Benford, he is a recovering alcoholic, in his flashforward, he sees himself working on the Mosaic investigation when armed masked men enter his office. He also sees himself drinking, which he tries to hide from his wife, john Cho as FBI Special Agent Demetri Noh – Mark Benfords partner at the FBI. He had no flashforward and fears that means he will die and he is engaged to Zoey, a lawyer who believed her flashforward was about their wedding until she realized it was possibly his funeral. Demetri survives March 15, the date he was supposed to have been killed, vance as FBI Assistant Director Stanford Wedeck – head of the FBI Los Angeles field office. He oversees Mark Benfords team and the October 6 investigation and his flashforward shows him on a toilet reading a newspaper. Sonya Walger as Dr. Olivia Benford – Marks wife and a surgeon at a major hospital. In her flashforward, she is involved with Dr. Lloyd Simcoe. They meet when she treats his son, Dylan. Christine Woods as FBI Special Agent Janis Hawk – works at the Los Angeles field office as part of Mark Benfords team, in her vision she was pregnant and having a sonogram, which she finds hard to believe because she is single and a lesbian. She is in charge of watching over Simon later in the series, in Queen Sacrifice, it was revealed that she is a mole reporting to those responsible for the blackout to keep tabs on the FBIs investigation. Jack Davenport as Dr. Lloyd Simcoe – an academic at Stanford, lloyds estranged wife and mother of his son died during the blackout. He has a son with autism, Dylan, who knows Olivia and his research partner is Simon Campos, and Lloyd believes they are responsible for the blackout but, according to Simons uncle, Teddy, they only amplified it, causing it to affect the whole world
Flashforward
–
FlashForward
48.
Frame story
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The frame story leads readers from a first story into another, smaller one within it. The frame story may also be used to allow readers to understand a part of the story and this is not however, to be mixed up with a narrative structure or character personality change. The earliest known frame stories are preserved on the ancient Egyptian Papyrus Westcar. This form gradually spread west through the centuries and became popular, giving rise to such classic frame tale collections as the One Thousand and One Nights, The Decameron, and Canterbury Tales. This format had flexibility in that various narrators could retain the stories they liked or understood, while dropping ones they didnt and this occurred particularly with One Thousand and One Nights, where different versions over the centuries have included different stories. A typical example of a story is One Thousand and One Nights. Many of Scheherazades tales are also frame stories, such as Tale of Sindbad the Seaman and Sindbad the Landsman, extensive use of this device is found in Ovids Metamorphoses, where the stories nest several deep, to allow the inclusion of many different tales in one work. Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights uses this device to tell the story of Heathcliff and Catherine. Her sister Anne also uses this device in her epistolary novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, the main heroines diary is framed by the narrators story and letters. Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein is another example of a book with multiple framed narratives. Frame stories have appeared in other media, such as comic books. Neil Gaimans comic book series The Sandman featured a story arc called Worlds End which consisted of frame stories, frame stories are often organized as a gathering of people in one place for the exchange of stories. Each character tells his or her tale, and the tale progresses in that manner. Sometimes only one exists, and in this case there might be different levels of distance between the reader and author. In this mode, the tale can become more fuzzy. Here the frame includes the world of the imagined Crayon, his stories, essentially, it is a frame story without a story to be framed. When there is a story, the frame story is used for other purposes – chiefly to position the readers attitude toward the tale. One common one is to draw attention to the narrators unreliability, by explicitly making the narrator a character within the frame story, the writer distances himself from the narrator, he may also characterize the narrator to cast doubt on his truthfulness
Frame story
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The Return of
Rip Van Winkle, painting by
John Quidor, 1849
49.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. This specious validity of the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error, for the prophet will cite the actual course of events as proof that he was right from the very beginning. Self-fulfilling prophecy are effects in behavioral confirmation effect, in which behavior, influenced by expectations and it is complementary to the self-defeating prophecy. Mertons concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy stems from the Thomas theorem, according to Thomas, people react not only to the situations they are in, but also, and often primarily, to the way they perceive the situations and to the meaning they assign to these perceptions. Therefore, their behaviour is determined in part by their perception, once people convince themselves that a situation really has a certain meaning, regardless of whether it actually does, they will take very real actions in consequence. Merton took the concept a step further and applied it to recent social phenomena, in his book Social Theory and Social Structure, he conceives of a bank run at the fictional Last National Bank, over which Cartwright Millingville presides. It is a bank, and Millingville has run it honestly. As a result, like all banks, it has some liquid assets, then one day, a large number of customers comes to the bank at once—the exact reason is never made clear. Customers, seeing so many others at the bank, begin to worry, false rumours spread that something is wrong with the bank and more customers rush to the bank to try to get some of their money out while they still can. At the beginning of the day—the last one for Millingvilles bank—the bank was not insolvent, but the rumour of insolvency caused a sudden demand of withdrawal of too many customers, which could not be answered, causing the bank to become insolvent and declare bankruptcy. This is peculiar to human affairs and it is not found in the world of nature, untouched by human hands. Predictions of the return of Halleys comet do not influence its orbit, but the rumoured insolvency of Millingvilles bank did affect the actual outcome. The prophecy of collapse led to its own fulfilment, merton concluded that the only way to break the cycle of self-fulfilling prophecy is by redefining the propositions on which its false assumptions are originally based. The expectations theory of inflation played a role in Paul Volckers actions during his tenure as the Chairman of the Federal Reserve in combating the stagflation of the 1970s. I had called this the Oedipus effect, because the oracle played a most important role in the sequence of events led to the fulfilment of its prophecy. … For a time I thought that the existence of the Oedipus effect distinguished the social from the natural sciences, but in biology, too—even in molecular biology—expectations often play a role in bringing about what has been expected. An early precursor of the concept appears in Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, During many ages, examples abound in studies of cognitive dissonance theory and the related self-perception theory, people will often change their attitudes to come into line with what they profess publicly. In the United States the concept was broadly and consistently applied in the field of education reform
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Oedipus in the arms of
Phorbas.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Sociology
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Romulus and Remus feeding from a wolf.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Krishna playing his flute with
Radha.
