1.
Clifden Suspension Bridge
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The Clifden Suspension Bridge is a historic suspension bridge near Clifden, New Zealand. Built in 1899, it spans the Waiau River and is 111.5 m long and it is sometimes called the Iron Bridge. The bridge has been accessible to pedestrians only since 1978, the safety issues were identified after a routine inspection of the bridge after an earthquake the previous year. After repairs, the bridge was re-opened to pedestrians in November 2013, the bridge, constructed of twenty-seven steel cables attached to concrete pillars, still has its historic wooden decking. It is listed as a Category I Historic Place by Heritage New Zealand
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
River Avon, Bristol
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The River Avon /ˈeɪvən/ is an English river in the south west of the country. To distinguish it from a number of rivers of the same name. The name Avon is a cognate of the Welsh word afon, the Avon rises just north of the village of Acton Turville in South Gloucestershire, before flowing through Wiltshire. In its lower reaches from Bath to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth near Bristol, the Avon is the 19th longest river in the UK at 75 miles although there are just 19 miles as the crow flies between the source and its mouth in the Severn Estuary. The catchment area is 2,220 square kilometres, the name Avon is a cognate of the Welsh word afon river, both being derived from the Common Brittonic abona, river. River Avon, therefore, literally means River River, several other English and Scottish rivers share the name, the County of Avon that existed from 1974 to 1996 was named after the river, and covered Bristol, Bath, and the lower Avon valley. The Avon rises east of the town of Chipping Sodbury in South Gloucestershire, running a somewhat circular path, the river drains east and then south through Wiltshire. Its first main settlement is the village of Luckington, two miles inside the Wiltshire border, and then on to Sherston, at Malmesbury it joins up with its first major tributary, the Tetbury Avon, which rises just north of Tetbury in Gloucestershire. This tributary is known locally as the Ingleburn, which in Old English means English river, here, the two rivers almost meet but their path is blocked by a rocky outcrop of the Cotswolds, almost creating an island for the ancient hilltop town of Malmesbury to sit on. Upstream of this confluence the river is referred to as the River Avon to distinguish it from the Tetbury Branch. This was supplemented in Norman times by the bridge that still stands today. The Norman side is upstream, and has pointed arches, the side has curved arches. The Town Bridge and Chapel is a grade I listed building and it was originally a Packhorse bridge, but widened in the 17th century by rebuilding the western side. On the bridge stands a building which was originally a chapel. The Avon Valley between Bradford on Avon and Bath is a classic example of a valley where four forms of ground transport are found, road, rail, river. The river passes under the Avoncliff and Dundas Aqueducts and at Freshford is joined by the Somerset River Frome, Avoncliff Aqueduct was built by John Rennie and chief engineer John Thomas, between 1797 and 1801. The aqueduct consists of three arches and is 110 yards long with an elliptical arch of 60 ft span with two side arches each semicircular and 34 ft across, all with V-jointed arch stones. The spandrel and wing walls are built in courses of ashlar masonry
4.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
5.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
6.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
7.
Avon Gorge
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The Avon Gorge is a 1. 5-mile long gorge on the River Avon in Bristol, England. The gorge runs south to north through a limestone ridge 1.5 miles west of Bristol city centre, the gorge forms the boundary between the unitary authorities of North Somerset and Bristol, with the boundary running along the south bank. As Bristol was an important port, the gorge formed a gateway to the city. On the east of the gorge is the Bristol suburb of Clifton, and The Downs, to the west of the gorge is Leigh Woods, the name of both a village and the National Trust forest it is situated in. There are three Iron Age hill forts overlooking the gorge, as well as an observatory, the Clifton Suspension Bridge, an icon of Bristol, crosses the gorge. The gorge cuts through a ridge mainly of limestone, with some sandstone and this particular ridge runs from Clifton to Clevedon,10 miles away on the Bristol Channel coast, although limestone is found throughout the Bristol area. The fossil shells and corals indicate that the formed in shallow tropical seas in the Carboniferous,350 million years ago. For a long time it was unclear what caused the Avon to cut through the limestone ridge, rather than run south west through the Ashton Vale towards Weston-super-Mare. However, Bristol was at the edge of glaciation during the last ice age. At the Clifton Suspension Bridge the Gorge is more than 700 feet wide and 300 feet deep, in the 18th century the gorge was quarried to produce building stone for the city. Stone was taken by boat into the floating harbour, in the 19th century celestine was discovered in Leigh Court estate and the Miles family authorised quarrying. Between 1880 and 1920 Bristol was producing 90% of the worlds Celestine, Bristol Diamonds, brilliant quartz crystals found in geodes in dolomitic conglomerate in the gorge, were popular souvenirs for visitors to the Hotwells spa in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Quarries on the Bristol side of the gorge are now popular with climbers and are a habitat for Peregrine falcons, the steep walls of the gorge support some rare fauna and flora, including species unique to the gorge. There are a total of 24 rare plant species and two trees, the Bristol and Wilmottss whitebeams. Other notable plants include Bristol rock cress, Bristol onion, spiked speedwell, Autumn squill, because of its steep sides, there are many parts of the gorge on which trees cannot grow, making way for smaller plants. The gorge is home to rare invertebrate species. The gorge has a microclimate around 1 degree warmer than the surrounding land, the steep south-west facing sides receive the afternoon sunlight, but are partially sheltered from the prevailing winds. When winds come from the Bristol Channel in the north west they may be funnelled into the gorge, creating harsh, the steep gorge walls make an ideal habitat for peregrine falcons, with a plentiful supply of food nearby in the form of pigeons and sea gulls
8.
Clifton, Bristol
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Clifton is both a suburb of Bristol, England, and the name of one of the citys thirty-five council wards. The Clifton ward also includes the areas of Cliftonwood and Hotwells, other parts of the suburb lie within the ward of Clifton East. Notable places in Clifton include Clifton Suspension Bridge, Clifton Cathedral, Clifton College, The Clifton Club, Bristol Zoo, Goldney Hall, Clifton is an inner suburb of the English port city of Bristol. Clifton was recorded in the Domesday book as Clistone, the name of the village denoting a hillside settlement, until 1898 Clifton St Andrew was a separate civil parish within the Municipal Borough of Bristol. Various sub-districts of Clifton exist, including Whiteladies Road, an important shopping district to the east, and Clifton Village and this area corresponds roughly with the city wards of Clifton and Clifton East, although the former also includes the river side suburb of Hotwells. Clifton is one of the oldest and most affluent areas of the city, much of it having been built with profits from tobacco, grand houses that required many servants were built in the area. Although some were detached or semi-detached properties, the bulk were built as terraces, one famous terrace is the majestic Royal York Crescent, visible from the Avon Gorge below and looking across the Bristol docks. Berkeley Square which was built around 1790 is an example of Georgian architecture, secluded squares include the triangular Canynge Square. The Whiteladies Picture House on Whiteladies Road was converted into offices, Clifton Lido was built in 1850 but closed to the public in 1990, it was redeveloped and opened again to the public in November 2008. Parts of Clifton itself are now in the process of being pedestrianised, Clifton ward, which includes Hotwells, has a population of 10,452 in 5,007 households, according to adjusted figures for the 2001 census. On the same basis, Clifton East ward has a population of 9,538 in 4,741 households, in Clifton ward, 27% of the adult population is in full-time education. Immediately north of Clifton is Durdham Down, a flat and open area. On the western edge of Clifton is Clifton Down, a less open/more wooded area, Clifton is served by Clifton Down railway station on the local Severn Beach railway line, and by frequent bus services from central Bristol. It has road links to the city centre and outer western suburbs, between 1893 and 1934, it was connected to Hotwells by the Clifton Rocks Railway. G. Grace - cricketer and surgeon Francis Greenway - renowned Australian architect and designer of The Clifton Club John Grimshaw - founder of Sustrans, the song Clifton in the Rain by Al Stewart appears on his first album Bed-Sitter Images. The song 32 West Mall, which appeared on the 1971 album Stackridge was named after the flat that the band shared as their headquarters at 32 West Mall in 1970. The 1978 childrens paranormal drama The Clifton House Mystery – produced by HTV, was set in the Clifton area, the plot revolved around a family moving into an old house, and subsequently finding a skeleton of a long-dead person in a hidden room. After some unexplained incidents, they convinced that a ghost connected in some way with the Bristol Riots of 1831 is haunting the house
9.
Leigh Woods, Somerset
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Leigh Woods is a village in the North Somerset district of Somerset, United Kingdom. It is just outside the boundary of the city of Bristol, the village is located to the south of Leigh Woods National Nature Reserve. It is situated at the end of the Clifton Suspension Bridge. Houses in varying styles were built from the mid-1860s until the First World War, styles adopted included Italian, neo-Jacobean, Scottish baronial, Swiss chalet, Modern glass buildings, Domestic Revival and Arts and Crafts. The village is in the parish of Long Ashton. The church of St Mary the Virgin was designed by the architect John Medland and built in 1891
10.
North Somerset
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North Somerset is a unitary authority area in England. Its area covers part of the county of Somerset but it is administered independently of the non-metropolitan county. Its administrative headquarters is in the hall in Weston-super-Mare. North Somerset borders the local government areas of Bristol, Bath and North East Somerset, Mendip, North Somerset contains the parliamentary constituencies of Weston-super-Mare and North Somerset. Between 1 April 1974 and 31 March 1996, it was the Woodspring district of the county of Avon, the district of Woodspring was formed from the municipal boroughs of Weston-super-Mare, Clevedon and Portishead urban districts, Long Ashton Rural District, and part of Axbridge Rural District. There remained some doubt as to whether the council had validly changed the name to North Somerset. North Somerset unitary council is elected every four years, with currently 61 councillors being elected at each election, since the first election to the unitary authority in 1995, the council has either been under Conservative party control, or no party has held a majority. Lawrence, Winford, Winscombe, Worle, Wraxall, Wrington Yatton North Somersets natural environment, pauls Church, Kewstoke Woodspring Priory North Somersets economy is traditionally based on agriculture, including sheep raised for wool on the Mendip Hills and dairy farming in the valleys. This is celebrated at the annual North Somerset Show, during the Georgian era tourism became a significant economic sector in the coastal towns, most notably Weston-super-Mare which grew from a small village to a large resort town. Though tourism declined in the mid to late-20th century, in common with most British coastal resorts, this sector of the economy has stabilised. In the 19th century the port city of Bristol found that modern ships had outgrown the narrow river approach. The first of these was Portishead Dock, which handled coal from South Wales, the newer Royal Portbury Dock is noted for the large volume of car imports. The population of North Somerset has doubled since the 1950s and is predicted to rise by 6,184 or 3. 0% to 2011 and by 17% to 2026. Whilst the proportion of people in North Somerset who are under 45 is lower than the national average, conversely North Somerset has a 4. 2% higher percentage of older people than the rest of England and Wales. This disparity increases with age with the percentage of the population over 75 years almost 30% higher than the national average, resulting in a relatively aged population. In 2001 there were 134,132 people of working age living in North Somerset and 91,767 were in employment and this is very close to the economic activity rate of the West of England sub-region which was 68. 8% in the 2001 census. The 2001 census stated that 1. 38% of North Somerset residents identified themselves as belonging to an ethnic group. The Unitary Authority of North Somerset, provides support for 78 schools, Weston College is the main provider of further education in the area
11.
Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a toll, or fee. The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water, as boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it. The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, using interest on its capital assets, the trust now owns and runs all seven central London bridges at no cost to taxpayers or users. In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid-19th century, in some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Peters and Kramer observed that. little research has been done to quantify the impact of collection on society as a whole. And therefore they published an analysis of the Total Societal Cost associated with toll collection as a means of taxation. TSC is the sum of administrative, compliance, fuel and pollution costs, in 2000 they estimated it to be $56,914,732, or 37. 3% of revenue collected. Nakamura and Kockelman show that tolls are by nature regressive, shifting the burden of taxation disproportionately to the poor and middle classes. Electronic toll collection, branded under names such as EZ-Pass, SunPass, IPass, FasTrak, Treo, GoodToGo, electronic tolling proposals that represented the shadow price of electronic toll collection may have misled decision makers. Consumers have additionally endured an increased administrative burden associated with paying toll bills, additionally, visitors to a region may incur e-toll tag fees imposed by their rental car company. The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 identified and attempted to address a problem associated with the government collection of information. Approvals were to be secured by government agencies before promulgating a paper form, website, however, the act did not anticipate and thus address the consumer burden associated with funding infrastructure via electronic toll collection instead of through more traditional forms of taxation. In some instances, tolls have been removed after retirement of the toll revenue bonds issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility, sometimes citizens revolt against toll plazas, as was the case in Jacksonville, Florida. Tolls were in place on four bridges crossing the St. Johns River and these tolls paid for the respective bridges as well as many other highway projects. As Jacksonville continued to grow, the tolls created bottlenecks on the roadway, in 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate all the toll booths and replace the revenue with a ½ cent sales tax increase. In 1989, the booths were removed,36 years after the first toll booth went up. In Scotland, the Scottish Parliament purchased the Skye Bridge from its owners in late 2004, in 2004, the German government cancelled a contract with the Toll Collect syndicate after much negative publicity
12.
William Henry Barlow
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William Henry Barlow FRS FRSE FICE MIMechE was an English civil engineer of the 19th century, particularly associated with railway engineering projects. Barlow was involved in engineering enterprises. He was engineer for the Midland Railway on its London extension, with John Hawkshaw, he completed Isambard Kingdom Brunels Clifton Suspension Bridge. Following the Tay Bridge disaster he sat on the commission investigated the causes. Barlow was also an inventor and experimenter, patenting a design for a rail and carrying out investigations on the use and design of steel structures. Barlow was born on 10 May 1812 in Woolwich, Kent, the son of mathematician and physicist Professor Peter Barlow, William Barlow was the younger brother of Peter William Barlow. After a private education, Barlow began to study civil engineering with his father at the age of sixteen, after a year he, went on to a pupillage at the machinery department of the Royal Navys Woolwich Dockyard close to his family home. He then worked at the London Docks for Henry Robinson Palmer, the couple had four sons and two daughters. Their son Crawford Barlow became an engineer and was in practice with his father. From 1832, he spent six years working as an engineer in Constantinople, Turkey, helping build a factory on behalf of machine tool manufacturers Maudslay. He also produced a report for the Turkish government on lighthouses in the Bosphorus, for his services to the Turkish government he was awarded the Order of Nishan Iftikhar. Barlow returned to Britain in 1838 to take up a post as assistant engineer on the Manchester, in 1842, he joined the Midland Counties Railway as resident engineer for the section between Rugby and Derby. When the Midland Counties Railway became part of the Midland Railway in 1844, he retained the position, on 1 April 1845, Barlow was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and on 6 June 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. To remove the cost of providing and replacing sleepers, he developed and patented his own design in 1849. It had a wide flanged profile which could be directly on to track ballast without the need for sleepers. Known as the Barlow rail, it was used, especially by the Great Western Railway. In 1857, Barlow left the Midland Railway to form his own consultant engineering practice in London and its 702-foot span was the longest in Britain at the time. To deal with the site and the need to cross the Regents Canal a short distance to the north
13.
John Hawkshaw
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Sir John Hawkshaw FRS FRSE MICE, was an English civil engineer. He served as President of the Institute of Civil Engineers 1862-63 and his most noteworthy work is the Severn Tunnel. He was born in Leeds, Yorkshire, the son of Henry Hawkshaw, but the climate there was more than his health could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to England. In 1845 he became engineer to the Manchester and Leeds Railway, and in 1847 to its successor. One such was the Manchester and Southport line surveyed by his associate Clement Wilks, in 1850 he moved to London and began to practise as a consulting engineer, at first alone, but subsequently in partnership with Harrison Hayter. In that capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature, in addition, many railway works claimed his attention in all parts of the world—Germany, Russia, India, Mauritius, etc. The construction of canals was another branch of engineering in which he was actively engaged, in 1862 he became engineer of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in the succeeding year he may fairly be said to have been the saviour of the Suez Canal. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the inquiry, and it was because his report was entirely favourable that Ferdinand de Lesseps was able to say at the ceremony that to him he owed the canal. Sir John Hawkshaw also had an experience in constructing harbours and docks, in river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage, in water-supply. Subsequently, however, he convinced that the tunnel would not be to the advantage of Great Britain. Following the inundation of the working in 1879, he employed Thomas A. Walker as lead contractor to complete the work. He also designed the famous Puerto Madero, the port of Buenos Aires, collaborating with Thomas A. Walker, the works started its construction in 1885 and was finished in 1898. In 1835 he married Ann Jackson and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1855. In 1875 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and his proposers were David Stevenson, James Leslie, Thomas Stevenson and Henry Charles Fleeming Jenkin. He served as president of the Institution of Civil Engineers between December 1861 and December 1863 and he was elected an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1880. He died in London on 2 June 1891 and his son, John Clarke Hawkshaw was born in 1841 and was also a civil engineer. A JD Wetherspoon pub located within Cannon Street station is named The Sir John Hawkshaw and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hawkshaw, Sir John
14.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
15.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
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Wrought iron
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Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
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Bristol riots
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The Bristol riots refer to a number of significant riots in the city of Bristol in England. In 1794 the populace of Bristol were said to be apt to collect in mobs on the slightest occasions,11 people were killed and 45 injured, making it one of the worst massacres of the 18th century in England. Bristol had been represented in the House of Commons since 1295, local magistrate Sir Charles Wetherell, a strong opponent of the Bill, visited Bristol to open the new Assize Courts, on 29 October. He threatened to imprison participants in a disturbance going on outside, the magistrate escaped in disguise but the mayor and officials were besieged in the Mansion-house. Work on the Clifton Suspension Bridge was halted and Isambard Kingdom Brunel was sworn in as a special constable, Brereton did not wish to incite the crowd and even ordered the squadron from the 14th out of the city after they had successfully dispersed a crowd. Four rioters were killed and 86 wounded, although more are believed to have perished in the fires set by the rioters. Along with the commander of the 3rd Dragoons troop, Captain Warrington, Brereton was later court-martialled for leniency, approximately 100 of those involved were tried in January 1832 by Chief Justice Tindal. Four men were hanged despite a petition of 10,000 Bristolian signatures, the mayor, Pinney, was tried for negligence but exonerated. On 23 February 1932 some 3,000 unemployed engaged in running battles with the police as they tried to march down to the city centre, Police baton-charged protesters outside Trinity police station and along Old Market. It is unclear why the riot started either due to the police ripping a customers trousers and refusing to pay, the riot continued for many hours and caused large amounts of damage including a Lloyds Bank and post office. Several fire engines and twelve cars were damaged along with the shops. The next day the Daily Telegraph headlined with,19 Police Hurt in Black Riot, 7–9 May 1987, Beginning of three days of clashes with the cops in St Pauls, Bristol. On the 9 May,2 cops are injured when their car is attacked by stones. On 16 July 1992 there was a riot in Hartcliffe estate after two men who had stolen a police motorbike were killed in a chase with a police patrol car. The disturbance lasted for 3 days, Police were stoned and many shops in the Symes Avenue shopping centre were attacked and destroyed. On the evening of 21 April 2011, immediately before the Easter Bank Holiday weekend, the nights operation cost around £465,000 and involved 160 officers from 12 different forces, including Avon & Somerset. The riot followed a raid by police on a squat named Telepathic Heights, a protest ensued, and the police withdrew, however at 9 pm that evening, riot police blockaded the area and entered the squat. A crowd quickly gathered, with approximately 300 people defending the squat, the reason for the operation given by the police was that they held intelligence that petrol bombs were on the premises designated for the Tesco development opposite
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Old Red Sandstone
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The Old Red Sandstone is an assemblage of rocks in the North Atlantic region largely of Devonian age. It extends in the east across Britain, Ireland and Norway and it also extends northwards into Greenland and Svalbard. In Britain it is a unit to which stratigraphers accord supergroup status. For convenience the short version of the term, ORS is often used in literature on the subject, the term was coined to distinguish the sequence from the younger New Red Sandstone which also occurs widely throughout Britain. The body of rock, or facies, is dominated by sediments and conglomerates at its base. Many fossils are found within the rocks, including fishes, arthropods. The rocks may appear paleontologically barren to amateur geologists but careful study, particularly with a fossil hunter. Rocks of this age were also laid down in southwest England though these are of marine origin and are not included within the Old Red Sandstone. Accordingly, local names were devised and these remain in use to some extent today though there is an increasing use of international stage names. Thus in the Anglo-Welsh Basin, there are frequent references to the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian and Farlovian stages in the literature, the existence of a number of distinct sedimentary basins throughout Britain has been established. The Orcadian Basin extends over an area of North East Scotland. It encompasses the Moray Firth and adjoining areas, Caithness, Orkney. South of the Moray Firth, two distinct sub-basins are recognised at Turriff and at Rhynie, the sequence is more than 4 km thick in parts of Shetland. There is an outcrop along the Highland Boundary Fault from Stonehaven on the North Sea coast to Helensburgh. A more disconnected series of outcrops occur along the line of the Southern Uplands Fault from Edinburgh to Girvan, Old Red Sandstone often occurs in conjunction with conglomerate formations, one such noteworthy cliffside exposure being the Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve, Kincardineshire. A series of outcrops occur from East Lothian southwards through Berwickshire, huttons famous unconformity at Siccar Point occurs within this basin - see History of study below. Outliers in Somerset and north Devon complete the extent of this basin, in the east of the basin, the top of the Raglan Mudstone is marked by a well-developed calcrete, the Bishops Frome Limestone. The lowermost Devonian formation is the St Maughans Formation, itself overlain by the Brownstones Formation though with an intervening Senni Formation over much of the area, the Upper Devonian sequence is rather thinner and comprises a series of formations which are more laterally restricted
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Chain
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A chain is typically made of metal. A chain may consist of two or more links and they are known as roller chains, though there are also non-roller chains such as block chain. Although cisterns no longer work like that, the pull the chain is still encountered to mean flush the toilet. The prevalent modern symbolism is oppression, due to the use for a restriction of the liberty of a human or animal. Chains can also symbolize interconnectivity or interdependence, unicode, in versions 6. x, contains the U+1F517
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Bungee jumping
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Not to be confused with reverse bungee. Bungee jumping is an activity that involves jumping from a structure while connected to a large elastic cord. The thrill comes from the free-falling and the rebound, when the person jumps, the cord stretches and the jumper flies upwards again as the cord recoils, and continues to oscillate up and down until all the kinetic energy is dissipated. The students had come up with the idea after discussing a vine jumping ritual carried out by certain natives of Vanuatu, the jumpers were arrested shortly after, but continued with jumps in the US from the Golden Gate Bridge and the Royal Gorge Bridge, spreading the concept worldwide. By 1982, they were jumping from mobile cranes and hot air balloons, organised commercial bungee jumping began with the New Zealander, A J Hackett, who made his first jump from Aucklands Greenhithe Bridge in 1986. Hackett remains one of the largest commercial operators, with concerns in several countries, several million successful jumps have taken place since 1980. This safety record is attributable to bungee operators rigorously conforming to standards and guidelines governing jumps, such as checking calculations. As with any sport, injuries can occur, and there have been fatalities. A relatively common mistake in fatality cases is to use a cord that is too long, the cord should be substantially shorter than the height of the jumping platform to allow it room to stretch. When the cord becomes taut and then is stretched, the tension in the cord progressively increases, initially the tension is less than the jumpers weight and the jumper continues to accelerate downwards. At some point, the tension equals the weight and the acceleration is temporarily zero. With further stretching, the jumper has an upward acceleration. See also Potential energy for a discussion of the spring constant, the Bloukrans River Bridge was the first bridge to be bungee jumped off in Africa when Face Adrenalin introduced bungee jumping to the African continent in 1990. Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated commercially by Face Adrenalin since 1997, in April 2008 a 37-year-old Durban man, Carl Mosca Dionisio, made bungee jumping history when he jumped off a 30 m tower attached to a bungee cord made entirely of 18,500 condoms. Around 1930, the name used for a rubber eraser. Unlike in modern bungee-jumping, land-divers intentionally hit the ground, a tower 4,000 feet high with a system to drop a car suspended by a cable of best rubber was proposed for the Chicago World Fair, 1892-1893. The car, seating two hundred people, would be shoved from a platform on the tower and then bounce to a stop, the designer engineer suggested that for safety the ground below be covered with eight feet of feather bedding. The proposal was declined by the Fairs organizers, the elastic rope first used in bungee jumping, and still used by many commercial operators, is factory-produced braided shock cord
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Concorde
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Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde is a British-French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner that was operated until 2003. It had a speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 years and it is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially, the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which was operated for a much shorter period. Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation under an Anglo-French treaty, twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and development aircraft. Air France and British Airways were the airlines to purchase. The aircraft was used by wealthy passengers who could afford to pay a high price in exchange for Concordes speed. In the UK, any or all of the type are known simply as Concorde, the type was retired in 2003 after the crash of Air France Flight 4590, in which all passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955, at the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730 and this same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics. Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, the vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be deliberately used to improve low speed performance. Küchemanns and Webers papers changed the nature of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the delta had already used on aircraft prior to this point. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the span, while also offering reasonable take-off. It would also need to have landing gear to produce the required angle of attack while still on the runway. Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present, test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgans reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem
22.
2012 Summer Olympics torch relay
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The 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay was run from 19 May until 27 July, prior to the London 2012 Summer Olympics. The torch bearer selection process was announced on 18 May 2011, as well as touring the United Kingdom the schedule included the three crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and also the Republic of Ireland. The traditional lighting ceremony took place on 10 May at the Temple of Hera, Olympia, the torch travelled around Greece, arriving at the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens on 17 May for the handover ceremony. The UK torch relay lasted 70 days, with 66 evening celebrations, about 8,000 people carried the torch a total distance of about 8,000 miles, starting from Lands End in Cornwall. A wide range of people carried the torch around the country, mostly men and women, military figures and other local heroes from towns. The torch had a day outside of the United Kingdom in Dublin on 6 June, following a three-month tour by LOCOG, local authorities submitted ideas to regional government and LOCOG by May 2010. However some counties such as Somerset declined to put forward ideas citing potential costs of up to £300,000, the start date for the Relay was announced on 26 May 2010, as were the three presenting partners, Coca-Cola, Lloyds TSB and Samsung. The nomination campaign for torchbearers was announced on 18 May 2011, on 16 May a British Airways Airbus A319, with custom gold livery and named The Firefly, flew from Heathrow to Athens to collect the flame. On 18 May the aircraft flew as flight BA2012 from Athens to RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall, there was enough smokeless fuel to last 30 hours. After an overnight stay at RNAS Culdrose, members of 771 Naval Air Squadron took the Flame to Lands End by Sea King helicopter, there the Olympic Cauldron was lit. Olympic sailing star Ben Ainslie ran the first leg of the relay, in the summer of 2010, the Design Council were commissioned to prepare the design brief and begin the search for a design for the Torch and related relay artifacts. With more than 800 designers interested in the project, a short list of 22 was presented to Locog,6 were selected to present designs the selection being made a few months later. The winning design came from Barber Osgerby, led by Edward Barder and their design of the 2012 Olympic Torches was made of two aluminium alloy skin, perforated by 8,000 holes to represent the 8,000 torchbearers who would carry the flame. Technically the holes also helped to dissipate heat without it being conducted down the handle, the triangular shape of torches represented, The three Olympic values – respect, excellence and friendship. The three elements of the Olympic motto – faster, higher, stronger, the three Olympic Games hosted by the United Kingdom. The tri-vision of the 2012 Summer Olympics – sport, education, the gold of the torches represented the qualities of the Olympic Flame – brightness and warmth. The torch stands 80 centimetres high, weighing 800 grams, to realise this award winning design, TECOSIM was responsible for the research, engineering and technical development of the torch and associated relay items including the celebration cauldrons. Computer Aided Engineering was used to various scenarios that the torch might encounter during the relay
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Bristol Bridge
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Bristol Bridge is an old bridge over the floating harbour in Bristol, England, the original course of the River Avon. The bridge is now a grade II listed building, bristols name is derived from the Saxon Brycgstow or Brigstowe, meaning the place of the bridge. However, it is unclear when the first bridge over the Avon was built, the Avon has a high tidal range, so the river could have been forded twice a day. The name may refer to the many smaller bridges over the lesser known River Frome, in the marshy surrounding area. The first stone bridge was built in the 13th century, a chapel with gate crossed the roadway in the centre. A seventeenth century illustration shows that these houses were five stories high, including the attic rooms. At the time of the Civil War the bridge was noted for its community of goldsmiths, houses on the bridge were attractive and charged high rents as they had so much passing traffic, and had plenty of fresh air and waste could be dropped into the river. Its population was perceived to be strongly parliamentarian. In the 1760 a bill to replace the bridge was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth, the commission accepted the design of James Bridges after many long drawn out disputes which are still unclear. Bridges fled to the West Indies in 1763 leaving Thomas Paty to complete it between 1763 and 1768, resentment at the tolls exacted to cross the new bridge occasioned the Bristol Bridge Riot of 1793. The toll houses were turned into shops before they were removed, in the 19th century, the roadway was again congested, so walkways were added on either side, the supporting columns disguising the classical Georgian design. The current metal railings date from the 1960s, before the Second World War, Bristol Bridge was an important transport hub. It was the terminus of routes to Knowle, Bedminster and Ashton Gate. It lost importance when Temple Way was built upstream in the 1930s
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. PMID 8762350. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
