1.
Clifden Suspension Bridge
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The Clifden Suspension Bridge is a historic suspension bridge near Clifden, New Zealand. Built in 1899, it spans the Waiau River and is 111.5 m long and it is sometimes called the Iron Bridge. The bridge has been accessible to pedestrians only since 1978, the safety issues were identified after a routine inspection of the bridge after an earthquake the previous year. After repairs, the bridge was re-opened to pedestrians in November 2013, the bridge, constructed of twenty-seven steel cables attached to concrete pillars, still has its historic wooden decking. It is listed as a Category I Historic Place by Heritage New Zealand
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
River Avon, Bristol
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The River Avon /ˈeɪvən/ is an English river in the south west of the country. To distinguish it from a number of rivers of the same name. The name Avon is a cognate of the Welsh word afon, the Avon rises just north of the village of Acton Turville in South Gloucestershire, before flowing through Wiltshire. In its lower reaches from Bath to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth near Bristol, the Avon is the 19th longest river in the UK at 75 miles although there are just 19 miles as the crow flies between the source and its mouth in the Severn Estuary. The catchment area is 2,220 square kilometres, the name Avon is a cognate of the Welsh word afon river, both being derived from the Common Brittonic abona, river. River Avon, therefore, literally means River River, several other English and Scottish rivers share the name, the County of Avon that existed from 1974 to 1996 was named after the river, and covered Bristol, Bath, and the lower Avon valley. The Avon rises east of the town of Chipping Sodbury in South Gloucestershire, running a somewhat circular path, the river drains east and then south through Wiltshire. Its first main settlement is the village of Luckington, two miles inside the Wiltshire border, and then on to Sherston, at Malmesbury it joins up with its first major tributary, the Tetbury Avon, which rises just north of Tetbury in Gloucestershire. This tributary is known locally as the Ingleburn, which in Old English means English river, here, the two rivers almost meet but their path is blocked by a rocky outcrop of the Cotswolds, almost creating an island for the ancient hilltop town of Malmesbury to sit on. Upstream of this confluence the river is referred to as the River Avon to distinguish it from the Tetbury Branch. This was supplemented in Norman times by the bridge that still stands today. The Norman side is upstream, and has pointed arches, the side has curved arches. The Town Bridge and Chapel is a grade I listed building and it was originally a Packhorse bridge, but widened in the 17th century by rebuilding the western side. On the bridge stands a building which was originally a chapel. The Avon Valley between Bradford on Avon and Bath is a classic example of a valley where four forms of ground transport are found, road, rail, river. The river passes under the Avoncliff and Dundas Aqueducts and at Freshford is joined by the Somerset River Frome, Avoncliff Aqueduct was built by John Rennie and chief engineer John Thomas, between 1797 and 1801. The aqueduct consists of three arches and is 110 yards long with an elliptical arch of 60 ft span with two side arches each semicircular and 34 ft across, all with V-jointed arch stones. The spandrel and wing walls are built in courses of ashlar masonry
4.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
5.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
6.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
7.
Avon Gorge
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The Avon Gorge is a 1. 5-mile long gorge on the River Avon in Bristol, England. The gorge runs south to north through a limestone ridge 1.5 miles west of Bristol city centre, the gorge forms the boundary between the unitary authorities of North Somerset and Bristol, with the boundary running along the south bank. As Bristol was an important port, the gorge formed a gateway to the city. On the east of the gorge is the Bristol suburb of Clifton, and The Downs, to the west of the gorge is Leigh Woods, the name of both a village and the National Trust forest it is situated in. There are three Iron Age hill forts overlooking the gorge, as well as an observatory, the Clifton Suspension Bridge, an icon of Bristol, crosses the gorge. The gorge cuts through a ridge mainly of limestone, with some sandstone and this particular ridge runs from Clifton to Clevedon,10 miles away on the Bristol Channel coast, although limestone is found throughout the Bristol area. The fossil shells and corals indicate that the formed in shallow tropical seas in the Carboniferous,350 million years ago. For a long time it was unclear what caused the Avon to cut through the limestone ridge, rather than run south west through the Ashton Vale towards Weston-super-Mare. However, Bristol was at the edge of glaciation during the last ice age. At the Clifton Suspension Bridge the Gorge is more than 700 feet wide and 300 feet deep, in the 18th century the gorge was quarried to produce building stone for the city. Stone was taken by boat into the floating harbour, in the 19th century celestine was discovered in Leigh Court estate and the Miles family authorised quarrying. Between 1880 and 1920 Bristol was producing 90% of the worlds Celestine, Bristol Diamonds, brilliant quartz crystals found in geodes in dolomitic conglomerate in the gorge, were popular souvenirs for visitors to the Hotwells spa in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Quarries on the Bristol side of the gorge are now popular with climbers and are a habitat for Peregrine falcons, the steep walls of the gorge support some rare fauna and flora, including species unique to the gorge. There are a total of 24 rare plant species and two trees, the Bristol and Wilmottss whitebeams. Other notable plants include Bristol rock cress, Bristol onion, spiked speedwell, Autumn squill, because of its steep sides, there are many parts of the gorge on which trees cannot grow, making way for smaller plants. The gorge is home to rare invertebrate species. The gorge has a microclimate around 1 degree warmer than the surrounding land, the steep south-west facing sides receive the afternoon sunlight, but are partially sheltered from the prevailing winds. When winds come from the Bristol Channel in the north west they may be funnelled into the gorge, creating harsh, the steep gorge walls make an ideal habitat for peregrine falcons, with a plentiful supply of food nearby in the form of pigeons and sea gulls
8.
Clifton, Bristol
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Clifton is both a suburb of Bristol, England, and the name of one of the citys thirty-five council wards. The Clifton ward also includes the areas of Cliftonwood and Hotwells, other parts of the suburb lie within the ward of Clifton East. Notable places in Clifton include Clifton Suspension Bridge, Clifton Cathedral, Clifton College, The Clifton Club, Bristol Zoo, Goldney Hall, Clifton is an inner suburb of the English port city of Bristol. Clifton was recorded in the Domesday book as Clistone, the name of the village denoting a hillside settlement, until 1898 Clifton St Andrew was a separate civil parish within the Municipal Borough of Bristol. Various sub-districts of Clifton exist, including Whiteladies Road, an important shopping district to the east, and Clifton Village and this area corresponds roughly with the city wards of Clifton and Clifton East, although the former also includes the river side suburb of Hotwells. Clifton is one of the oldest and most affluent areas of the city, much of it having been built with profits from tobacco, grand houses that required many servants were built in the area. Although some were detached or semi-detached properties, the bulk were built as terraces, one famous terrace is the majestic Royal York Crescent, visible from the Avon Gorge below and looking across the Bristol docks. Berkeley Square which was built around 1790 is an example of Georgian architecture, secluded squares include the triangular Canynge Square. The Whiteladies Picture House on Whiteladies Road was converted into offices, Clifton Lido was built in 1850 but closed to the public in 1990, it was redeveloped and opened again to the public in November 2008. Parts of Clifton itself are now in the process of being pedestrianised, Clifton ward, which includes Hotwells, has a population of 10,452 in 5,007 households, according to adjusted figures for the 2001 census. On the same basis, Clifton East ward has a population of 9,538 in 4,741 households, in Clifton ward, 27% of the adult population is in full-time education. Immediately north of Clifton is Durdham Down, a flat and open area. On the western edge of Clifton is Clifton Down, a less open/more wooded area, Clifton is served by Clifton Down railway station on the local Severn Beach railway line, and by frequent bus services from central Bristol. It has road links to the city centre and outer western suburbs, between 1893 and 1934, it was connected to Hotwells by the Clifton Rocks Railway. G. Grace - cricketer and surgeon Francis Greenway - renowned Australian architect and designer of The Clifton Club John Grimshaw - founder of Sustrans, the song Clifton in the Rain by Al Stewart appears on his first album Bed-Sitter Images. The song 32 West Mall, which appeared on the 1971 album Stackridge was named after the flat that the band shared as their headquarters at 32 West Mall in 1970. The 1978 childrens paranormal drama The Clifton House Mystery – produced by HTV, was set in the Clifton area, the plot revolved around a family moving into an old house, and subsequently finding a skeleton of a long-dead person in a hidden room. After some unexplained incidents, they convinced that a ghost connected in some way with the Bristol Riots of 1831 is haunting the house
9.
Leigh Woods, Somerset
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Leigh Woods is a village in the North Somerset district of Somerset, United Kingdom. It is just outside the boundary of the city of Bristol, the village is located to the south of Leigh Woods National Nature Reserve. It is situated at the end of the Clifton Suspension Bridge. Houses in varying styles were built from the mid-1860s until the First World War, styles adopted included Italian, neo-Jacobean, Scottish baronial, Swiss chalet, Modern glass buildings, Domestic Revival and Arts and Crafts. The village is in the parish of Long Ashton. The church of St Mary the Virgin was designed by the architect John Medland and built in 1891
10.
North Somerset
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North Somerset is a unitary authority area in England. Its area covers part of the county of Somerset but it is administered independently of the non-metropolitan county. Its administrative headquarters is in the hall in Weston-super-Mare. North Somerset borders the local government areas of Bristol, Bath and North East Somerset, Mendip, North Somerset contains the parliamentary constituencies of Weston-super-Mare and North Somerset. Between 1 April 1974 and 31 March 1996, it was the Woodspring district of the county of Avon, the district of Woodspring was formed from the municipal boroughs of Weston-super-Mare, Clevedon and Portishead urban districts, Long Ashton Rural District, and part of Axbridge Rural District. There remained some doubt as to whether the council had validly changed the name to North Somerset. North Somerset unitary council is elected every four years, with currently 61 councillors being elected at each election, since the first election to the unitary authority in 1995, the council has either been under Conservative party control, or no party has held a majority. Lawrence, Winford, Winscombe, Worle, Wraxall, Wrington Yatton North Somersets natural environment, pauls Church, Kewstoke Woodspring Priory North Somersets economy is traditionally based on agriculture, including sheep raised for wool on the Mendip Hills and dairy farming in the valleys. This is celebrated at the annual North Somerset Show, during the Georgian era tourism became a significant economic sector in the coastal towns, most notably Weston-super-Mare which grew from a small village to a large resort town. Though tourism declined in the mid to late-20th century, in common with most British coastal resorts, this sector of the economy has stabilised. In the 19th century the port city of Bristol found that modern ships had outgrown the narrow river approach. The first of these was Portishead Dock, which handled coal from South Wales, the newer Royal Portbury Dock is noted for the large volume of car imports. The population of North Somerset has doubled since the 1950s and is predicted to rise by 6,184 or 3. 0% to 2011 and by 17% to 2026. Whilst the proportion of people in North Somerset who are under 45 is lower than the national average, conversely North Somerset has a 4. 2% higher percentage of older people than the rest of England and Wales. This disparity increases with age with the percentage of the population over 75 years almost 30% higher than the national average, resulting in a relatively aged population. In 2001 there were 134,132 people of working age living in North Somerset and 91,767 were in employment and this is very close to the economic activity rate of the West of England sub-region which was 68. 8% in the 2001 census. The 2001 census stated that 1. 38% of North Somerset residents identified themselves as belonging to an ethnic group. The Unitary Authority of North Somerset, provides support for 78 schools, Weston College is the main provider of further education in the area
11.
Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a toll, or fee. The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water, as boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it. The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, using interest on its capital assets, the trust now owns and runs all seven central London bridges at no cost to taxpayers or users. In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid-19th century, in some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Peters and Kramer observed that. little research has been done to quantify the impact of collection on society as a whole. And therefore they published an analysis of the Total Societal Cost associated with toll collection as a means of taxation. TSC is the sum of administrative, compliance, fuel and pollution costs, in 2000 they estimated it to be $56,914,732, or 37. 3% of revenue collected. Nakamura and Kockelman show that tolls are by nature regressive, shifting the burden of taxation disproportionately to the poor and middle classes. Electronic toll collection, branded under names such as EZ-Pass, SunPass, IPass, FasTrak, Treo, GoodToGo, electronic tolling proposals that represented the shadow price of electronic toll collection may have misled decision makers. Consumers have additionally endured an increased administrative burden associated with paying toll bills, additionally, visitors to a region may incur e-toll tag fees imposed by their rental car company. The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 identified and attempted to address a problem associated with the government collection of information. Approvals were to be secured by government agencies before promulgating a paper form, website, however, the act did not anticipate and thus address the consumer burden associated with funding infrastructure via electronic toll collection instead of through more traditional forms of taxation. In some instances, tolls have been removed after retirement of the toll revenue bonds issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility, sometimes citizens revolt against toll plazas, as was the case in Jacksonville, Florida. Tolls were in place on four bridges crossing the St. Johns River and these tolls paid for the respective bridges as well as many other highway projects. As Jacksonville continued to grow, the tolls created bottlenecks on the roadway, in 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate all the toll booths and replace the revenue with a ½ cent sales tax increase. In 1989, the booths were removed,36 years after the first toll booth went up. In Scotland, the Scottish Parliament purchased the Skye Bridge from its owners in late 2004, in 2004, the German government cancelled a contract with the Toll Collect syndicate after much negative publicity
12.
William Henry Barlow
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William Henry Barlow FRS FRSE FICE MIMechE was an English civil engineer of the 19th century, particularly associated with railway engineering projects. Barlow was involved in engineering enterprises. He was engineer for the Midland Railway on its London extension, with John Hawkshaw, he completed Isambard Kingdom Brunels Clifton Suspension Bridge. Following the Tay Bridge disaster he sat on the commission investigated the causes. Barlow was also an inventor and experimenter, patenting a design for a rail and carrying out investigations on the use and design of steel structures. Barlow was born on 10 May 1812 in Woolwich, Kent, the son of mathematician and physicist Professor Peter Barlow, William Barlow was the younger brother of Peter William Barlow. After a private education, Barlow began to study civil engineering with his father at the age of sixteen, after a year he, went on to a pupillage at the machinery department of the Royal Navys Woolwich Dockyard close to his family home. He then worked at the London Docks for Henry Robinson Palmer, the couple had four sons and two daughters. Their son Crawford Barlow became an engineer and was in practice with his father. From 1832, he spent six years working as an engineer in Constantinople, Turkey, helping build a factory on behalf of machine tool manufacturers Maudslay. He also produced a report for the Turkish government on lighthouses in the Bosphorus, for his services to the Turkish government he was awarded the Order of Nishan Iftikhar. Barlow returned to Britain in 1838 to take up a post as assistant engineer on the Manchester, in 1842, he joined the Midland Counties Railway as resident engineer for the section between Rugby and Derby. When the Midland Counties Railway became part of the Midland Railway in 1844, he retained the position, on 1 April 1845, Barlow was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and on 6 June 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. To remove the cost of providing and replacing sleepers, he developed and patented his own design in 1849. It had a wide flanged profile which could be directly on to track ballast without the need for sleepers. Known as the Barlow rail, it was used, especially by the Great Western Railway. In 1857, Barlow left the Midland Railway to form his own consultant engineering practice in London and its 702-foot span was the longest in Britain at the time. To deal with the site and the need to cross the Regents Canal a short distance to the north
13.
John Hawkshaw
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Sir John Hawkshaw FRS FRSE MICE, was an English civil engineer. He served as President of the Institute of Civil Engineers 1862-63 and his most noteworthy work is the Severn Tunnel. He was born in Leeds, Yorkshire, the son of Henry Hawkshaw, but the climate there was more than his health could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to England. In 1845 he became engineer to the Manchester and Leeds Railway, and in 1847 to its successor. One such was the Manchester and Southport line surveyed by his associate Clement Wilks, in 1850 he moved to London and began to practise as a consulting engineer, at first alone, but subsequently in partnership with Harrison Hayter. In that capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature, in addition, many railway works claimed his attention in all parts of the world—Germany, Russia, India, Mauritius, etc. The construction of canals was another branch of engineering in which he was actively engaged, in 1862 he became engineer of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in the succeeding year he may fairly be said to have been the saviour of the Suez Canal. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the inquiry, and it was because his report was entirely favourable that Ferdinand de Lesseps was able to say at the ceremony that to him he owed the canal. Sir John Hawkshaw also had an experience in constructing harbours and docks, in river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage, in water-supply. Subsequently, however, he convinced that the tunnel would not be to the advantage of Great Britain. Following the inundation of the working in 1879, he employed Thomas A. Walker as lead contractor to complete the work. He also designed the famous Puerto Madero, the port of Buenos Aires, collaborating with Thomas A. Walker, the works started its construction in 1885 and was finished in 1898. In 1835 he married Ann Jackson and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1855. In 1875 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and his proposers were David Stevenson, James Leslie, Thomas Stevenson and Henry Charles Fleeming Jenkin. He served as president of the Institution of Civil Engineers between December 1861 and December 1863 and he was elected an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1880. He died in London on 2 June 1891 and his son, John Clarke Hawkshaw was born in 1841 and was also a civil engineer. A JD Wetherspoon pub located within Cannon Street station is named The Sir John Hawkshaw and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hawkshaw, Sir John
14.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
15.
Sarah Guppy
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Sarah Guppy, née Beach was an English inventor who contributed to the design of Britains infrastructure including the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, and developed several domestic products. Sarah Maria Beach was born in Birmingham, England, and baptised in November 1770 and she married Samuel Guppy in 1795. In 1811 she patented the first of her inventions, a method of making safe piling for bridges, Thomas Telford asked her for permission to use her patented design for suspension bridge foundations, and she granted it to him free of charge. As a friend of Isambard Kingdom Brunel and his family she became involved in the Great Western Railway, writing to the directors with ideas, in 1841 she wrote a letter recommending planting willows and poplars to stabilise embankments. She continued to offer technical advice despite the fact that, as she wrote, the family took out 10 patents in the first half of the nineteenth century, including a method of keeping ships free of barnacles that led to a government contract worth £40,000. After marrying Bristol merchant Samuel Guppy they lived in Queen Square and Prince Street, the couple had six children, including Thomas Richard, Grace and Sarah. Brunel painted a portrait of the younger Sarah Guppy c, in 1837 the widowed Sarah, now 67, married Richard Eyre Coote,28 years her junior. For a while they lived at Arnos Court, Brislington, but Richard ran through his wifes money at a rapid rate, spending on horses. Sarah moved into 7 Richmond Hill, Clifton in 1842 and she bought the land opposite the house for the benefit of Clifton residents and it still remains green space
16.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
17.
Wrought iron
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Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
18.
Bristol riots
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The Bristol riots refer to a number of significant riots in the city of Bristol in England. In 1794 the populace of Bristol were said to be apt to collect in mobs on the slightest occasions,11 people were killed and 45 injured, making it one of the worst massacres of the 18th century in England. Bristol had been represented in the House of Commons since 1295, local magistrate Sir Charles Wetherell, a strong opponent of the Bill, visited Bristol to open the new Assize Courts, on 29 October. He threatened to imprison participants in a disturbance going on outside, the magistrate escaped in disguise but the mayor and officials were besieged in the Mansion-house. Work on the Clifton Suspension Bridge was halted and Isambard Kingdom Brunel was sworn in as a special constable, Brereton did not wish to incite the crowd and even ordered the squadron from the 14th out of the city after they had successfully dispersed a crowd. Four rioters were killed and 86 wounded, although more are believed to have perished in the fires set by the rioters. Along with the commander of the 3rd Dragoons troop, Captain Warrington, Brereton was later court-martialled for leniency, approximately 100 of those involved were tried in January 1832 by Chief Justice Tindal. Four men were hanged despite a petition of 10,000 Bristolian signatures, the mayor, Pinney, was tried for negligence but exonerated. On 23 February 1932 some 3,000 unemployed engaged in running battles with the police as they tried to march down to the city centre, Police baton-charged protesters outside Trinity police station and along Old Market. It is unclear why the riot started either due to the police ripping a customers trousers and refusing to pay, the riot continued for many hours and caused large amounts of damage including a Lloyds Bank and post office. Several fire engines and twelve cars were damaged along with the shops. The next day the Daily Telegraph headlined with,19 Police Hurt in Black Riot, 7–9 May 1987, Beginning of three days of clashes with the cops in St Pauls, Bristol. On the 9 May,2 cops are injured when their car is attacked by stones. On 16 July 1992 there was a riot in Hartcliffe estate after two men who had stolen a police motorbike were killed in a chase with a police patrol car. The disturbance lasted for 3 days, Police were stoned and many shops in the Symes Avenue shopping centre were attacked and destroyed. On the evening of 21 April 2011, immediately before the Easter Bank Holiday weekend, the nights operation cost around £465,000 and involved 160 officers from 12 different forces, including Avon & Somerset. The riot followed a raid by police on a squat named Telepathic Heights, a protest ensued, and the police withdrew, however at 9 pm that evening, riot police blockaded the area and entered the squat. A crowd quickly gathered, with approximately 300 people defending the squat, the reason for the operation given by the police was that they held intelligence that petrol bombs were on the premises designated for the Tesco development opposite
19.
Old Red Sandstone
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The Old Red Sandstone is an assemblage of rocks in the North Atlantic region largely of Devonian age. It extends in the east across Britain, Ireland and Norway and it also extends northwards into Greenland and Svalbard. In Britain it is a unit to which stratigraphers accord supergroup status. For convenience the short version of the term, ORS is often used in literature on the subject, the term was coined to distinguish the sequence from the younger New Red Sandstone which also occurs widely throughout Britain. The body of rock, or facies, is dominated by sediments and conglomerates at its base. Many fossils are found within the rocks, including fishes, arthropods. The rocks may appear paleontologically barren to amateur geologists but careful study, particularly with a fossil hunter. Rocks of this age were also laid down in southwest England though these are of marine origin and are not included within the Old Red Sandstone. Accordingly, local names were devised and these remain in use to some extent today though there is an increasing use of international stage names. Thus in the Anglo-Welsh Basin, there are frequent references to the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian and Farlovian stages in the literature, the existence of a number of distinct sedimentary basins throughout Britain has been established. The Orcadian Basin extends over an area of North East Scotland. It encompasses the Moray Firth and adjoining areas, Caithness, Orkney. South of the Moray Firth, two distinct sub-basins are recognised at Turriff and at Rhynie, the sequence is more than 4 km thick in parts of Shetland. There is an outcrop along the Highland Boundary Fault from Stonehaven on the North Sea coast to Helensburgh. A more disconnected series of outcrops occur along the line of the Southern Uplands Fault from Edinburgh to Girvan, Old Red Sandstone often occurs in conjunction with conglomerate formations, one such noteworthy cliffside exposure being the Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve, Kincardineshire. A series of outcrops occur from East Lothian southwards through Berwickshire, huttons famous unconformity at Siccar Point occurs within this basin - see History of study below. Outliers in Somerset and north Devon complete the extent of this basin, in the east of the basin, the top of the Raglan Mudstone is marked by a well-developed calcrete, the Bishops Frome Limestone. The lowermost Devonian formation is the St Maughans Formation, itself overlain by the Brownstones Formation though with an intervening Senni Formation over much of the area, the Upper Devonian sequence is rather thinner and comprises a series of formations which are more laterally restricted
20.
Chain
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A chain is typically made of metal. A chain may consist of two or more links and they are known as roller chains, though there are also non-roller chains such as block chain. Although cisterns no longer work like that, the pull the chain is still encountered to mean flush the toilet. The prevalent modern symbolism is oppression, due to the use for a restriction of the liberty of a human or animal. Chains can also symbolize interconnectivity or interdependence, unicode, in versions 6. x, contains the U+1F517
21.
Bungee jumping
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Not to be confused with reverse bungee. Bungee jumping is an activity that involves jumping from a structure while connected to a large elastic cord. The thrill comes from the free-falling and the rebound, when the person jumps, the cord stretches and the jumper flies upwards again as the cord recoils, and continues to oscillate up and down until all the kinetic energy is dissipated. The students had come up with the idea after discussing a vine jumping ritual carried out by certain natives of Vanuatu, the jumpers were arrested shortly after, but continued with jumps in the US from the Golden Gate Bridge and the Royal Gorge Bridge, spreading the concept worldwide. By 1982, they were jumping from mobile cranes and hot air balloons, organised commercial bungee jumping began with the New Zealander, A J Hackett, who made his first jump from Aucklands Greenhithe Bridge in 1986. Hackett remains one of the largest commercial operators, with concerns in several countries, several million successful jumps have taken place since 1980. This safety record is attributable to bungee operators rigorously conforming to standards and guidelines governing jumps, such as checking calculations. As with any sport, injuries can occur, and there have been fatalities. A relatively common mistake in fatality cases is to use a cord that is too long, the cord should be substantially shorter than the height of the jumping platform to allow it room to stretch. When the cord becomes taut and then is stretched, the tension in the cord progressively increases, initially the tension is less than the jumpers weight and the jumper continues to accelerate downwards. At some point, the tension equals the weight and the acceleration is temporarily zero. With further stretching, the jumper has an upward acceleration. See also Potential energy for a discussion of the spring constant, the Bloukrans River Bridge was the first bridge to be bungee jumped off in Africa when Face Adrenalin introduced bungee jumping to the African continent in 1990. Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated commercially by Face Adrenalin since 1997, in April 2008 a 37-year-old Durban man, Carl Mosca Dionisio, made bungee jumping history when he jumped off a 30 m tower attached to a bungee cord made entirely of 18,500 condoms. Around 1930, the name used for a rubber eraser. Unlike in modern bungee-jumping, land-divers intentionally hit the ground, a tower 4,000 feet high with a system to drop a car suspended by a cable of best rubber was proposed for the Chicago World Fair, 1892-1893. The car, seating two hundred people, would be shoved from a platform on the tower and then bounce to a stop, the designer engineer suggested that for safety the ground below be covered with eight feet of feather bedding. The proposal was declined by the Fairs organizers, the elastic rope first used in bungee jumping, and still used by many commercial operators, is factory-produced braided shock cord
22.
Concorde
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Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde is a British-French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner that was operated until 2003. It had a speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 years and it is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially, the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which was operated for a much shorter period. Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation under an Anglo-French treaty, twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and development aircraft. Air France and British Airways were the airlines to purchase. The aircraft was used by wealthy passengers who could afford to pay a high price in exchange for Concordes speed. In the UK, any or all of the type are known simply as Concorde, the type was retired in 2003 after the crash of Air France Flight 4590, in which all passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955, at the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730 and this same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics. Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, the vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be deliberately used to improve low speed performance. Küchemanns and Webers papers changed the nature of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the delta had already used on aircraft prior to this point. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the span, while also offering reasonable take-off. It would also need to have landing gear to produce the required angle of attack while still on the runway. Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present, test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgans reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem
23.
2012 Summer Olympics torch relay
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The 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay was run from 19 May until 27 July, prior to the London 2012 Summer Olympics. The torch bearer selection process was announced on 18 May 2011, as well as touring the United Kingdom the schedule included the three crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and also the Republic of Ireland. The traditional lighting ceremony took place on 10 May at the Temple of Hera, Olympia, the torch travelled around Greece, arriving at the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens on 17 May for the handover ceremony. The UK torch relay lasted 70 days, with 66 evening celebrations, about 8,000 people carried the torch a total distance of about 8,000 miles, starting from Lands End in Cornwall. A wide range of people carried the torch around the country, mostly men and women, military figures and other local heroes from towns. The torch had a day outside of the United Kingdom in Dublin on 6 June, following a three-month tour by LOCOG, local authorities submitted ideas to regional government and LOCOG by May 2010. However some counties such as Somerset declined to put forward ideas citing potential costs of up to £300,000, the start date for the Relay was announced on 26 May 2010, as were the three presenting partners, Coca-Cola, Lloyds TSB and Samsung. The nomination campaign for torchbearers was announced on 18 May 2011, on 16 May a British Airways Airbus A319, with custom gold livery and named The Firefly, flew from Heathrow to Athens to collect the flame. On 18 May the aircraft flew as flight BA2012 from Athens to RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall, there was enough smokeless fuel to last 30 hours. After an overnight stay at RNAS Culdrose, members of 771 Naval Air Squadron took the Flame to Lands End by Sea King helicopter, there the Olympic Cauldron was lit. Olympic sailing star Ben Ainslie ran the first leg of the relay, in the summer of 2010, the Design Council were commissioned to prepare the design brief and begin the search for a design for the Torch and related relay artifacts. With more than 800 designers interested in the project, a short list of 22 was presented to Locog,6 were selected to present designs the selection being made a few months later. The winning design came from Barber Osgerby, led by Edward Barder and their design of the 2012 Olympic Torches was made of two aluminium alloy skin, perforated by 8,000 holes to represent the 8,000 torchbearers who would carry the flame. Technically the holes also helped to dissipate heat without it being conducted down the handle, the triangular shape of torches represented, The three Olympic values – respect, excellence and friendship. The three elements of the Olympic motto – faster, higher, stronger, the three Olympic Games hosted by the United Kingdom. The tri-vision of the 2012 Summer Olympics – sport, education, the gold of the torches represented the qualities of the Olympic Flame – brightness and warmth. The torch stands 80 centimetres high, weighing 800 grams, to realise this award winning design, TECOSIM was responsible for the research, engineering and technical development of the torch and associated relay items including the celebration cauldrons. Computer Aided Engineering was used to various scenarios that the torch might encounter during the relay
24.
Bristol Bridge
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Bristol Bridge is an old bridge over the floating harbour in Bristol, England, the original course of the River Avon. The bridge is now a grade II listed building, bristols name is derived from the Saxon Brycgstow or Brigstowe, meaning the place of the bridge. However, it is unclear when the first bridge over the Avon was built, the Avon has a high tidal range, so the river could have been forded twice a day. The name may refer to the many smaller bridges over the lesser known River Frome, in the marshy surrounding area. The first stone bridge was built in the 13th century, a chapel with gate crossed the roadway in the centre. A seventeenth century illustration shows that these houses were five stories high, including the attic rooms. At the time of the Civil War the bridge was noted for its community of goldsmiths, houses on the bridge were attractive and charged high rents as they had so much passing traffic, and had plenty of fresh air and waste could be dropped into the river. Its population was perceived to be strongly parliamentarian. In the 1760 a bill to replace the bridge was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth, the commission accepted the design of James Bridges after many long drawn out disputes which are still unclear. Bridges fled to the West Indies in 1763 leaving Thomas Paty to complete it between 1763 and 1768, resentment at the tolls exacted to cross the new bridge occasioned the Bristol Bridge Riot of 1793. The toll houses were turned into shops before they were removed, in the 19th century, the roadway was again congested, so walkways were added on either side, the supporting columns disguising the classical Georgian design. The current metal railings date from the 1960s, before the Second World War, Bristol Bridge was an important transport hub. It was the terminus of routes to Knowle, Bedminster and Ashton Gate. It lost importance when Temple Way was built upstream in the 1930s
25.
Tudor architecture
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It is generally not used to refer to the whole period of the Tudor dynasty, but in prestige buildings to the period roughly between 1500 and 1560. It followed the Late Gothic Perpendicular style and was superseded by Elizabethan architecture from about 1560 in domestic building of any pretensions to fashion, in this form the Tudor style long retained its hold on English taste. The four-centered arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature, some of the most remarkable oriel windows belong to this period. Mouldings are more out and the foliage becomes more naturalistic. During the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, many Italian artists arrived in England, their decorative features can be seen at Hampton Court Palace, Layer Marney Tower, Sutton Place, and elsewhere. However, in the reign of Elizabeth I, the influence of Northern Mannerism. Courtiers and other wealthy Elizabethans competed to build houses that proclaimed their status. The Dissolution of the Monasteries redistributed large amounts of land to the wealthy, resulting in a building boom. The building of churches had already slowed somewhat before the English Reformation, after a boom in the previous century. Civic and university buildings became more numerous in the period. Tudor style buildings have features that separate them from Medieval. Castles and smaller manor houses often had moats, portcullises and crenellations designed for archers to stand guard, however, with the arrival of gunpowder and cannons by the time of Henry VI, fortifications like castles became increasingly obsolete. The autumn of 1485 marked the ascension of Henry VII to the throne, until Henrys accession, England had been engaged in the Wars of the Roses that had left the royal coffers in deep trouble-Yorkists had raided the treasury just after the death of Edward IV. Henry Tudor was hellbent on repairing the damage done by decades of war, though this period is better known for the luxuries and excesses of his son and granddaughter, it was actually under Henry VII that the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance began. In the early part of his reign, Henry Tudor favored a site at Sheen, someway down river from London and now known as Richmond Palace, as his primary residence. This had been one of the royal palaces since the reign of Edward II and this burnt to the ground at Christmas 1497, with the royal family in residence, and Henry began a new palace in a version of Renaissance style. This, called Richmond Palace and now completely lost, has described as the first prodigy house. During the reign of Henry VIII, architecture became a pastime of the king
26.
Thomas Paty
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Thomas Paty was a British surveyor, architect and mason working mainly in Bristol. He worked with his sons John Paty and William Paty, Thomas Paty came from a family of builders but little is known of his origins. He was responsible for building many of the 18th century buildings in Bristol and he and his family were involved in the parish life of St Augustines Church and contributed to various charities. The business prospered and spread to South Gloucestershire, Wales and Somerset and it seems to have been successful at a time when other firms collapsed after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and many builders went out of business. They were also involved in the carving of monuments, some as far away as Bury St Edmunds and the West Indies, Thomas Paty was the only one of the trustees of the bridge-building project who was in the building trade. After the bridge was completed, Thomas Paty was involved in the rebuilding of St Nicholas Church which stood beside the end of the bridge. The trustees had set aside £1400 for this but the parish wanted a building, the wooden tower was discovered to be rotten and costs increased. Monument to Thomas Hobby, St. Michaels parish church, Hill, Gloucestershire Monument to Priscilla Thorne, St James Church, Swimbridge, Devon. Monument to Samuel Peach, St. Marys parish church, Olveston, Gloucestershire Monument to Arthur Tucker, St. Michaels parish church, Winterbourne, Gloucestershire 3-10 Bath Street, possibly Ston Easton Park Memorial to M. Humphrys in Church of St Peter, Langley Burrell, Wiltshire. A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600–1840, the Paty Family, Makers of Eighteenth-century Bristol. Gloucestershire, The Vale and the Forest of Dean
27.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
28.
Bristol Harbour
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Bristol Harbour is the harbour in the city of Bristol, England. The harbour covers an area of 70 acres and it is often called the Floating Harbour as the water level remains constant and it is not affected by the state of the tide on the river. Netham Lock in east Bristol is the limit of the harbour. Beyond the lock is a junction, on one arm the navigable River Avon continues upstream to Bath, and on the other arm is the tidal River Avon. The first 1 mile of the harbour, downstream from Netham Lock to Totterdown Basin, is an artificial canal known as the Feeder Canal. Downstream of Totterdown Basin, the floating harbour occupies the natural course of the River Avon. This separation of the harbour and the tidal River Avon allows boats in the harbour to remain floating at low tide, reduces currents and silting. Between Bristol Temple Meads railway station and Hotwells, the harbour, downstream of Bristol Temple Meads railway station, the floating harbour meanders through Bristol city centre, Canons Marsh and Hotwells. At Hotwells, the floating harbour rejoins the tidal River Avon, via a series of locks, Bristol Harbour was the original Port of Bristol, but as ships and their cargo have increased in size, it has now largely been replaced by docks at Avonmouth and Portbury. These are located 7 miles downstream at the mouth of the River Avon, the harbour is now a tourist attraction with museums, galleries, exhibitions, bars and nightclubs. The Bristol Harbour Railway, operated by M Shed, runs between the museum and the Create Centre on some weekends and bank holidays, historic boats are permanently berthed in the harbour. The historic vessels of M Shed museum, which include the steam tug Mayflower, firefloat Pyronaut, a separate cross-harbour ferry carries pedestrians from the ferry landing at the Great Britain to the new harbour inlet opposite. Bristol Packet Boat Trips offer regular tours with commentaries and river cruises on the Tower Belle up the River Avon to Conham, Hanham and Bath. In late July each year, the Bristol Harbour Festival is held, resulting in an influx of boats, including ships, Royal Navy vessels. Bristol grew up on the banks of the Rivers Avon and Frome, saint Augustines Reach became the heart of Bristols docks with its quays and wharfs. The River Avon within the gorge, and the River Severn into which it flows, has tides which fluctuate about 30 feet between high and low water. This means that the river is navigable at high-tide but reduced to a muddy channel at low tide in which ships would often run aground. As early as 1420, vessels from Bristol were regularly travelling to Iceland, after Cabot arrived in Bristol, he proposed a scheme to the king, Henry VII, in which he proposed to reach Asia by sailing west across the north Atlantic
29.
Hotwells
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Hotwells is a district of the English port city of Bristol. It is located to the south of and below the ground of Clifton. The southern entrance to the Avon Gorge, which connects the docks to the sea, the eastern end of the area is at the roundabout where Jacobs Well Road meets Hotwell Road. Hotwells is split between the city wards of Clifton, and Hotwells and Harbourside, Hotwells is approximately 1 mile west of Bristol city centre lying just north of the Floating Harbour and the River Avon. To the north and some 300 feet higher is the suburb of Clifton, much of the built up area was originally salt marsh known as Rownham Mead. Nearly half of Rownham Mead was excavated in the early 19th century to construct the Cumberland Basin, part of the entrance lock system to the city docks. The west of the marks the beginning of the Portway road which connects Bristol to Avonmouth. Hotwells takes its name from the hot springs which bubble up through the rocks of the Avon Gorge underneath the Clifton Suspension Bridge, the springs were documented in 1480 by William Worcester, the 15th century chronicler and antiquary. He described the waters as being milky and as warm as those at Bath, in 1692 the Society of Merchant Venturers leased the springs and a pump room was built. The pump room of 1696 was demolished and replaced by Hotwells House in 1816 which was demolished when the river was widened in 1867. In the Georgian era, Hotwells was developed as a spa including the building of Dowry Square in an attempt to compete with Bath, many visitors came, including the diarist John Evelyn and the travel writer Celia Fiennes, who hunted for Bristol Diamonds in the gorge. The Jacobs Well Theatre, built in 1729, provided entertainment for visitors, despite this, Hotwells never attained the same status as Bath, and eventually the waters were found to be polluted. A new pump room was built in 1822, but were demolished in 1867 to allow for widening of the River Avon, in 1799, the physician Thomas Beddoes opened the Pneumatic Institution in Dowry Square. Free treatment was advertised for those suffering from consumption, asthma, dropsy, obstinate Venereal Complaints, the laboratory superintendent was Humphry Davy, who investigated nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas, using equipment designed by James Watt. Under Davys supervision laughing gas parties were held, attended by such as Robert Southey, Thomas Wedgwood. Grenville Chapel, a Methodist church, was opened in 1839 in an Early English Style building, for many years it was used as a garage and is now housing association managed flats. Hotwells has several of Bristols Grade II* listed buildings, including the Church of Holy Trinity, designed by Cockrell, and Albemarle Row, also listed is the Pump House, formerly the power plant for Bristol Harbours bridges and other machinery, now a public house. Hotwells features in two 18th century novels, the Expedition of Humphry Clinker, by Tobias Smollett has scenes set at the spa
30.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
31.
Interest
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Interest is payment from a borrower or deposit-taking financial institution to a lender or depositor of an amount above repayment of the principal sum. It is distinct from a fee which the borrower may pay the lender or some third party, in the case of savings, the customer is the lender, and the bank plays the role of the borrower. Interest differs from profit, in that interest is received by a lender, whereas profit is received by the owner of an asset, the rate of interest is equal to the interest amount paid or received over a particular period divided by the principal sum borrowed or lent. Compound interest means that interest is earned on prior interest in addition to the principal, due to compounding, the total amount of debt grows exponentially, and its mathematical study led to the discovery of the number e. In practice, interest is most often calculated on a daily, monthly, or yearly basis, according to historian Paul Johnson, the lending of food money was commonplace in Middle Eastern civilizations as early as 5000 BC. The argument that acquired seeds and animals could reproduce themselves was used to justify interest, early Muslims called this riba, translated today as the charging of interest. The First Council of Nicaea, in 325, forbade clergy from engaging in usury which was defined as lending on interest above 1 percent per month, ninth century ecumenical councils applied this regulation to the laity. Catholic Church opposition to interest hardened in the era of scholastics, in the medieval economy, loans were entirely a consequence of necessity and, under those conditions, it was considered morally reproachable to charge interest. For the same reason, interest has often been looked down upon in Islamic civilization, medieval jurists developed several financial instruments to encourage responsible lending and circumvent prohibitions on usury, such as the Contractum trinius. In the Renaissance era, greater mobility of people facilitated an increase in commerce, given that borrowed money was no longer strictly for consumption but for production as well, interest was no longer viewed in the same manner. The first attempt to control interest rates through manipulation of the supply was made by the Banque de France in 1847. The latter half of the 20th century saw the rise of interest-free Islamic banking and finance, a movement that applies Islamic law to financial institutions, some countries, including Iran, Sudan, and Pakistan, have taken steps to eradicate interest from their financial systems. All financial transactions must be asset-backed and it does not charge any interest or fee for the service of lending, in economics, the rate of interest is the price of credit, and it plays the role of the cost of capital. Over centuries, various schools of thought have developed explanations of interest and interest rates, the School of Salamanca justified paying interest in terms of the benefit to the borrower, and interest received by the lender in terms of a premium for the risk of default. In the sixteenth century, Martín de Azpilcueta applied a time preference argument, accordingly, interest is compensation for the time the lender forgoes the benefit of spending the money. On the question of why interest rates are normally greater than zero, in 1770, French economist Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, for the land value to remain positive and finite keeps the interest rate above zero. Adam Smith, Carl Menger, and Frédéric Bastiat also propounded theories of interest rates, in the 1930s, Wicksells approach was refined by Bertil Ohlin and Dennis Robertson and became known as the loanable funds theory. Other notable interest rate theories of the period are those of Irving Fisher, simple interest is calculated only on the principal amount, or on that portion of the principal amount that remains
32.
Clifton Down
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Clifton Down is an area of public open space in Bristol, England, north of the village of Clifton. With its neighbour Durdham Down to the northeast, it constitutes the area known as The Downs, much used for leisure including walking. Clifton Down is the part of the Downs south of Stoke Road, there is an Iron Age hill fort at Clifton Camp on Observatory Hill on the down, and there are remnants of an Iron Age or Roman field system between Ladies Mile and Bristol Zoo. The Roman road from Bath to Sea Mills crossed the Downs near Stoke Road, in the Middle Ages Clifton Down was the commons of pasture for the manor of Clifton. In 1676 and 1686 the manor of Clifton was purchased by the Society of Merchant Venturers, during the 18th century Clifton became a fashionable summer spa, and Clifton Down was increasingly used for recreation. There were also mines in the 18th century, which account for the bumpy surface in the area by Upper Belgrave Road known as the Dumps. A gibbet was erected opposite the top end of Gallows Acre Lane, by the mid-19th century Clifton Down ceased to be used for grazing. Clifton became a place to live, and large houses were built close to Clifton Down. Since 1861 Clifton Down has been managed, with Durdham Down, by the Downs Committee, a joint committee of the Society of Merchant Venturers and Bristol City Council, the committee appoints a Downs Ranger to oversee the Downs. On 20 September 1908 there was a meeting across the road near the tower to support the Suffragette movement. Stone cairns were placed on all open spaces to deter landings of enemy aircraft, in May 1941,32 acres were requisitioned on the east side of Ladies Mile to store military vehicles in six canvas hangars. There was a tank repair area near the Sea Walls,42 acres to the west of Ladies Mile were used from February 1944 to store heavy army equipment. From the southwest corner of Clifton Down, in a known as the Sea Wall, there are panoramic views of the Avon Gorge. Near Clifton village is the site of the Observatory, a tower with a camera obscura at the top. Located close to the observatory is a face of rock that has been used as a slide by generations of Bristolians. This rock slide has become polished and is now an attraction to visitors, a railway tunnel, Clifton Down Tunnel, passes underneath Clifton on the line from Temple Meads to Severn Beach. One portal is in Clifton near Clifton Down railway station, the other in the Avon Gorge far below Clifton Down, there are three air shafts for the tunnel, two in vertical tower form with the third being a horizontal tunnel on the Portway. Part of Clifton Down is used by gay men as a cruising ground, in 2008, there were concerns by some gay men at the removal of vegetation as part of the Avon Gorge Management Plan, on the grounds that this was discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation
33.
Gloucestershire
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Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the fertile valley of the River Severn. The county town is the city of Gloucester, and other towns include Cheltenham, Cirencester, Stroud. Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century, though the areas of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire originally included Bristol, then a small town. The local rural community moved to the city, and Bristols population growth accelerated during the industrial revolution. Bristol became a county in its own right, separate from Gloucestershire and it later became part of the administrative County of Avon from 1974 to 1996. Upon the abolition of Avon in 1996, the north of Bristol became a unitary authority area of South Gloucestershire and is now part of the ceremonial county of Gloucestershire. The official former postal county abbreviation was Glos, rather than the frequently used but erroneous Gloucs. or Glouc. In July 2007, Gloucestershire suffered the worst flooding in recorded British history, the RAF conducted the largest peace time domestic operation in its history to rescue over 120 residents from flood affected areas. The damage was estimated at over £2 billion, the county recovered rapidly from the disaster, investing in attracting tourists to visit the many sites and diverse range of shops in the area. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Gloucestershire has mainly comprehensive schools with seven schools, two are in Stroud, one in Cheltenham and four in Gloucester. There are 42 state secondary schools, not including sixth form colleges, all but about two schools in each district have a sixth form, but the Forest of Dean only has two schools with sixth forms. All schools in South Gloucestershire have sixth forms, each has campuses at multiple locations throughout the county. Most of the old market towns have parish churches, at Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Bishops Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the pre-Norman work they retain. These are, however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, other notable buildings include Calcot Barn in Calcot, a relic of Kingswood Abbey. Thornbury Castle is a Tudor country house, the pretensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, near Cheltenham is the 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve, the mansion contains a tiled floor from Hailes Abbey
34.
French Revolutionary Wars
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The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts, lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic against Britain, Austria and several other monarchies and they are divided in two periods, the War of the First Coalition and the War of the Second Coalition. Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded, French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. The Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty to the new direction France was taking. In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, the victory rejuvenated the French nation and emboldened the National Convention to abolish the monarchy. A series of victories by the new French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden in the spring of 1793, by 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general called Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796, in less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, the War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon, in 1798. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland—racking up victories at Magnano, Cassano. However, their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, meanwhile, Napoleons forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleons popularity back in France, however, the Royal Navy had managed to inflict a humiliating defeat on the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of the Mediterranean. Napoleons arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleons government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, in 1789–1792, the entire governmental structure of France was transformed to fall into line with the Revolutionary principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. As a result, one of the first major elements of the French state to be restructured was the army, the transformation of the army was best seen in the officer corps. Before the revolution 90% had been nobility, compared to only 3% in 1794, Revolutionary fervour was high, and was closely monitored by the Committee of Public Safety, which assigned Representatives on Mission to keep watch on generals
35.
Guinea (coin)
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The guinea was a coin of approximately one quarter ounce of gold that was minted in Great Britain between 1663 and 1814. From 1717 to 1816, its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings. Then, Britain adopted the standard and guinea became a colloquial or specialised term. The name came from the Guinea region in West Africa, where much of the used to make the coins originated. The name also forms the basis for the Arabic word for the Egyptian pound الجنيه el-Genēh / el-Geni, the first guinea was produced on 6 February 1663, a proclamation of 27 March 1663 made the coins legal currency. One troy pound of 11/12 fine gold would make 44½ guineas, the denomination was originally worth one pound, or twenty shillings, but an increase in the price of gold during the reign of King Charles II led to the market trading it at a premium. The price of gold continued to increase, especially in times of trouble, and by the 1680s, indeed, in his diary entries for 13 June 1667, Samuel Pepys records that the price was 24 to 25 shillings. The diameter of the coin was 1 inch throughout Charles IIs reign, Guinea was not an official name for the coin, but much of the gold used to produce the early coins came from Guinea in Africa. The coin was produced each year between 1663 and 1684, with the elephant appearing on some coins each year from 1663 to 1665 and 1668, and the elephant and castle on some coins from 1674 onward. The elephant, with or without the castle, symbolises the Royal African Company, the obverse and reverse of this coin were designed by John Roettier. The edge was milled to deter clipping or filing, and to distinguish it from the silver half-crown which had edge lettering, until 1669 the milling was perpendicular to the edge, giving vertical grooves, while from 1670 the milling was diagonal to the edge. John Roettier continued to design the dies for this denomination in the reign of King James II. In this reign, the coins weighed 8.5 g with a diameter of 25–26 mm, Coins of each year were issued both with and without the elephant and castle mark. The edge of the coins are milled diagonally, with the removal of James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, his daughter Mary, and her husband Prince William of Orange ruled jointly by agreement as co-monarchs. Their heads appear conjoined on the piece in Roman style, with Williams head uppermost. By the early part of this reign the value of the guinea had increased to thirty shillings. The guineas of this reign weighed 8, following the death of Queen Mary from smallpox in 1694, William continued to reign as William III. The coins of William IIIs reign weighed 8.4 g with a gold purity of 0.9123
36.
Samuel Brown (Royal Navy officer)
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Captain Sir Samuel Brown of Netherbyres KH FRSE was an early pioneer of chain design and manufacture and of suspension bridge design and construction. He is best known for the Union Bridge of 1820, the first vehicular bridge in Britain. Brown was born in London, the son of William Brown of Borland, Galloway and he joined the Royal Navy in 1795, serving initially on the Newfoundland and North Sea stations. He served as lieutenant on HMS Royal Sovereign and in 1805 joined HMS Phoenix as first lieutenant, during his service on Phoenix he took part in the capture of the French frigate Didon. The following year he was appointed to HMS Imperieuse, followed by periods of service aboard the HMS Flore, during his service, he carried out tests on wrought iron chain cables, using them as rigging for HMS Penelope in 1806 on a voyage to the West Indies. This so impressed the Admiralty that on his return in 1808 it immediately ordered four vessels of war to be fitted with chain cables, in 1808 Brown took out patents for twisted open chain links, joining shackles and swivels. His shackle and swivel designs were improved on for the next 100 years. By 1811, he was promoted to commander, and his chains were introduced to hold ships anchors and he retired from the Navy in May 1812. Just four years later, the Royal Navy standardized on iron chain instead of hemp for all new vessels of war. His firm went on to all the chain to the Royal Navy until 1916. He took out a patent for chain-making in 1816, and patented wrought iron chain links suitable for a bridge in 1817. In the same year, others built Dryburgh Bridge, the first chain-supported bridge in Britain, Brown had been experimenting with a chain-supported suspension bridge already, building a 32m span test structure in 1813. Brown was also invited to participate in abortive proposals for a bridge at Runcorn. In September 1818, he submitted drawings for Union Bridge over the River Tweed, Brown went on to build several further chain bridges, as well as the Trinity Chain Pier in Newhaven, Edinburgh and the Chain Pier at Brighton. Most of his designs used a bridge deck, before it became clear that this form was vulnerable to wind forces. His designs were reviewed by eminent engineers including John Rennie and Thomas Telford, browns designs were significantly less conservative than his contemporaries, adopting a higher tensile strength for his iron chains. Kalemouth Bridge, River Teviot,1835 Kenmare Bridge, Ireland,1840 One of his homes was close to the Brighton project, at 48 Marine Parade, in 1827, Brown purchased Netherbyres, a country house near Eyemouth in Berwickshire, south-east Scotland. He had the house demolished and a new house built
37.
James Meadows Rendel (engineer)
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James Meadows Rendel FRS was a British civil engineer. Rendel was the son of the surveyor James Rendel or Rendle and his wife Jane, daughter of the architect John Meadows, he was born near Okehampton, Devon, in 1799. He was initiated into the operations of a millwright under an uncle at Teignmouth, at an early age he went to London as a surveyor under Thomas Telford, by whom he was employed on the surveys for the proposed suspension bridge across the Mersey at Runcorn. About 1822 he settled at Plymouth, and commenced the construction of roads in the north of Devon, one of his smaller projects, still surviving, was an 1826 bridge over Bowcombe Creek on the Kingsbridge Estuary. In August 1824 he was employed by the Earl of Morley in making a bridge across the Catwater, to guard against the undermining effects of the current, he formed an artificial bottom. The bridge, which cost £27,126, was opened on 14 July 1827 and he soon entered into partnership at Plymouth with Nathaniel Beardmore, and his practice rapidly grew. In 1826 he erected Bowcombe Bridge, near Kingsbridge, Devon, in 1831 he introduced a new system of crossing rivers by means of chain ferries worked by steam, and in 1832 he constructed a floating bridge on this principle, crossing the Dart at Dartmouth. Between 1832 and 1834 similar floating bridges were erected at Torpoint and Saltash across the Tamar, for these achievements a second Telford medal was awarded to Rendel in 1838. The Torpoint Ferry still operates, albeit much updated, a similar floating bridge was implemented as the Woolston ferry between Woolston, Hampshire and Southampton in 1836. During this period Rendel was also engaged in reporting on harbours and rivers in the southwest of England, in 1836-37 he designed, as a terminus to the Great Western Railway, the Millbay Docks, Plymouth, afterwards executed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. In 1843-44 he constructed canals in Devon, and was engaged on the Colchester and Arundel navigation, at the same time he was largely employed on marine works by the Admiralty and other government departments, as well as by public companies. The exchequer loan commissioners engaged him in 1835-37 in the repair of the Montrose suspension bridge after its fall, there he introduced the principle of trussing the framing of the roadway. This system of preventing the undulation, by which so many structures of the kind have been destroyed, was acknowledged to be essential to their safety. About 1838 Rendel dissolved his partnership with Beardmore at Plymouth, and settled in London, in 1841 he constructed the Millbay pier, Plymouth, a work of considerable difficulty owing to the depth of water in which it was built. Here he first introduced the method of construction since employed in Holyhead, in 1839 he was engaged in preparing schemes for a railway between Exeter and Plymouth, running over Dartmoor. At the time sufficient funds could not be raised, but an alternative coast line was carried out by I. K. Brunel. In 1843 he made plans for docks at Birkenhead, which he defended before parliamentary committees against hostile local influence, the contest was long protracted, and the incessant labour served to shorten Rendels life, his published evidence forms a valuable record of engineering practice of the period. In 1844-53 he constructed docks at Grimsby, in 1848-53 extensions of the docks at Leith, in 1850-53 docks at Garston on the Mersey, with extensions of the East and West India and the London docks
38.
William Tierney Clark
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William Tierney Clark FRS FRAS was an English civil engineer particularly associated with the design and construction of bridges. He was among the earliest designers of suspension bridges and he designed the first suspension bridge to span the River Thames in London, Hammersmith Bridge, opened in 1827. He also designed the Marlow Bridge, a bridge across the Thames in Marlow, Buckinghamshire and Norfolk Bridge. Internationally, he is revered for his design of the Széchenyi Chain Bridge across the Danube in Budapest, Hungary, for which Marlow Bridge was a nearly identical, but smaller prototype. The first bridge linking Buda and Pest, it was designed by Tierney Clark in 1839, Tierney Clark is also credited with the design of a tunnel between Higham and Frindsbury, near Rochester in north Kent for the Thames and Medway Canal. The canal was not a success but the tunnel was adapted for use by the Gravesend. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Tierney Clark lived and died in Hammersmith in west London. His memorial in the parish church, St Paul’s, shows an outline of his design for the nearby bridge. His bridge has since replaced by a later one designed by Sir Joseph Bazalgette. Hungary commemorates Clark by an annual Tierney Clark Award for Civil Engineering presented by the Association of Hungarian Consulting Engineers, William Thierney Clark information at Structurae Victorianweb. orgs William Tierney Clarks Chain Bridge, Budapest
39.
William Hazledine
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Hazledines expertise in manufacturing and testing large iron castings was critical to the success of these pioneering projects. Hazledine grew up in a setting and was trained as a millwright. Through a family connection, he took a position in a local forge. After that partnership was dissolved, Hazledine set up a number of foundries supplying large castings, notably at Coleham, Shrewsbury. In their time, these were among the most important centres of iron-bridge building expertise in Britain, some of his work was for projects by Thomas Telford, also a friend. He served as Mayor of Shrewsbury for 1835–36, three brothers of William Hazledine were the founders in about 1792 of Hazledine and Company, an ironworks in Bridgnorth, Shropshire. Pencil portrait by Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey Pencil portrait by Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
40.
Thomas Telford
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Thomas Telford FRS, FRSE was a Scottish civil engineer, architect and stonemason, and a noted road, bridge and canal builder. After establishing himself as an engineer of road and canal projects in Shropshire, he designed numerous projects in his native Scotland, as well as harbours. Telford was born on 9 August 1757 at Glendinning, a hill farm 3 miles east of Eskdalemuir Kirk, in the parish of Westerkirk, in Eskdale. His father John Telford, a shepherd, died soon after Thomas was born, Thomas was raised in poverty by his mother Janet Jackson. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a stonemason and he worked for a time in Edinburgh and in 1782 he moved to London where, after meeting architects Robert Adam and Sir William Chambers, he was involved in building additions to Somerset House there. Two years later he found work at Portsmouth dockyard and — although still largely self-taught — was extending his talents to the specification, design, in 1787, through his wealthy patron William Pulteney, he became Surveyor of Public Works in Shropshire. Civil engineering was a still in its infancy, so Telford was set on establishing himself as an architect. His projects included renovation of Shrewsbury Castle, the towns prison, as the Shropshire county surveyor, Telford was also responsible for bridges. The bridge at Buildwas was Telfords first iron bridge and he was influenced by Abraham Darbys bridge at Ironbridge, and observed that it was grossly over-designed for its function, and many of the component parts were poorly cast. By contrast, his bridge was 30 ft wider in span and half the weight and he was one of the first engineers to test his materials thoroughly before construction. As his engineering prowess grew, Telford was to return to this material repeatedly, in 1795 the bridge at Bewdley in Worcestershire was swept away in the winter floods and Telford was responsible for the design of its replacement. The same winter floods saw the bridge at Tenbury also swept away and this bridge across the River Teme was the joint responsibility of both Worcestershire and Shropshire and the bridge has a bend where the two counties meet. Telford was responsible for the repair to the end of the bridge. Extending for over 1,000 feet with an altitude of 126 feet above the valley floor, the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct consists of nineteen arches, each with a forty-five foot span. Being a pioneer in the use of cast-iron for large scaled structures, Telford had to invent new techniques, such as using boiling sugar, eminent canal engineer William Jessop oversaw the project, but he left the detailed execution of the project in Telfords hands. The aqueduct was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2009, the same period also saw Telford involved in the design and construction of the Shrewsbury Canal. When the original engineer, Josiah Clowes, died in 1795, the aqueduct is no longer in use, but is preserved as a distinctive piece of canal engineering. The Ellesmere Canal was completed in 1805 and alongside his canal responsibilities and these included water supply works for Liverpool, improvements to Londons docklands and the rebuilding of London Bridge
41.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
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Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
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Royal assent
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Royal assent is the method by which a countrys constitutional monarch formally approves an act of that nations parliament, thus making it a law or letting it be promulgated as law. Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies, however, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the Governor-General merely signs the bill, in Canada, the Governor-General may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill. Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, the last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was during the rule of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on the 12th of August 1854. The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967, Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. -the sovereign may delay the bills assent through the use of his or her powers in near-revolutionary situations. -the sovereign may refuse royal assent on the advice of his or her ministers, under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often maintain the support of parliament and are the ones who obtain the passage of bills, it is highly improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in practice, royal assent is always granted. The Monarch does not have the power to withhold a Bill from assenting, the last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Annes reign in 1708. The so-called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, in 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorization. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire, the King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process, the power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of, during the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliaments approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1707, on the advice of her ministers, her assent from a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a passed by the British parliament. During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament, the first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than did previous monarchs. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers, thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms
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Davies Gilbert
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Davies Gilbert PRS was a British engineer, author, and politician. He was elected to the Royal Society on 17 November 1791 and he changed his name to Gilbert in 1817. The first child, also Davies by forename, had died within 24 hours of birth in 1766, the Giddy family moved into Penzance, living on Chapel Street in 1775, until Giddys mother Catherine inherited the family home of Tredrea back in St Erth. By 1780 the family returned to St Erth, and Davies was taught by his father, Davies Giddy would later adopt Gilbert as his surname, the maiden name of his wife, the agronomist Mary Ann Gilbert, whom he married at Easter of 1808. Davies was educated first at Penzance Grammar School and then by his father, and by Rev Malachy Hitchins, at the age of 17, at the recommendation of Hitchins, he was sent to Bristol to join the Mathematical Academy of Benjamin Donne where he remained for three years. His sister Philippa simultaneously finished her own schooling with the famous bluestocking Hannah More and he went up to Pembroke College, Oxford in 1786, whence he graduated with a M. A. on 29 June 1789. Davies was High Sheriff of Cornwall from 1792 to 1793 and he served in the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Helston in Cornwall from 1804 to 1806 and for Bodmin from 1806 to 1832. He noticed and encouraged Humphry Davy and convinced Beddoes that Davy was the man to work in the laboratory at the Institution and his mathematical skills were sought by such early engineering pioneers as Jonathan Hornblower, Richard Trevithick and Thomas Telford. He also had a great interest for the history and culture of Cornwall, for instance, he removed a Celtic cross from near Truro, on the Redruth Road, and took it to a churchyard in his new home of Eastbourne. When asked why he carried off a Cornish Cross and re-erected it in Eastbourne by the Rev, canon Hockin, of Phillack, Mr. Davies replied, It was to show the poor, ignorant folk that there was something bigger in the world than a flint. He assembled and published A Parochial History of Cornwall and collected and published a number of Cornish Carols and he edited for publication a Cornish Language poem about the Passion, Passyon agan Arluth, as Mount Calvary. He was elected to the Society of Antiquaries in 1820, Gilbert was the President of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall from its foundation in 1814 until his death. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, Davies Gilbert was opposed to mass education during his time in parliament. Besides, if this Bill were to pass law, it would go to burthen the country with a most enormous and incalculable expense. He died in Eastbourne in Sussex on Christmas Eve 1839, on 18 April 1808 he married Mary Ann Gilbert, and in 1816 he took his wifes surname, Gilbert, to perpetuate it. This enabled the couple to inherit the property in Sussex of her uncle, Thomas Gilbert. Three daughters and a son survived him and their son, John Davies Gilbert was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in April 1834 but does not seem to have published any scientific work. Their eldest daughter, Catherine, married John Samuel Enys on 17 April 1834 and she was the mother of the notable New Zealand naturalist, John Davies Enys
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. PMID 8762350. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
