1.
Arboreal locomotion
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Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. In habitats in which trees are present, animals have evolved to move in them, some animals may scale trees only occasionally, but others are exclusively arboreal. Furthermore, many of these principles may be applied to climbing without trees. The earliest known tetrapod with specializations that adapted it for climbing trees was Suminia, some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in habitat, such as the tree snail. Arboreal habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving in them and these challenges include moving on narrow branches, moving up and down inclines, balancing, crossing gaps, and dealing with obstructions. Moving along a narrow surface poses special difficulties to animals, additionally, foot placement is constrained by the need to make contact with the narrow branch. This narrowness severely restricts the range of movements and postures an animal can use to move, branches are frequently oriented at an angle to gravity in arboreal habitats, including being vertical, which poses special problems. As an animal moves up a branch, they must fight the force of gravity to raise their body. Conversely, as the animal descends, it must also fight gravity to control its descent and prevent falling, descent can be particularly problematic for many animals, and highly arboreal species often have specialized methods for controlling their descent. Due to the height of many branches and the disastrous consequences of a fall. On horizontal and gently sloped branches, the problem is tipping to the side due to the narrow base of support. The narrower the branch, the greater the difficulty in balancing a given animal faces, on steep and vertical branches, tipping becomes less of an issue, and pitching backwards or slipping downwards becomes the most likely failure. In this case, large-diameter branches pose a challenge, since the animal cannot place its forelimbs closer to the center of the branch than its hindlimbs. Branches are not continuous, and any arboreal animal must be able to move between gaps in the branches, or even between trees and this can be accomplished by reaching across gaps, by leaping across them or gliding between them. Arboreal habitats often contain many obstructions, both in the form of branches emerging from the one being moved on and other branches impinging on the space the animal needs to move through and these obstructions may impede locomotion, or may be used as additional contact points to enhance it. While obstructions tend to impede limbed animals, they benefit snakes by providing anchor points, arboreal organisms display many specializations for dealing with the mechanical challenges of moving through their habitats. Arboreal animals frequently have elongated limbs that help them cross gaps, reach fruit or other resources, test the firmness of support ahead, however, some species of lizard have reduced limb size that helps them avoid limb movement being obstructed by impinging branches. Many arboreal species, such as porcupines, chameleons, silky anteaters, spider monkeys
2.
Aid climbing
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Aid climbing is a style of climbing in which standing on or pulling oneself up via devices attached to fixed or placed protection is used to make upward progress. In general, aid techniques are reserved for pitches where free climbing is difficult to impossible, while aid climbing places less emphasis on athletic fitness and raw strength than free climbing, the physical demands of hard aid climbing should not be underestimated. Aid climbing has its own ranking system, using a scale from A0 through A5. Just as in climbing, the usual aid technique involves two climbers, a leader and a belayer. The leader is connected by a rope to the belayer, who remains at the station while the leader moves up. As the leader advances, the rope is let out by the belayer, if the leader falls, the belayer locks off the rope and, assuming the protection doesnt pull out, catches the leaders fall on the rope. When the leader, moving up, reaches the end of the rope, or a convenient stopping point, he or she builds an anchor, hangs on it and this then becomes the next belay station. The belayer then ascends the rope using mechanical ascenders, retrieving the protection that was placed by the leader. Many variations on this technique are possible, including solo aid climbing and climbing with a team of three or more. Until the 1940s protection was provided by the piton, driven into a crack in the rock with a hammer, today, aid climbing uses a considerably larger array of hardware than the pitons used by the first climbers although the primary technique of ascension has not much evolved. The typical gear of an aid climber includes pitons, hooks, copperheads, nuts, camming devices, ascenders, hauling pulleys, aiders, daisy chains, the hardest aid routes are poorly protected requiring the climber to make long sequences of moves using hooks or tenuous placements. On these routes, a climber may have to commit to moving up onto the most marginal of placements risking long and sometimes dangerous falls. By contrast, the vast majority of aid ascents are done on popular free climbs which are too difficult for the aid party to free, but offer excellent gear placements. Since aid climbing is extremely slow compared to climbing, this can lead to some conflicts between aid climbers and free climbers waiting to climb a route. There is additional tension caused by the damage that aid climbing often does to routes, hooks frequently break or otherwise damage holds that human hands and feet do not. Until the 1960s or so, aid climbing was normal practice in most climbing areas, reinhold Messner wrote, Rock faces are no longer overcome by climbing skill, but are humbled, pitch by pitch, by methodical manual labour … Who has polluted the pure spring of mountaineering. Free climbing is now the mainstream of climbing, the solution is often a compromise in which an absolute minimum of bolts is added to allow safe protection for free climbers, while not totally destroying the challenge of the route as an aid climb. However, as with most compromises, this is not a solution that satisfies everyone, the A grading scale incorporates difficulty of placing protection, and the danger associated with falling
3.
Bouldering
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Bouldering is a form of rock climbing that is performed without the use of ropes or harnesses. While it can be done without any equipment whatsoever, most climbers use climbing shoes to help secure footholds, chalk to keep their hands dry, unlike free solo climbing, which is also performed without ropes, bouldering problems are usually less than 6 meters tall. Artificial climbing walls allow boulderers to train indoors in areas without natural boulders, Bouldering competitions, which employ a variety of formats, take place in both indoor and outdoor settings. The sport originated as a method of training for roped climbs, Bouldering enabled climbers to practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground. Additionally, the served to build stamina and increase finger strength. Throughout the 1900s, bouldering evolved into a separate discipline, individual problems are assigned ratings based on their difficulty. There have been many different rating systems used throughout the history of the sport, the growing popularity of the sport has caused several environmental concerns, including soil erosion and trampled vegetation as climbers hike off-trail to reach bouldering sites. This has caused some landowners to access or prohibit bouldering altogether. Unlike top rope climbing and lead climbing, no ropes are used to protect or aid the climber, Bouldering routes or problems require the climber to reach the top of a boulder, usually from a specified start position. Some boulder problems, known as traverses, require the climber to climb horizontally from one position to another, the characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed. Granite, for example, often features long cracks and slabs, sandstone rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks. Other common bouldering rocks include limestone and volcanic rock, there are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States, including Hueco Tanks in Texas, Mount Evans in Colorado, and The Buttermilks in Bishop, California. Squamish, British Columbia is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada, Europe also hosts a number of bouldering sites, such as Fontainebleau in France, Albarracín in Spain, and various mountains throughout Switzerland. Artificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment and these walls are constructed with wooden panels, polymer cement panels, concrete shells, or precast molds of actual rock walls. Holds, usually made of plastic, are bolted onto the wall to create problems. The walls often feature steep overhanging surfaces, forcing the climber to employ highly technical movements while supporting much of their weight with their body strength. Climbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the section of wall. Across much of the rest of the problems and grades are usually designated by using a set color of plastic hold to indicate a particular problem
4.
Free climbing
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Free climbing more specifically may include solo climbing, traditional climbing, sport climbing and bouldering. Free climbing should not be confused with aid climbing, in specific aid climbing equipment is also used to assist the climber in ascending the climb. The term free climbing originally meant free from aid, in lead climbing, a climber climbs a route from the ground up. For protection against a fall, the lead climber trails a rope which is managed by a belayer who remains on the ground or at an established anchor. As the leader climbs, they either place traditional protection such as cams and stoppers, or clip their rope through pre-placed bolted hangers or fixed anchors. The belayer feeds rope to the climber through a belay device, keeping a minimum amount of slack in the system. The leader climbs until the top is reached, and they can then belay the climber from above. Both climber and belayer attach the rope to their climbing harnesses, the rope is tied into the climbers harness with a figure-of-eight loop or double bowline knot. The leader either places their own protection or clips into permanent protection already attached to the rock, in traditional climbing, the protection generally is removable. However, many significant first ascents in the U. S. done with a combination of crack gear, usually nuts or spring-loaded camming devices are set in cracks in the rock. In sport climbing the protection is metal loops called hangers, hangers are secured to the rock with either expanding masonry bolts taken from the construction industry, or by placing glue-in bolt systems. In ice climbing the protection is made-up of ice screws or similar devices hammered or screwed into the ice by the leader, the lead climber typically connects the rope to the protection with carabiners or quickdraws. If the lead climber falls, they will fall twice the length of the rope from the last protection point, plus rope stretch, plus slack. If any of the breaks or pulls out of the rock or if the belayer fails to lock off the belay device immediately. Thus if a climber is 2 meters above the last protection they will fall 2 meters to the protection,2 meters below the protection, plus rope stretch and slack, if the leader falls, the belayer must arrest the rope to stop the fall. To achieve this the rope is run through a device attached to the belayers harness. The belay device runs the rope through a series of curves that. Some of the more types of belay devices are the ATC Belay Device
5.
Free solo climbing
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Unlike in bouldering, free soloists typically climb above safe heights, where a fall would always result in serious injury or death. In ordinary free climbing, safety gear is used to protect from falls, other reasons given are the intense concentration required and, for some, the adrenaline rush. The practice is confined to routes familiar to the climber. However, inherent risks such as rocks or sudden change in weather are always present. The sport has produced a number of practitioners, made famous by photos of a climber totally alone. Two of the most famous free soloists, Alain Robert, and Dan Goodwin, have also scaled dozens of skyscrapers around the world — a sport known as buildering —, there are few climbers who have free solo climbed in the 5.14 range. This list does not include highball boulder ascents because the climbers here did not use any padding or spotters, there is some debate on the blurred line between highball bouldering and short free solo climbs. 5. 14b - Darwin Dixit - Margalef, Spain - Dave MacLeod,5. 14a - Kommunist - Tyrol, Austria - Alexander Huber,2004. Paul Preuss died during an attempt to make the first ascent of the North Ridge of the Mandlkogel free solo, tobin Sorenson died from a fall during a solo attempt of the Mount Albertas North Face. Jimmy Jewell fell to his death from Poor Mans Peuterey at Tremadog, ironically, he was using the route as a shortcut from a local pub to his climbing club hut, the route was well below his usual grade and capability. Derek Hersey died in an accident while soloing the Steck-Salathé Route free solo, dwight Bishop fell climbing alone and unroped, Wyoming, Grand Teton National Park, The Grand Traverse. Jimmy Ray Forester fell while free-soloing in El Potrero Chico, Mexico, Forester, an experienced, talented climber, failed to return to camp after setting out on The Scariest Ride in the Park, a 40-pitch 5.9 ridge route known for loose rock. He was found the day at the base of the wall. George Gardner fell to his death while free soloing in Grand Teton National Park, John Bachar died in a free solo accident at Dike Wall near Mammoth Lakes, California. Akihira Tawara died while free climbing the Directissima 5.8 route on Yamnuska. Michael Ybarra died climbing solo on The Matterhorn Peak in Californias Sierra Nevada Mountains, brad Parker fell about 300 feet to his death while attempting to climb Matthes Crest Traverse in Yosemite, CA. Andrew Barnes died falling 50 ft free solo climbing in New Yorks Shawangunk Mountains. Angus Moloney died falling 100 ft free-solo climbing from the Fifth Pinnacle above the Gregory Canyon Trail, Boulders Open Space, alternatives to free soloing include, Free climbing with the use of ropes to prevent a fall. Bouldering, climbing at heights low enough that a fall would normally be safe, deep water soloing, climbing over a body of water
6.
Ice climbing
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Ice climbing is the activity of ascending inclined ice formations. Usually, ice climbing refers to roped and protected climbing of features such as icefalls, frozen waterfalls, for the purposes of climbing, ice can be broadly divided into two spheres, alpine ice and water ice. Alpine ice is found in an environment, usually requires an approach to reach. Water ice is found on a cliff or other outcropping beneath water flows. Alpine ice is frozen precipitation whereas water ice is a liquid flow of water. Technical grade is, however, independent of ice type and both types of ice vary greatly in consistency according to weather conditions, Ice can be soft, hard, brittle or tough. Mixed climbing is ascent involving both ice climbing and rock climbing, a climber chooses equipment according to the slope and texture of the ice. On short, low angled slopes, one can use an ice axe to chop steps, for longer and steeper slopes or glacier travel, crampons are mandatory for a safe climb. Vertical ice climbing is done with crampons and ice axes, climbers kick their legs to engage the front points of the crampons in the ice and this technique is known as front pointing. The strength of the ice is often surprising, even if the axe goes in only a centimeter or so it is enough to pull up on, if a climber is leading, they will need to place ice screws as protection on the way up. Most mountaineers would only consider the last scenario true ice climbing, some important techniques and practices common in rock climbing that are employed in ice climbing include knowledge of rope systems, tying in, belaying, leading, abseiling, and lowering. Beginners should learn these techniques before attempting to ice climb and it is highly recommended that one acquire knowledge from experts and experienced ice climbers. Single, double, and twin rope are the three main rope systems used in ice climbing, the single rope system, which is suited for straight climbing routes, is the most commonly used rock climbing system in the world. Also often used in climbing is the rope system which is a more flexible system than the single rope system. Lastly, the rope system, which uses two twin ropes in a single rope system, is used for longer multi-pitch routes. Impact force on ice is an issue, with double ropes gaining popularity over twins, tying in entails attaching the rope to the climbing harness. This technique is a must particularly when leading a climb or belaying, a commonly used tie-in knot is the Figure-of-eight follow through, but the Bowline and Thumb knot is often preferred, since it is easier to untie when frozen. This technique should be done properly to ensure safety when ice climbing
7.
Climbing wall
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A climbing wall is an artificially constructed wall with grips for hands and feet, usually used for indoor climbing, but sometimes located outdoors. Some are brick or wooden constructions, but on most modern walls, recently, manufactured steel and aluminum have also been used. The wall may have places to attach belay ropes, but may also be used to lead climbing or bouldering. Each hole contains a specially formed t-nut to allow modular climbing holds to be screwed onto the wall, with manufactured steel or aluminum walls, an engineered industrial fastener is used to secure climbing holds. The face of the multiplex board climbing surface is covered with textured products including concrete, in addition to the textured surface and hand holds, the wall may contain surface structures such as indentions and protrusions, or take the form of an overhang, underhang or crack. Some grips are formed to mimic the conditions of outdoor rock, including some that are oversized, the earliest artificial climbing walls were typically small concrete faces with protrusions made of medium-sized rocks for hand holds. Schurman Rock in Seattle, WA is believed to be the first artificial climbing structure in the United States, the modern artificial climbing wall began in the UK. The first wall was created in 1964 by Don Robinson, a lecturer in Physical Education by inserting pieces of rock into a corridor wall, the first commercial wall was built in Sheffield, traditionally Englands centre for climbing due to its proximity to the Peak District. The first indoor climbing gym in the U. S. was established by Vertical World in Seattle, the simplest type of wall is of plywood construction, known colloquially in the climbing community as a woody, with a combination of either bolt-on holds or screw on holds. Bolt-on holds are fixed to a wall with iron bolts which are inserted through the hold, which will have specific bolt points, screw-on holds are, by contrast, usually much smaller, owing to the nature of their fixing. These holds are connected to the wall by screws which may be fastened anywhere on the walls surface, holds come in different colours, those of the same colour often being used to denote a route, allowing routes of different difficulty levels to be overlaid on one another. Coloured tape placed under climbing holds is another way that is used to mark different climbing routes. The grade of the route is usually a decision between the setter of the route and the first few people who climb the route. Many indoor climbing walls have people who are assigned to set these different climbing routes and these people are called route setters or course setters. As indoor climbing walls are used to check the development of climbers ability. Climbing Indoor climbing UK Climbing Wall Manufacturers Association Climbing Wall Association, a US non-profit, industry trade association
8.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
9.
Rock climbing
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Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up, down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls. The goal is to reach the summit of a formation or the endpoint of a usually pre-defined route without falling. Due to the length and extended endurance required and because accidents are likely to happen on descent than ascent. It is very rare for a climber to downclimb, especially on the larger multiple pitches, professional Rock climbing competitions have the objectives of either completing the route in the quickest possible time or attaining the farthest point on an increasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to rock climbing, however, rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climbers weight as well as to provide balance. Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport, one that often tests a climbers strength, endurance, agility and it can be a dangerous activity and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialized climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes. Because of the range and variety of rock formations around the world. Paintings dating from 200 BC show Chinese men rock climbing China woop woop, in early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits. In the 1880s, European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside of mountain climbing, Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity. However, climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily, today, free climbing, climbing using holds made entirely of natural rock while using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement, is the most popular form of the sport. Free climbing has since divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belay configuration. Over time, grading systems have also created in order to compare more accurately the relative difficulties of the rock climbs. In How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to the top of a route is not enough, in rock climbing, style refers to the method of ascending the cliff. There are three styles of climbing, on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge and it is considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers, redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it. Free climbing is typically divided into styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used
10.
Traditional climbing
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Traditional climbing, or trad climbing, is a style of rock climbing in which a climber or group of climbers place all gear required to protect against falls, and removes it when a passage is complete. Traditional bolted face climbing means the bolts were placed on lead and/or with hand drills, the bolts tend to be much farther apart than sport climbs. For example, a trad bolted routes may have bolts from 15–75 feet apart, a sport route may have bolts from 3–10 feet apart, similar to a rock climbing gym. The term seems to be coined by Tom Higgins in the piece Tricksters, a trad climber is called a traditionalist. Characterizing climbing as traditional distinguishes it from bolted climbing-either trad bolted or sport climbing, in trad climbing, a leader ascends a section of rock placing his or her own protective devices while climbing. John Longs 1989 technique manual How to Rock Climb used the sport climbing repeatedly in reference to what is now considered traditional climbing. This evolution in climbing ethics has been attributed to the efforts of Yvon Chouinard and many others, the term gear in climbing generally refers to equipment used during climbs. Gear or protection are mechanical devices that provide safety, either by allowing greater stability in making a move or by dampening force, the suitability of individual types of gear depends on the surface and formation of the rock face. The phrase placing gear denotes the act of setting a piece of gear into the rock face, in the event of a fall, the gear acts as a catch-point for the rope, thus preventing the climber from hurtling to the ground. Being run out refers to the situation where the distance from the position to the last piece of gear is far enough that the climber will receive little, if any. Nuts started being developed in the 1950s in the UK, with the pieces being made from discarded machine nuts with slings threaded through them. These gradually developed into purpose built nuts, prior to about 1970 in the United States, climbing relied mainly on pitons, other types of gear such as nuts, Hexcentrics, Tricams and spring-loaded cams were largely unknown or did not exist. As other variants of climbing were not nominally in existence as well, all climbing was in effect trad climbing until the early 1980s when sport climbing emerged in Europe, since the 1970s, developments in protective gear have made climbing much safer and more dynamic. Modern traditional climbs only occasionally have fixed gear, except in the case where cracks are lacking to place adequate removable gear and it is also considered bad style to install new protection bolts or pitons on existing climbs that can be completed without them. Many of the existing pitons, pegs and bolts from the first ascents of routes done many years ago, are now considered to be in bad condition having suffered from the weathering. This is especially present on sea cliffs where the nature of the air has sped up the oxidisation to create rust. A number of knots are required for climbing, to create anchors, to tie in the climbers. Water knot is used for connecting two pieces of webbing together, double bowline is used for tying in, or anchoring around a fixed object
11.
Rock-climbing equipment
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A wide range of equipment is used during rock or any other type of climbing. The most popular types of climbing equipment are briefly described in this article, the article on protecting a climb describes equipment commonly used to protect a climber against the consequences of a fall. See also the Glossary of climbing terms for more equipment descriptions, climbing ropes are typically of kernmantle construction, consisting of a core of long twisted fibres and an outer sheath of woven coloured fibres. The core provides about 80% of the strength, while the sheath is a durable layer that protects the core. Ropes used for climbing can be divided into two classes, dynamic ropes and low elongation ropes, dynamic ropes are designed to absorb the energy of a falling climber, and are usually used as Belaying ropes. When a climber falls, the rope stretches, reducing the force experienced by the climber, their belayer. Low elongation ropes stretch much less, and are used in anchoring systems. They are also used for abseiling and as fixed ropes climbed with ascenders, modern webbing or tape is made of nylon or Spectra/Dyneema, or a combination of the two. Climbing-specific nylon webbing is generally tubular webbing, that is, it is a tube of nylon pressed flat and it is very strong, generally rated in excess of 9 kN, or about 2,020 pounds of force. Dyneema is even stronger, often rated above 20 kN and as high as 27 kN, in 2010, UK-based DMM performed fall factor 1 and 2 tests on various Dyneema and Nylon webbings, showing Dyneema slings can fail even under 60 cm falls. Tying knots in Dyneema webbing was proven to have reduced the amount of supported force by as much as half. When webbing is sewn or tied together at the ends, it becomes a sling or runner and these loops are made one of two ways—sewn or tied. Both ways of forming runners have advantages and drawbacks, and it is for the climber to choose which to use. Generally speaking, most climbers carry a few of both types and it is also important to note that only nylon can be safely knotted into a runner, Dyneema is always sewn because the fibers are too slippery to hold a knot under weight. Webbing has many such as, Extending the distance between protection and a tie-in point. An anchor around a tree or rock, protecting a rope that hangs over a sharp edge. Carabiners are metal loops with spring-loaded gates, used as connectors, once made primarily from steel, almost all carabiners for recreational climbing are now made from a light weight aluminum alloy. Steel carabiners are much heavier, but harder wearing, and therefore are used by instructors when working with groups
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Glossary of climbing terms
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This page describes terms and jargon related to climbing and mountaineering. Abalakov thread A type of abseiling point used especially in winter, ablation zone The area of a glacier where yearly melting meets or exceeds the annual snow fall. Abseil The process by which a climber can descend a fixed rope, ACR An anchor method similar to a cordelette but that is dynamically equalizing. It employs a cord and a rappel ring, adze A thin blade mounted perpendicular to the handle on an ice axe that can be used for chopping footholds. Aid climbing A style of climbing in which standing on or pulling oneself up via devices attached to fixed or placed protection is used to make upward progress, Alpine climbing, Generally climbing in the mountains. Probably includes a mixture of ice climbing and dry-tooling, Alpine style generally means carrying all gear in a backpack even for multi day climbs. Alpine knee To use your knee as a way to ground on a climb. Alpine start To make an efficient start on a climb by packing all your gear the previous evening and starting early in the morning. Altitude sickness A medical condition that is observed at high altitudes. Also known as Acute mountain sickness, or AMS and this creates a triangular shape in the webbing or cord, which places massively multiplied inward forces on the protection, making it a dangerous, ineffective anchor. Anchor An arrangement of one or more pieces of set up to support the weight of a belay or top rope. Approach The path or route to the start of a technical climb, although this is generally a walk or, at most, a scramble it is occasionally as hazardous as the climb itself. Arm bar Jamming an arm into a crack and locking it into place, in this position typically the first set of knuckles are hyperextended and the second have a sharp angle of about 90 degrees. This combines muscular effort with soft tissue tensions in order to apply the load, when used often, this position has been known to over-stress the tendons in fingers and lead to injuries. Ascend To climb a rope using aid device, ascender A device for ascending on a rope. Aspect The direction in which a slope faces, ATC A proprietary belay device manufactured by Black Diamond. Has become common term for any tubular belay devices, ATC originally stood for Air Traffic Controller. Automatic belay A fast method for setting up a two-point anchor in sport climbing, using the rope to attach to the anchor points
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