1.
Ancient Egypt
–
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
2.
Clothing in ancient Egypt
–
Ancient Egyptian clothes refers to clothing worn in ancient Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Egyptian clothing was filled with a variety of colors, adorned with precious gems and jewels, the fashions of the Ancient Egyptians were made for not only beauty but also comfort. Egyptian fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert, in ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical heat, linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibers from the stem of the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian societies, plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Wool was known, but considered impure, only the wealthy wore animal fibers that were the object of taboos. They were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden in temples and sanctuaries, peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti was worn by all people. The most common headdress was the khat or nemes, a cloth worn by men. From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments were simple, the men wore wrap around skirts known as the shendyt, which were belted at the waist, sometimes pleated or gathered in the front. During this time, mens skirts were short, as the Middle Kingdom of Egypt,1600 B. C. came, the skirt was worn longer. Then, around 1420 BC, there was a tunic or blouse with sleeves. During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, Ancient Egyptian women often wore simple sheath dresses called kalasiris, womens clothing in ancient Egypt was more conservative than mens clothing. The dresses were held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the ankle, while the edge could be worn above or below the breasts. The length of the dress denoted the social class of the wearer, beading or feathers were also used as an embellishment on the dress. Over the dress, women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, the shawl was a piece of cloth around 4 feet wide by 13 or 14 feet long. This was mostly worn pleated as well, female clothes only changed slightly through the millennia. Draped clothing sometimes gave the impression of different clothing. It was made of haïk, a fine muslin
3.
Tomb of Nebamun
–
The Tomb of Nebamun was located in the Theban Necropolis located on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes, in Egypt. The tomb was the source of a number of famous decorated tomb scenes that are currently on display in the British Museum, Nebamun was a middle-ranking official scribe and grain counter at the temple complex in Thebes. His tomb was discovered in 1820 by a young Greek, Giovanni d’Athanasi, who was acting as an agent for Henry Salt, the tombs plastered walls were richly and skilfully decorated with lively fresco paintings, depicting idealised views of Nebamun’s life and activities. D’Athanasi and his workmen literally hacked out the pieces he wanted with knives, saws, Salt sold these works to the British Museum in 1821, though some of other fragments became located in Berlin and possibly Cairo. In 2009 the British Museum opened up a new gallery dedicated to the display of the restored eleven wall fragments from the tomb
4.
Flax
–
Flax, Linum usitatissimum, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is a food and fiber crop cultivated in regions of the world. The textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, the oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word flax may refer to the fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is only as a cultivated plant, and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne. Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant. Cultivated flax plants grow to 1.2 m tall, with slender stems, the leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40 mm long, and 3 mm broad. The flowers are pale blue, 15–25 mm in diameter. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm in diameter, containing several brown seeds shaped like an apple pip. Flax was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region, evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed size by 9,000 years ago from Tell Ramad in Syria. Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland, in China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated also by at least 5,000 years ago. Flax was extensively cultivated in ancient Egypt, where the walls had paintings of flowering flax. Egyptian priests only wore linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity, phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean, and the Romans used it for their sails. Eventually, Flanders became the center of the linen industry in the European Middle Ages. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, Flax is grown for its oil, used as a nutritional supplement, and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as a plant in gardens. Flax fibers are used to make linen, the Latin species name usitatissimum means most useful. Flax fibers are taken from the stem of the plant, and are two to three times as strong as those of cotton, additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight
5.
Linen
–
Linen /ˈlɪnᵻn/ is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant. Linen is laborious to manufacture, but the fiber is very absorbent, many products are made of linen, aprons, bags, towels, napkins, bed linens, tablecloths, runners, chair covers, and mens and womens wear. The word linen is of West Germanic origin and cognate to the Latin name for the plant, linum. This word history has given rise to a number of terms in English, most notably line. Textiles in a linen weave texture, even made of cotton, hemp. Such fabrics generally also have their own names, for example fine cotton yarn in a linen-style weave is called Madapolam. The collective term linens is still used generically to describe a class of woven or knitted bed, bath, table. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments was traditionally made of linen, Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world, their history goes back many thousands of years. Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of dating to about 8000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in Georgia suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back even earlier to 36,000 BP. Linen was sometimes used as currency in ancient Egypt, egyptian mummies were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were fine for their day. In 1923 the German city Bielefeld issued banknotes printed on linen, today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long staple relative to cotton and other natural fibers, the word linen is derived from the Latin for the flax plant, which is linum, and the earlier Greek λίνον. The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in Georgia dated to thirty-six thousand years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date, in ancient Mesopotamia, flax was domesticated and linen was first produced. It was used mainly by the class of the society. The Sumerian poem of the courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi, translated by Samuel Noah Kramer and Diane Wolkstein and published in 1983, mentions flax and linen. It opens with briefly listing the steps of preparing linen from flax, in a form of questions, in ancient Egypt, linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds
6.
Textile
–
A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
7.
Loincloth
–
A loincloth is a one-piece garment, sometimes kept in place by a belt. It covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks, the loincloth, or breechcloth, is a basic form of dress, often worn as the only garment. Men have worn a loincloth as a piece of clothing which covers their genitals, not the buttocks. The loincloth is in essence a piece of material, bark-bast, leather, or cloth, despite its functional simplicity, the loincloth comes in many different forms. A breechcloth, or breechclout, consists of a strip of material passed between the thighs and secured by a belt, a loincloth is a long piece of cloth, passed between the thighs and wound around the waist. Breechcloths and loincloths are garments of dignity among those who wear them. The styles in which breechcloths and loincloths can be arranged are myriad, both the Bornean sirat and the Indian dhoti have fabric pass between the legs to support a mans genitals. A similar style of loincloth was also characteristic of ancient Meso-America, the male inhabitants of the area of modern Mexico wore a wound loincloth of woven fabric. One end of the loincloth was held up, the remainder passed between the thighs, wound about the waist, and secured in back by tucking. In Pre-Columbian South America, ancient Inca men wore a strip of cloth between their legs held up by strings or tape as a belt, the cloth was secured to the tapes at the back and the front portion hung in front as an apron, always well ornamented. The same garment, mostly in plain cotton but whose aprons are now, like T-shirts, some of the culturally diverse Amazonian Indians still wear an ancestral type of loincloth. Japanese men wore until recently a loincloth known as a fundoshi, the fundoshi is a 35 cm wide piece of fabric passed between the thighs and secured to cover the genitals. A breechcloth, or breechclout, is a form of loincloth consisting in a strip of material – usually a narrow rectangle – passed between the thighs and held up in front and behind by a belt or string, often, the flaps hang down in front and back. In most Native American tribes, men used to some form of breechcloth. The style differed from tribe to tribe, in many tribes, the flaps hung down in front and back, in others, the breechcloth looped outside the belt and was tucked into the inside, for a more fitted look. Sometimes, the breechcloth was much shorter and a decorated apron panel was attached in front, a Native American woman or teenage girl might also wear a fitted breechcloth underneath her skirt, but not as outerwear. However, in many young girls did wear breechcloths like the boys until they became old enough for skirts. Among the Mohave people of the American Southwest, a given to a young female symbolically recognizes her status as hwame
8.
Shendyt
–
The shendyt was a kilt-like garment worn in ancient Egypt. It was made of cloth and was worn around the waist, shendyts are depicted on pharaohs, deities, and commoners in a variety of situations in Egyptian artwork. The shendyt may have been an adaptation of early hunting skirts which allowed freedom of movement for the wearer, members of the military wore a version of the shendyt, as they too would need freedom of movement in battle. Shendyts worn by those of rank or class would have been made of finer materials. Appearance of the shendyt in Egyptian culture Statue image of King Men-Kau-Re wearing the shendyt kilt Group Statue of Ramesses III wearing the kilt with Horus
9.
Cape
–
A cape is a sleeveless outer garment, which drapes the wearers back, arms and chest, and fastens at the neck. Capes were common in medieval Europe, especially combined with a hood in the chaperon. Roman Catholic clergy wear a type of known as a ferraiolo. The cope is a vestment in the form of a cape. Capes are often decorated with elaborate embroidery. Capes remain in use as rain wear in various military units and police forces. A gas cape was a military garment designed to give rain protection to someone wearing the bulky gas masks used in twentieth century wars. The fashion cape does not cover the front to any appreciable degree, in raingear, a cape is usually a long and roomy protective garment worn to keep one dry in the rain. These capes may be short or a full-length cloak, typical fabrics used are velvet, silk and satin. Capes are still authorized as an alternative to the more utilitarian trench coat for U. S. Army officers in mess dress, caped overcoats were popular for men during the Victorian era, with some caped Ulsters featuring multiple layered capes, and the Inverness coat had a cape. The Inverness coat is no longer worn, and the Ulster lost its cape in the 1920s. The cape is a clothing item for superheroes in the American comic book genre. Most often, they are worn merely as a costume adornment, the supernatural character Spawn has a cape that obeys Spawns mental commands, changing shape to scare, confuse or even kill would-be attackers
10.
Tunic
–
A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
11.
Robe
–
A robe is a loose-fitting outer garment. Unlike garments described as capes or cloaks, robes usually have sleeves, the English word robe derives from Middle English robe, borrowed from Old French robe, itself taken from the Frankish word *rouba, and is related to the word rob. A gown worn as part of the attire of a judge or barrister, a wide variety of long, flowing religious dress including pulpit robes and the robes worn by various types of monks. A gown worn as part of the dress of a peer or royalty. Any of several womens fashions of French origin, as robe à langlaise, a gown worn in fantasy literature and role-playing games by wizards and other magical characters. A bathrobe worn mostly after bathing or swimming, any long flowing garment, for example, a cassock is sometimes called a robe, although a cassock is close-fitting
12.
Shirt
–
A shirt is a cloth garment for the upper body. Originally an undergarment worn exclusively by men, it has become, in American English, in British English, a shirt is more specifically a garment with a collar, sleeves with cuffs, and a full vertical opening with buttons or snaps. A shirt can also be worn with a necktie under the shirt collar, the small fringe formed during weaving along one edge of the cloth has been placed by the designer to decorate the neck opening and side seam. The shirt was an item of clothing that men could wear as underwear. Although the womans chemise was a related garment to the mans. In the Middle Ages, it was a plain, undyed garment worn next to the skin, in medieval artworks, the shirt is only visible on humble characters, such as shepherds, prisoners, and penitents. In the seventeenth century, mens shirts were allowed to show, in the eighteenth century, instead of underpants, men relied on the long tails of shirts. To serve the function of drawers, eighteenth-century costume historian Joseph Strutt believed that men who did not wear shirts to bed were indecent. Even as late as 1879, a shirt with nothing over it was considered improper. The shirt sometimes had frills at the neck or cuffs, in the sixteenth century, mens shirts often had embroidery, and sometimes frills or lace at the neck and cuffs and through the eighteenth century long neck frills, or jabots, were fashionable. Coloured shirts began to appear in the nineteenth century, as can be seen in the paintings of George Caleb Bingham. They were considered casual wear, for workers only, until the twentieth century. For a gentleman, to wear a sky-blue shirt was unthinkable in 1860 but had become standard by 1920 and, in 1980, constituted the most commonplace event. European and American women began wearing shirts in 1860, when the Garibaldi shirt, the first documented appearance of the expression “To give the shirt off one’s back, ” happened in 1771 as an idiom that indicates extreme desperation or generosity and is still in common usage. In 1827 Hannah Montague, a housewife in upstate New York, tired of constantly washing her husband’s entire shirt when only the collar needed it, she cut off his collars and devised a way of attaching them to the neckband after washing. It wasnt until the 1930s that collar stays became popular, although these early accessories resembled tie clips more than the small collar stiffeners available today. They connected the collar points to the necktie, keeping them in place Camp shirt – a loose, straight-cut, short sleeved shirt or blouse with a simple placket front-opening, a black tie or white tie. Guayabera – an embroidered dress shirt with four pockets, poet shirt – a loose-fitting shirt or blouse with full bishop sleeves, usually with large frills on the front and on the cuffs
13.
Pleat
–
A pleat is a type of fold formed by doubling fabric back upon itself and securing it in place. It is commonly used in clothing and upholstery to gather a wide piece of fabric to a narrower circumference, pleats are categorized as pressed, that is, ironed or otherwise heat-set into a sharp crease, or unpressed, falling in soft rounded folds. Pleats sewn into place are called tucks, a vertically hanging piece of fabric such as a skirt or a drape will often be described in terms of its fullness. Accordion pleats or knife pleats are a form of tight pleating which allows the garment to expand its shape when moving. Accordion pleating is also used for some dress sleeves, such as pleating the end of the elbow and this form of pleating inspired the skirt dancing of Loie Fuller. Accordion pleats may also be used in hand fans, box pleats are knife pleats back-to-back, and have a tendency to spring out from the waistline. They have the same 3,1 ratio as knife pleats and these stacked box pleats create more fullness and have a 5,1 ratio. They also create a bulkier seam, inverted box pleats have the box on the inside rather than the outside. Cartridge pleats are used to gather a large amount of fabric into a small waistband or armscye without adding bulk to the seam and this type of pleating also allows the fabric of the skirt or sleeve to spring out from the seam. During the 15th and 16th centuries, this form of pleating was popular in the garments of men and women, Fabric is evenly gathered using two or more lengths of basting stitches, and the top of each pleat is whipstitched onto the waistband or armscye. Cartridge pleating was resurrected in 1840s fashion to attach the increasingly full bell-shaped skirts to the narrow waist. Fluted pleats or flutings are very small, rounded or pressed pleats used as trimmings, the name comes from their resemblance to a pan flute. Fortuny pleats are crisp pleats set in silk fabrics by designer Mariano Fortuny in the early 20th century, honeycomb pleats are narrow, rolled pleats used as a foundation for smocking. Kick pleats are short pleats leading upwards from the hem of garments such as skirts or coats. They allow the garment to drape straight down when stationary while allowing freedom of movement. Organ pleats are parallel rows of softly rounded pleats resembling the pipes of a pipe organ, carl Köhler suggests that these are made by inserting one or more gores into a panel of fabric. Plissé pleats are narrow pleats set by gathering fabric with stitches, wetting the fabric, linen chemises or smocks pleated with this technique have been found in the 10th century Viking graves in Birka. Rolled pleats create tubular pleats which run the length of the fabric from top to bottom, a piece of the fabric to be pleated is pinched and then rolled until it is flat against the rest of the fabric, forming a tube
14.
Skirt
–
A skirt is the lower part of a dress or gown, covering the person from the waist downwards, or a separate outer garment serving this purpose. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, some fashion designers, such as Jean Paul Gaultier, have shown mens skirts. Modern skirts are made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better, a straw-woven skirt dating to 3900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts have been worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. The earliest known culture to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao and this was in reference to the short miniskirts that barely cover the buttocks worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom, at the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when seated. Costume historians typically use the word petticoat to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier, during the 19th century, the cut of womens dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust and gradually sank to the natural waist, skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear and it had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, broomstick skirt, a light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. Bubble dress/skirt, a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom, Cargo skirt, a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline, a full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats. Hobble skirt, a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to impede the wearers stride Kilt-skirt. Though traditionally designed as womens wear, it is fashioned to mimic the appearance of a mans kilt. Leather skirt, a made of leather Lehenga, a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India. Mini-crini, a version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt, a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration Puffball skirt, popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwoods mini-crini
15.
Muslin
–
Muslin is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, early muslin was handwoven of uncommonly delicate handspun yarn, especially in the region around Dhaka, Bengal. It was imported into Europe for much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, fine linen muslin was formerly known as sindon. In 2013, the art of weaving Jamdani muslin in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral. Muslin from French mousseline, from Italian mussolina, from Mussolo ‘Mosul’, although this view has the fabric named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, the fabric is believed to have originated in Dhakeshwari, now Dhaka the capital of Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman made note of the origin in Bengal. Bengali muslin was traded throughout the Muslim world, from the Middle East to Southeast Asia, in many Islamic regions, such as in Central Asia, the cloth was named Daka, after the city of Dhaka. Some believe Crusaders of the First Crusade found the cloth in the Middle East, subsequently, the word Muslin found its place in various European languages as French mousseline, Italian mussolina etc. In 1298, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels and he said it was made in Mosul, Iraq. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, during the Roman period Khadi muslin was introduced in Europe and a vast amounts of fabrics were traded to Europe for many centuries. It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world, brutality to muslin weavers was intense, William Bolts noting in 1772 that instances have been known of their cutting off their thumbs to prevent their being forced to wind silk. As a result, the quality of muslin suffered greatly and its finesse was nearly lost for two centuries, there have been various attempts at reviving the muslin industry in modern Bangladesh. At the end of the 16th century the English traveler Ralph Fitch greatly admired the muslin of Sonargaon, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa described the muslin of Bengal in the early 16th century. He mentioned a few types of fabrics, such as estrabante, mamona, fugoza, choutara, in present day, many different types of muslins are produced in many different places, including Dhaka. The word muslin is used colloquially. Under British rule, the British East India company could not compete with the local Muslin with their own export of cloth to India, Muslin production was repressed and the knowledge eradicated. Local weavers were systematically rounded up and their hands mutilated with removal of their thumbs, when sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting pieces from expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes
16.
Suspenders
–
Suspenders or braces are fabric or leather straps worn over the shoulders to hold up trousers. The straps may be elasticated, either entirely or only at attachment ends, Suspenders are typically attached to trousers with clips or buttons using leather tabs at the ends. Outside the United States the term suspenders, or suspender belt and this is called a garter belt in American English. There have been precursors to suspenders throughout the past 300 years. They were once almost universally worn, due to the cut of mid-nineteenth. During the nineteenth century, suspenders were sometimes called galluses, after losing popularity during World War I, when men became accustomed to uniform belts, suspenders were still regular attire throughout the 1920s. Because of their image as underwear, some men switched to belts during the 1930s as the vests which had hidden suspenders became worn less often and this also signaled the switch in position of securing buttons from the outside of the waistband to the inside. Life magazine stated in 1938 that 60% of American men chose belts over suspenders, though the return of fuller-cut trousers in the 1940s revived suspenders, they did not dominate over belts again to the same extent. However, in the UK they remained the norm to wear with suits, while suspenders have been in and out of fashion over the last century, there has been a brief resurgence in interest, possibly due to the styles seen in films like Wall Street. Many business people, newscasters and professionals such as lawyers also still wear suspenders, narrow, clip-on style suspenders are also a typical part of skinhead, and to a lesser extent, punk fashion. In skinhead and punk fashion, suspenders are typically between 3⁄4 and 1 inch in width, materials used for making suspenders have also changed over time, with newer additions such as rayon, a hard-wearing synthetic fiber, now offered. The traditional Woolen Boxcloth Suspenders remain available but are very costly, generally, a high quality rayon with elastic webbing is the fabric used to create suspenders, with silks webbing or tubed suiting cloths from mills such as Dugdale Bros of England also used. Good quality smart suspenders were traditionally considered white collar, or upper or upper-middle class and they were made to be attached to trousers by buttons sewn onto the waistband. There are relatively few current manufacturers in the UK, but the classic button-on reform end is quite widely available in the USA. In traditional or formal settings, it is considered a faux pas to wear both belt and suspenders at the time, though in the past this has not always been the case. Further, suspenders were traditionally considered an undergarment and, as such, were considered inappropriate to be seen, from their time of their invention until World War II, the waistcoat, or a jumper or cardigan for coolness in the summer, covered suspenders to prevent indecency. Similarly, jumpers and jackets kept the shirtsleeves hidden, in the inter-war period, however, men began removing jackets in public, and so this sensibility became eroded over time. It is perhaps only in Britain that a few die-hards still consider it gauche to wear, for example, generally, it is now considered acceptable fashion, on both sides of the Atlantic, for mens suspenders to be seen
17.
Isis
–
Isis is a goddess from the polytheistic pantheon of Egypt. She was first worshiped in ancient Egyptian religion, and later her worship spread throughout the Roman Empire, Isis was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the patroness of nature and magic. She was the friend of slaves, sinners, artisans and the downtrodden, Isis is often depicted as the mother of Horus, the falcon-headed deity associated with king and kingship. Isis is also known as protector of the dead and goddess of children, as the personification of the throne, she was an important representation of the pharaohs power. The pharaoh was depicted as her child, who sat on the throne she provided. Her cult was popular throughout Egypt, but her most important temples were at Behbeit El Hagar in the Nile delta, and, beginning in the reign with Nectanebo I, on the island of Philae in Upper Egypt. In the typical form of her myth, Isis was the first daughter of Geb, god of the Earth, and Nut, goddess of the Sky and she married her brother, Osiris, and she conceived Horus with him. Isis was instrumental in the resurrection of Osiris when he was murdered by Set, using her magical skills, she restored his body to life after having gathered the body parts that had been strewn about the earth by Set. This myth became very important during the Greco-Roman period, for example, it was believed that the Nile River flooded every year because of the tears of sorrow which Isis wept for Osiris. Osiriss death and rebirth was relived each year through rituals, the worship of Isis eventually spread throughout the Greco-Roman world, continuing until the suppression of paganism in the Christian era. The popular motif of Isis suckling her son Horus, however, the Greek name version of Isis is close to her original, Egyptian name spelling. Isis name was written with the signs of a throne seat. The grammar, spelling and used signs of Isis name never changed during time in any way, however, the symbolic and metaphoric meaning of Isis name remains unclear. The throne seat sign in her name might point to a role as a goddess of kingship. Thus, her name could mean she of the kings throne, but all other Egyptian deities have names that point to clear cosmological or nature elemental roles, thus the name of Isis shouldnt be connected to the king himself. The throne seat symbol might alternatively point to a meaning as throne-mother of the gods and this in turn would supply a very old existence of Isis, long before her first mentioning during the late Old Kingdom, but this hypothesis remains unproven. A third possible meaning might be hidden in the egg-symbol, that was used in Isis name. The egg-symbol always represented motherhood, implying a role of Isis
18.
Shoe
–
A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while the wearer is doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration and fashion, the design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally, fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones, contemporary footwear in the 2010s varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes made by famous designers may be made of materials, use complex construction. Some shoes are designed for specific purposes, such as boots designed specifically for mountaineering or skiing, traditionally, shoes have been made from leather, wood or canvas, but in the 2010s, they are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials. Though the human foot is adapted to varied terrain and climate conditions, it is vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground. Some shoes are worn as safety equipment, such as steel-soled boots which are required on construction sites, the earliest known shoes are sandals dating from approximately 7000 or 8000 BC, found in the Fort Rock Cave in the US state of Oregon in 1938. Ötzi the Icemans shoes, dating to 3300 BC, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, the Jotunheimen shoe was discovered in August 2006. Archaeologists estimate that the shoe was made between 1800 and 1100 BC, making it the oldest article of clothing discovered in Scandinavia. It is thought that shoes may have used long before this. By studying the bones of the toes, it was observed that their thickness decreased approximately 40,000 to 26,000 years ago. This led archaeologists to deduce that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth and these earliest designs were very simple in design, often mere foot bags of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. They were more commonly found in colder climates, many early natives in North America wore a similar type of footwear, known as the moccasin. These are tight-fitting, soft-soled shoes typically made out of leather or bison hides, many moccasins were also decorated with various beads and other adornments. Moccasins were not designed to be waterproof, and in wet weather and warm summer months, as civilizations began to develop, thong sandals were worn. This practice dates back to pictures of them in ancient Egyptian murals from 4000 BC, One pair found in Europe was made of papyrus leaves and dated to be approximately 1,500 years old. They were also worn in Jerusalem during the first century of the Common Era, thong sandals were worn by many civilizations and made from a wide variety of materials
19.
Sandal
–
Sandals are an open type of footwear, consisting of a sole held to the wearers foot by straps going over the instep and, sometimes, around the ankle. Sandals can also have a heel, while the distinction between sandals and other types of footwear can sometimes be blurry, the common understanding is that a sandal leaves most of the upper part of the foot exposed. People may choose to wear sandals for several reasons, among them comfort in warm weather, economy, usually, people wear sandals in warmer climates or during warmer parts of the year in order to keep their feet cool and dry. The risk of developing athletes foot is lower than with enclosed shoes, and the wearing of sandals may be part of the treatment regimen for such an infection. The oldest known sandals were discovered in Fort Rock Cave in the U. S. state of Oregon, radiocarbon dating of the bark from which they were woven indicates an age of at least 10,000 years. The word sandal is of Greek origin, the sole of the latter was sometimes made much thicker than usual by the insertion of slices of cork, so as to add to the stature of the wearer. The ancient Egyptians wore sandals made of palm-leaves and papyrus and they are sometimes observable on the feet of Egyptian statues and in reliefs, being carried by sandal-bearers. According to Herodotus, sandals of papyrus were a part of the required, a sandal may have a sole made from rubber, leather, wood, tatami or rope. A sandal may or may not have a heel or heel strap, crochet sandals Fisherman sandal is a type of T-bar sandal originally for men and boys. The toes are enclosed by a number of leather bands interwoven with the central length-wise strap that lies along the instep, an adjustable cross strap or bar is fastened with a buckle. The heel may be enclosed or secured by a single strap joined to the cross strap. The style appears to have originated in France, a similar style is sometimes called gladiator sandal High-heeled sandal, a type of sandal with an elevated heel. They allow the wearer to have an open shoe while being less casual or more formal, depending on the style of the sandal. Hiking and trekking sandals are designed for hiking or trekking in hot and tropical climates, usually using robust rubber outsole, suitable for any terrain and these sandals are usually shaped to support the arched contour of the foot. The straps are made of polyester or nylon webbing for quick drying after exposure to acid. Also suitable for other adventure sports and activities where quick drying and reduced perspiration is required. Ho Chi Minh sandals is one name for a homemade or cottage industry footwear, the cut from an old automobile tire. Made and worn in countries, they became wider known in the US as worn by the rural people of Indochina during the Vietnam War
20.
Leather
–
Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process
21.
Papyrus
–
The word papyrus /pəˈpaɪrəs/ refers to a thick precursor to modern paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus. Papyrus can also refer to a document written on sheets of papyrus joined together side by side and rolled up into a scroll, the plural for such documents is papyri. Papyrus is first known to have used in ancient Egypt. It was also used throughout the Mediterranean region and in Kingdom of Kush, the Ancient Egyptians used papyrus as a writing material, as well as employing it commonly in the construction of other artifacts such as reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the fourth millennium BCE, the earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast. The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the Great Pyramid of Giza, in the first centuries BCE and CE, papyrus scrolls gained a rival as a writing surface in the form of parchment, which was prepared from animal skins. Sheets of parchment were folded to form quires from which book-form codices were fashioned, early Christian writers soon adopted the codex form, and in the Græco-Roman world, it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices. Codices were an improvement on the scroll, as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking. Papyrus had the advantage of being cheap and easy to produce. Unless the papyrus was of quality, the writing surface was irregular. Its last appearance in the Merovingian chancery is with a document of 692, the latest certain dates for the use of papyrus are 1057 for a papal decree, under Pope Victor II, and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by more inexpensive paper introduced by Arabs who originally learned of it from the Chinese, by the 12th century, parchment and paper were in use in the Byzantine Empire, but papyrus was still an option. Papyrus was made in several qualities and prices, pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville described six variations of papyrus which were sold in the Roman market of the day. These were graded by quality based on how fine, firm, white, grades ranged from the superfine Augustan, which was produced in sheets of 13 digits wide, to the least expensive and most coarse, measuring six digits wide. Materials deemed unusable for writing or less than six digits were considered commercial quality and were pasted edge to edge to be used only for wrapping, until the middle of the 19th century, only some isolated documents written on papyrus were known. They did not contain literary works, the first modern discovery of papyri rolls was made at Herculaneum in 1752. Until then, the papyri known had been a few surviving from medieval times. The English word papyrus derives, via Latin, from Greek πάπυρος, Greek has a second word for it, βύβλος
22.
Perfume
–
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents - used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces a pleasant scent. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations, the word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning to smoke through. Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the worlds first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered, in India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, in 2004 –2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the worlds oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years and they were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4, 000-square-meter factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, the book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation and he first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking account the monks recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de Medici, Rene the Florentine and his laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume, cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing, partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, by the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design, Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types, the intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used
23.
Ancient history
–
Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC. This roughly coincides with the date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome. In India, ancient history includes the period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world, archaeology and the study of source texts, primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on. Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. The study of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, the city of Pompeii, an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans. The Terracotta Army, the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China, the discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquitys own historians. Although it is important to take account the bias of each ancient author. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, the earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, the Roman Empire was one of the ancient worlds most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived, prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago, the controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, 60–70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia
24.
Cosmetics
–
Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
25.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Kohl is an ancient eye cosmetic, traditionally made by grinding stibnite for similar purposes to charcoal used in mascara. It is widely used in South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and it is worn mostly by women, but also by some men and children. Kohl has also used in India as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants eyes soon after birth, some did this to strengthen the childs eyes, and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the evil eye. The Arabic name كحل kuḥl and the Biblical Hebrew כחל kaḥal are cognates, transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include kohl or kuhl. The Persian word for kohl is sormeh and it is known as either surmah or kājal in South Asia. In West Africa, it is known as tozali or kwalli. The English word alcohol is a loan of the Arabic word, the Russian word for antimony, сурьма, is a loan from the Persian term. The cosmetic palettes used for its preparation assumed a prominent role in the late Predynastic Egyptian culture, Kohl was originally used as protection against eye ailments. There was also a belief that darkening around the eyes would protect one from the rays of the sun. Galena eye paint was applied in Ancient Egypt. Upper eyelids were painted black and lower ones were colored green, Ancient graves from the pre-historic Tasian culture point to the early application of galena in Egypt, a custom stretching from the Badarian period through to the Coptic era. Although found locally, both black galena and green malachite were also imported from regions in Western Asia, Coptos. The 18th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut would also grind charred frankincense into kohl eyeliner and this is the first recorded use of the resin. The frankincense itself had originally been obtained during an expedition to the ancient Land of Punt in this New Kingdom dynasty, additionally, the pioneering Muslim scholar Ibn Abi Shayba described in a legal compilation how to apply kohl to the eye, as narrated by earlier authorities. Berber and Arab women in North Africa and the Middle East, respectively, a vertical line is drawn from the bottom lip to the chin and along the bridge of the nose. Originally the line from the lip to the chin shows whether a women is married or not. This form of using Kohl on the face originates from the Arabian Peninsula, usage of kohl eye paint in the Horn of Africa dates to the ancient Kingdom of Punt
26.
Galena
–
Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead sulfide. It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver, Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide minerals. It crystallizes in the crystal system often showing octahedral forms. It is often associated with the minerals sphalerite, calcite and fluorite, Galena is the main ore of lead, used since ancient times. Because of its low melting point, it was easy to liberate by smelting. In some deposits galena contains about 1–2% silver, a byproduct that far outweighs the main ore in revenue. Galena deposits often contain significant amounts of silver as included silver sulfide mineral phases or as limited solid solution within the galena structure. These argentiferous galenas have long been the most important ore of silver, Galena deposits are found worldwide in various environments. Galena also occurs in North African countries and at Mount Hermon in Northern Israel, in the United States, it occurs most notably in the Mississippi Valley type deposits of the Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri, and in the Driftless Area of Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin. The economic importance of galena to the history of the Driftless Area was so great that one of the towns in the region was named Galena. Galena also was a mineral of the zinc-lead mines of the tri-state district around Joplin in southwestern Missouri. Galena is also an important ore mineral in the mining regions of Colorado, Idaho, Utah. Of the latter, the Coeur dAlene district of northern Idaho was most prominent, Galena is the official state mineral of the U. S. states of Missouri and Wisconsin, the former mining town of Galena, Kansas takes its name from deposits of this mineral. Derbyshire in the UK was one of the areas where galena was mined. The largest documented crystal of galena is composite cubo-octahedra from the Great Laxey Mine, Isle of Man, Galena belongs to the octahedral sulfide group of minerals that have metal ions in octahedral positions, such as the iron sulfide pyrrhotite and the nickel arsenide niccolite. The galena group is named after its most common member, with other members that include manganese bearing alabandite and niningerite. Divalent lead cations and sulfur anions form a cubic unit cell much like the mineral halite of the halide mineral group. Zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, selenium substitutes for sulfur in the structure constituting a solid solution series
27.
Lead(II,IV) oxide
–
Lead oxide, also called minium, red lead or triplumbic tetroxide, is a bright red or orange crystalline or amorphous pigment. Chemically, red lead is Pb3O4, or 2 PbO·PbO2 and it is used in the manufacture of batteries, lead glass and rust-proof primer paints. Lead oxide has a crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to an orthorhombic form at temperature 170 K. This phase transition only changes the symmetry of the crystal and slightly modifies the interatomic distances and angles. Lead oxide is prepared by calcination of lead oxide in air at about 450 to 480 °C,6 PbO + O2 →2 Pb3O4 The resulting material is contaminated with lead oxide. g. The best known natural specimens come from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia, red lead is virtually insoluble in water and in alcohol. However, it is soluble in hydrochloric acid present in the stomach and it also dissolves in glacial acetic acid and a diluted mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. When heated to 500 °C, it decomposes to lead oxide, at 580 °C, the reaction is complete. Lead tetraoxide is most often used as a pigment for primer paints for iron objects, due to its toxicity, its use is being limited. In the past, it was used in combination with linseed oil as a thick, the combination of minium and linen fibres was also used for plumbing, now replaced with PTFE tape. Currently it is used for manufacture of glass, especially lead glass. It finds limited use in amateur pyrotechnics as a delay charge and was used in the past in the manufacture of Dragons eggs pyrotechnic stars. Red lead is used as an agent in some polychloroprene rubber compounds. It is used in place of magnesium oxide to provide better water resistance properties, red lead was also used for engineers scraping, before being supplanted by Engineers blue. When inhaled, lead oxide irritates lungs, in case of high dose, the victim experiences a metallic taste, chest pain, and abdominal pain. When ingested, it is dissolved in the acid and absorbed. High concentrations can be absorbed through skin as well, and it is important to safety precautions when working with lead-based paint. Long-term contact with lead oxide may lead to accumulation of lead compounds in organisms, chronic poisoning displays as agitation, irritability, vision disorders, hypertension, and also a grayish facial hue
28.
Malachite
–
Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula Cu2CO32. Individual crystals are rare but do occur as slender to acicular prisms, pseudomorphs after more tabular or blocky azurite crystals also occur. The stones name derives from Greek Μολοχίτης λίθος molochitis lithos, mallow-green stone, from μολόχη molōchē, variant of μαλάχη malāchē, the mineral was given this name due to its resemblance to the leaves of the mallow plant. Archeological evidence indicates that the mineral has been mined and smelted to obtain copper at Timna Valley in Israel for over 3,000 years, since then, malachite has been used as both an ornamental stone and as a gemstone. In ancient Egypt the colour green was associated with death and the power of resurrection as well as new life and they believed that the afterlife contained an eternal paradise which resembled their lives but with no pain or suffering, and referred to this place as the ‘Field of Malachite’. Malachite was used as a pigment in green paints from antiquity until about 1800. The pigment is moderately lightfast, very sensitive to acids, and this natural form of green pigment has been replaced by its synthetic form, verditer, among other synthetic greens. Malachite is also used for decorative purposes, such as in the Malachite Room in the Hermitage, which features a huge malachite vase, and the Malachite Room in Castillo de Chapultepec in Mexico City. The Tazza, a large vase, one of the largest pieces of malachite in North America. Malachite often results from the weathering of copper ores, and is found together with azurite, goethite. Except for its vibrant green color, the properties of malachite are similar to those of azurite, Malachite is more common than azurite and is typically associated with copper deposits around limestones, the source of the carbonate. Large quantities of malachite have been mined in the Urals, Russia, ural malachite is not being mined at present, but G. N Vertushkova reports the possible discovery of new deposits of malachite in the Urals. Virtual tour of the Malachite Room Malachite, Colourlex
29.
Ochre
–
Ochre (/ˈoʊkər/ OH-kər, from Greek, ὠχρός, ōkhrós, or ocher, is a natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide, which ranges in color from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the produced by this pigment. A variant of ochre containing an amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as red ochre. Ochre is a family of pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna. The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron oxide-hydroxide, known as limonite, which gives them a yellow color. Yellow ochre, FeO·nH 2O, is a hydrated iron hydroxide also called gold ochre Red ochre, Fe 2O3, takes its color from the mineral hematite. Purple ochre, is identical to red ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction properties associated with an average particle size. Brown ochre, also FeO, is a hydrated iron oxide. Sienna contains both limonite and an amount of manganese oxide, which makes it darker than ochre. Umber pigments contain a proportion of manganese which make them a dark brown. When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colors, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are non-toxic, and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly, modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 on the label, pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of the Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago. In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in sites at Pech Merle in France. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old. In Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be eternal, the skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used orpiment
30.
Henna
–
Henna is a flowering plant and the sole species of the Lawsonia genus. The English name henna comes from the Arabic حِنَّاء or, colloquially حنا, the name henna also refers to the dye prepared from the plant and the temporary body art based on those dyes. Henna has been used since antiquity to dye skin, hair and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool and leather. Historically, henna was used in the Arabian Peninsula, South Asia, parts of South East Asia, Carthage, other parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The name is used in skin and hair dyes, such as black henna and neutral henna. Henna was originally made from the feces of the dromedary, or one-humped camel, which inhabits the Middle East and it is glabrous and multi-branched, with spine-tipped branchlets. The leaves grow opposite each other on the stem and they are glabrous, sub-sessile, elliptical, and lanceolate, acuminate, and have depressed veins on the dorsal surface. Henna flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm calyx tube and its petals are obvate, with white or red stamens found in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube. The ovary is four-celled,5 mm long, and erect, Henna fruits are small, brownish capsules, 4–8 mm in diameter, with 32–49 seeds per fruit, and open irregularly into four splits. The henna plant is native to northern Africa, western and southern Asia and it produces the most dye when grown in temperatures between 35 and 45 °C. During the onset of precipitation intervals, the plant grows rapidly, the leaves gradually yellow and fall during prolonged dry or cool intervals. It does not thrive where minimum temperatures are below 11 °C, temperatures below 5 °C will kill the henna plant. Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin, Henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are made available from the henna leaf. Dried henna leaves will stain the skin if they are mashed into a paste, the lawsone will gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a fast stain. Since it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarse crushed leaves, the dry powder is mixed with one of a number of liquids, including water, lemon juice, or strong tea, and other ingredients, depending on the tradition. Many artists use sugar or molasses in the paste to improve consistency, the henna mix must rest for 1 to 48 hours before use, to release the lawsone from the leaf matter. The timing depends on the crop of henna being used, essential oils with high levels of monoterpene alcohols, such as tea tree, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain characteristics. Other essential oils, such as eucalyptus and clove, are useful but are too irritating
31.
Tattoo
–
A tattoo is a form of body modification, where a design is made by inserting ink, dyes and pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to change the pigment. The word tattoo, or tattow in the 18th century, is a loanword from the Polynesian word tatau, the Oxford English Dictionary gives the etymology of tattoo as In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. Before the importation of the Polynesian word, the practice of tattooing had been described in the West as painting, scarring and this is not to be confused with the origins of the word for the military drumbeat or performance — see military tattoo. In this case, the English word tattoo is derived from the Dutch word taptoe, the word tattoo was brought to Europe by the explorer James Cook, when he returned in 1769 from his first voyage to Tahiti and New Zealand. In his narrative of the voyage, he refers to an operation called tattaw, mainstream art galleries hold exhibitions of both conventional and custom tattoo designs such as Beyond Skin, at the Museum of Croydon. Copyrighted tattoo designs that are mass-produced and sent to tattoo artists are known as flash, flash sheets are prominently displayed in many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and ready-made tattoo images to customers. The most common used for traditional Japanese tattoo designs is Horimono. Japanese may use the word tattoo to mean non-Japanese styles of tattooing, anthropologist Ling Roth in 1900 described four methods of skin marking and suggested they be differentiated under the names tatu, moko, cicatrix, and keloid. According to George Orwell, coal miners could develop characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds and this can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several layers of skin, the symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a relative or about an unrelated person, some Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. In Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, the tattoo is used for protection against evil. Text-based tattoos including quotes, lyrics, personal mottos or scripture are popular in western culture, as an example some Christians might have a Psalm or verse from the Bible tattooed on their body. Popular verses include John 3,16, Philippians 4,13, in the Philippines certain tribal groups believe tattoos have magical qualities, and help to protect their bearers. Most traditional tattooing in the Philippines is related to the accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe. Extensive decorative tattooing is common among members of traditional freak shows, people have also been forcibly tattooed. During registration, the Nazis would pierce the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the prisoners arms, only Auschwitz put tattoos on inmates, of all the Nazi concentration camps
32.
Myrrh
–
Myrrh is a natural gum or resin extracted from a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus Commiphora. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense, Myrrh mixed with wine can also be ingested. When a tree wound penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. When people harvest myrrh, they wound the trees repeatedly to bleed them of the gum, Myrrh gum is waxy and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy, the gum is yellowish and may be either clear or opaque. It darkens deeply as it ages, and white streaks emerge, Myrrh gum is commonly harvested from the species Commiphora myrrha. Another commonly used name, Commiphora molmol, is now considered a synonym of Commiphora myrrha, Commiphora myrrha is native to parts of Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, Somalia, Eritrea and eastern Ethiopia. Meetiga, the trade-name of Arabian Myrrh, is brittle and gummy than the Somalian variety. The oleo gum resins of a number of other Commiphora species are used as perfumes, medicines. These myrrh-like resins are known as opopanax, balsam, bdellium, guggul bisabol, fragrant myrrh beads are made from the crushed seeds of Detarium microcarpum, an unrelated West African tree. These beads are worn by married women in Mali as multiple strands around the hips. The name myrrh is also applied to the potherb Myrrhis odorata, liquid myrrh, or stacte, written about by Pliny, was an ingredient of Jewish holy incense, and was formerly greatly valued but cannot now be identified in todays markets. The word myrrh derives from the Aramaic ܡܪܝܪܐ, and Arabic مر ، meaning bitter, in pharmacy, myrrh is used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes, gargles, and toothpastes. Myrrh is currently used in some liniments and healing salves that may be applied to abrasions, Myrrh has also been recommended as an analgesic for toothaches and can be used in liniment for bruises, aches, and sprains. Myrrh is an ingredient of tooth powders. Myrrh and borax in tincture can be used as a mouth-wash, a compound tincture, or horse tincture, using myrrh is used in veterinary practice for healing wounds. Myrrh gum is used for indigestion, ulcers, colds, cough, asthma, lung congestion, arthritis pain, research data indicated that the extract killed all of the cancer cells in laboratory dishes. In traditional Chinese medicine, myrrh is classified as bitter and spicy and it is said to have special efficacy on the heart, liver, and spleen meridians as well as blood-moving powers to purge stagnant blood from the uterus
33.
Ahmose (queen)
–
Ahmose was an Ancient Egyptian queen in the Eighteenth Dynasty. She was the Great Royal Wife of the third pharaoh, Thutmose I. Her name means Born of the Moon and it is not known who Ahmoses father and mother were. It has been suggested that Ahmose was either a daughter of pharaoh Amenhotep I or a daughter of pharaoh Ahmose I, Ahmose was never called a Kings Daughter. This fact creates some doubt about these theories about Ahmoses royal family connections, however, Ahmose did hold the title Kings Sister. This may suggest that she was a sister of pharaoh Thutmose I and she is depicted in Deir-el-Bahari and she appears there with a daughter named Neferubity. Ahmose was also the mother of the queen-pharaoh Hatshepsut and it is not known with certainty whether Princes Amenmose and Wadjmose were her sons. They are generally thought to be the sons of Queen Mutnofret, an official named Yuf served as the second prophet of the dues of the altar, the door-keeper of the temple, and as a priest. He also served a number of royal women and he first served queen Ahhotep, the mother of pharaoh Ahmose I, he was responsible for repairing the disturbed tomb of Queen Sobekemsaf, and eventually served Queen Ahmose. Yuf recorded that Queen Ahmose appointed him as assistant treasurer and entrusted him with the service to a statue of her majesty, Sister of Thutmose the 199th Ahmose features prominently in the divine conception scenes. Hatshepsut had scenes created showing how the god Amun approached her mother, Ahmose, the inscriptions show how the god Thoth first mentions Queen Ahmose to Amun. Ahmose is her name, the beneficent, mistress of, She is the wife of the king Aakheperkare, the god Amun then proceeds to the palace and makes himself known to the Queen. They proceed to conceive a child and Amun declares that she should be named Khnemet-Amun-Hatshepsut, Amun proceeds to the god Khnum and instructs him to create Hatshepsut. The scenes continue to show the confinement of the queen and the birth of her divine daughter, many years later Pharaoh Amenhotep III copied these scenes almost exactly to show how Amun visited his mother queen Mutemwiya and conceived the royal prince
34.
Thutmose I
–
Thutmose I was the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He received the throne after the death of the previous king, during his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt farther than ever before. He also built temples in Egypt, and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings. He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose IIs sister and it has been speculated Thutmoses father was Amenhotep I. His mother, Senseneb, was of non-royal parentage and may have been a wife or concubine. Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession, however, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhoteps alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhoteps name with Thutmoses name well before Amenhoteps death, secondly, Thutmoses first-born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmoses coronation. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose, Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret and this son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut. It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, however, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsuts supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power. A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmoses predecessor, Amenhotep I, the year of Amenhoteps death and Thutmoses subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at either Heliopolis or Memphis, as a minority of scholars promote, manetho records that Thutmose Is reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months as a certain Mephres in his Epitome. This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a block in Karnak. According to the autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose traveled up the Nile and fought in the battle. Upon victory, he had the Nubian kings body hung from the prow of his ship and this helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with no, Year 3, first month of the third season. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush and this indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria, hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year. This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned, although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River
35.
Sidelock of youth
–
The sidelock of youth was an identifying characteristic of the child in Ancient Egypt. It symbolically indicates that the wearer is a heir of Osiris. The sidelock was used as an attribute from at least as early as the Old Kingdom. In earlier depictions, the sidelock can be seen with short hat-like hairstyles in, for example, later it was usually attached to an almost shoulder-length wig, which was worn in three styles, curled, straight, or in tresses. Based on the connection between sidelocks and children, Egyptologists coined the term sidelock of youth and they are worn by both mortal and divine children. The name sidelock of youth is not entirely accurate, since it is usually a rather than a lock. In Middle Kingdom depictions, the end is rolled to the front, the sidelock was generally worn on the right. In reliefs it can be depicted on the left or the right, a strand of hair was separated off from the side of the skull, itself further separated into three individual braids. The braided portion was held in place by a clasp at its point of origin, thereafter there were several different possibilities, such as the triple braided sidelock, whose three strands converged in a spiral. Only in a few cases was it gathered with a clasp at its point of origin and ended with a spiral, further types of divine sidelock are also known. The Horus lock, like the sidelock was braided from three strands of hair, which seem to terminate in a shape and are connected with the goddess Mafdet in Egyptian mythology. The sidelock of youth was used by the children of the Pharaohs, not only to them to be children. Like them, the young Horus had worn the sidelock as the heir apparent of his father Osiris, in iconography, royal children were depicted naked and sucking on their finger, with their heads shaved entirely bald except for the sidelock. Amenhotep I, as well as Thutmoses III, reused the special form of the Middle Kingdom, again in the Late Period, the Middle Kingdom depiction of the sidelock was revived. With the beginning of the New Kingdom, the lock of youth achieved central significance as a symbol of the princes and princesses of the 18th Dynasty. Das Kind im Alten Ägypten - Die Stellung des Kindes in Familie und Gesellschaft nach altägyptischen Texten und Darstellungen -
36.
Wig
–
A wig is a head covering made from human hair, animal hair, or synthetic fiber. The word wig is short for periwig and first appeared in the English language around 1675, some people wear wigs to disguise baldness, a wig may be used as a less intrusive and less expensive alternative to medical therapies for restoring hair. In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair, the ancient Egyptians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using beeswax, wealthy Egyptian would wear elaborate wigs and scented cones of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Jews in ancient Israel, Greeks and Romans, in Korea, gache were popular among women until it was banned in the late 18th century, while wigs were rarely used in China and Japan except in the traditional theatre. Fur hoods were used in a similar preventative fashion. Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig and this fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France that contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries. Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and these wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court, and it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection. That it had cut off the heads of people dead of the plague. With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige, a wigmakers guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Such wigs were expensive to produce, the best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative, in the 18th century, mens wigs were powdered in order to give them their distinctive white or off-white color. Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources, women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground starch that was scented with orange flower, lavender, wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often used as off-white. Powdered wigs and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces became essential for full dress occasions, the elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving Five Orders of Periwigs. By the 1780s, young men were setting a trend by lightly powdering their natural hair. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court
37.
Wool
–
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur, it is crimped, Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the layer of the skin called the epidermis. Follicles can be classed as primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers, secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp, Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wools scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation, felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers, a fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, on sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow, Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics and it is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers, Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four categories, fleece, broken, bellies. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength, the sheep is given a dip in antiseptic solution after shearing, so as to cure the wounds caused during shearing
38.
Pschent
–
The Pschent was the name of the Double Crown worn by rulers in Ancient Egypt. The Ancient Egyptians generally referred to it as sekhemti, the Two Powerful Ones and it combined the Red Deshret Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Hedjet Crown of Upper Egypt. The Pschent represented the power over all of unified Egypt. These were fastened to the front of the Pschent and referred to as the Two Ladies, later, the vulture head sometimes was replaced by a second cobra. The Cairo fragment, on the hand, shows these prehistoric rulers wearing the Pschent. As is the case with the Deshret and the Hedjet Crowns and it is known only from statuary, depictions, inscriptions, and ancient tales. Among the deities sometimes depicted wearing the Double Crown are Horus and Atum or Ra both representing the pharaoh or having a special relationship to the pharaoh
39.
Pharaoh
–
The word pharaoh ultimately derive from the Egyptian compound pr-ˤ3 great house, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr house and ˤ3 column, here meaning great or high. It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ˤ3 Courtier of the High House, with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the twelfth dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health, but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. During the reign of Thutmose III in the New Kingdom, after the rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period. During the eighteenth dynasty the title pharaoh was employed as a designation of the ruler. From the nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ˤ3 on its own was used as regularly as hm. f, the term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the twenty-second dynasty and twenty-third dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the pharaoh being attached to a rulers name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun and this new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the twenty-second dynasty kings. Shoshenq I was the successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives, by this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *par-ʕoʔ whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Φερων. In the Bible, the title also occurs as פרעה, from that, Septuagint φαραώ pharaō and then Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Quran likewise spells it فرعون firawn with n, interestingly, the Arabic combines the original pharyngeal ayin sound from Egyptian, along with the -n ending from Greek. English at first spelt it Pharao, but the King James Bible revived Pharaoh with h from the Hebrew, meanwhile in Egypt itself, *par-ʕoʔ evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ prro and then rro. Scepters and staves were a sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-scepter, the earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to pre-dynastic times. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to the late Naqada period, another scepter associated with the king is the was-scepter. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head, the earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the first dynasty
40.
Divinity
–
Such things are regarded as divine due to their transcendental origins or because their attributes or qualities are superior or supreme relative to things of the Earth. Divine things are regarded as eternal and based in truth, while things are regarded as ephemeral. Such things that may qualify as divine are apparitions, visions, prophecies, miracles, and in some also the soul, or more general things like resurrection, immortality, grace. Otherwise what is or is not divine may be loosely defined, the root of the word divine is literally godly, but the use varies significantly depending on which deity is being discussed. This article outlines the major distinctions in the use of the terms. For specific related academic terms, see Divinity, or Divine, for instance, Jehovah is closely associated with storms and thunder throughout much of the Old Testament. He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of his anger and this power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies. Divinity always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, pantheistic and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction, gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón. There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse, In monotheistic faiths, the divinity is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith. Often the word takes the article and is capitalized — the Divinity — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Divine — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers and this leads to the second usage of the word divine, to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world. In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention, for pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms, miracles, visions, transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on the will of the Divine, in deferences like the Muslim inshallah, in the third usage, extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals. More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, in Greek mythology, Achilles mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and Hercules — as the son of Zeus — inherited near-godly powers. In religious Taoism, Lao Tsu is venerated as a saint with his own powers, various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious forms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers
41.
Hathor
–
Hathor is an Ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of joy, feminine love, and motherhood. She was one of the most important and popular throughout the history of Ancient Egypt. Hathor was worshipped by royalty and common people alike, in tomb paintings, she is often depicted as Mistress of the West, welcoming the dead into the next life. In other roles, she was a goddess of music, dance, foreign lands and she was believed to assist women in childbirth. She was also believed to be the goddess of miners. Hathor is commonly depicted as a cow goddess with horns in which is set a sun disk with Uraeus, twin feathers are also sometimes shown in later periods as well as a menat necklace. The Ancient Egyptians viewed reality as multi-layered in which deities who merge for various reasons, while retaining divergent attributes and myths, were not seen as contradictory but complementary. In a complicated relationship Hathor is at times the mother, daughter and wife of Ra and, like Isis, is at times described as the mother of Horus, the cult of Osiris promised eternal life to those deemed morally worthy. Originally the justified dead, male or female, became an Osiris but by early Roman times females became identified with Hathor, the Ancient Greeks sometimes identified Hathor with the goddess Aphrodite. Hathor is ambiguously depicted until the fourth dynasty, in the historical era Hathor is shown using the imagery of a cow deity. At times they are regarded as one and the goddess, though likely having separate origins. The evidence pointing to the deity being Hathor in particular is based on a passage from the Pyramid texts which states that the Kings apron comes from Hathor, from the Old Kingdom she was also called Lady of the Sycamore in her capacity as a tree deity. Hathor had a relationship with Ra. At times she is the eye of Ra and considered his daughter and she absorbed this role from another cow goddess Mehet-Weret who was the mother of Ra in a creation myth and carried him between her horns. As a mother she gave birth to Ra each morning on the eastern horizon, the Milky Way was seen as a waterway in the heavens, sailed upon by both the sun deity and the moon, leading the ancient Egyptians to describe it as The Nile in the Sky. Hathor also was favoured as a protector in desert regions, as Serabit el-Khadim was where turquoise was mined, Hathors titles included Lady of Turquoise, Mistress of Turquoise, and Lady of Turquoise Country. Hathors identity as a cow, perhaps depicted as such on the Narmer Palette, meant that she identified with another ancient cow-goddess of fertility. The assimilation of Bat, who was associated with the sistrum, in this later form, Hathors cult became centred in Dendera in Upper Egypt and it was led by priestesses and priests who also were dancers, singers and other entertainers
42.
Jewellery
–
Jewellery or jewelry consists of small decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes, for many centuries metal, often combined with gemstones, has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as shells and other plant materials may be used. It is one of the oldest type of archaeological artefact – with 100, historically, the most widespread influence on jewellery in terms of design and style have come from Asia. Jewellery may be made from a range of materials. Gemstones and similar such as amber and coral, precious metals, beads, and shells have been widely used. In most cultures jewellery can be understood as a symbol, for its material properties, its patterns. Jewellery has been made to nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings. The word jewellery itself is derived from the jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French jouel. In British English, Indian English, New Zealand English, Hiberno-English, Australian English, both are used in Canadian English, though jewelry prevails by a two to one margin. Numerous cultures store wedding dowries in the form of jewellery or make jewellery as a means to store or display coins, alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good, an example being the use of slave beads. Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles, originated as functional items. Jewellery can also symbolise group membership or status, wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures. These may take the form of symbols, stones, plants, animals, body parts, in creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery, bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, most contemporary gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity, many whimsical fashions were introduced in the extravagant eighteenth century. Cameos that were used in connection with jewellery were the attractive trinkets along with many of the objects such as brooches, ear-rings. Some of the necklets were made of pieces joined with the gold chains were in and bracelets were also made sometimes to match the necklet
43.
Emerald
–
Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Beryl has a hardness of 7. 5–8 on the Mohs scale, most emeralds are highly included, so their toughness is classified as generally poor. The word emerald is derived, from Vulgar Latin, esmaralda/esmaraldus, a variant of Latin smaragdus, emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters–the four Cs of Connoisseurship, Color, Clarity, Cut and Carat weight. Before the 20th century, jewelers used the water, as in a gem of the finest water. Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion, however, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, in the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of emerald to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl as emerald. As a result, vanadium emeralds purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK, in America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as Colombian Emerald. In gemology, color is divided into three components, hue, saturation, and tone, emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green. Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds, only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emerald, light-toned gems are known instead by the species name green beryl. The finest emerald are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone would be colorless, in addition, a fine emerald should be well saturated and have a hue that is bright. Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emerald, Emerald tends to have numerous inclusions and surface breaking fissures. Unlike diamond, where the standard, i. e. 10× magnification, is used to grade clarity. Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye it is considered flawless, stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated to enhance the apparent clarity. The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometime described as jardin, imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone. Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue, with no more than 15% of any hue or combination of a medium-dark tone. The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge. Most emeralds are oiled as part of the process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved. Cedar oil, having a refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice
44.
Pearl
–
A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as a conulariid. Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate. in minute crystalline form, the ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes, known as baroque pearls, can occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been valued as gemstones. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare, fine, the most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild, but are extremely rare. These wild pearls are referred to as natural pearls, cultured or farmed pearls from pearl oysters and freshwater mussels make up the majority of those currently sold. Imitation pearls are widely sold in inexpensive jewelry, but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor and is easily distinguished from that of genuine pearls. Pearls have been harvested and cultivated primarily for use in jewelry and they have also been crushed and used in cosmetics, medicines and paint formulations. Whether wild or cultured, gem-quality pearls are almost always nacreous and iridescent, however, almost all species of shelled mollusks are capable of producing pearls of lesser shine or less spherical shape. The English word pearl comes from the French perle, originally from the Latin perna meaning leg, nacreous pearls, the best-known and most commercially significant, are primarily produced by two groups of molluskan bivalves or clams. A nacreous pearl is made from layers of nacre, by the same living process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell, natural pearls, formed without human intervention, are very rare. Cultured pearls are formed in pearl farms, using human intervention as well as natural processes, saltwater pearls can grow in several species of marine pearl oysters in the family Pteriidae. Freshwater pearls grow within certain species of mussels in the order Unionida. The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction, the thinner and more numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, in addition, pearls can be dyed yellow, green, blue, brown, pink, purple, or black. The very best pearls have a metallic mirror-like luster, because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate, they can be dissolved in vinegar. Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acid in the vinegar to form calcium acetate. Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar, but they come from different sources, Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels, family Unionidae, which live in lakes, rivers, ponds and other bodies of fresh water. These freshwater pearl mussels occur not only in hotter climates, most freshwater cultured pearls sold today come from China
45.
Lapis lazuli
–
Lapis lazuli, or lapis for short, is a deep blue, semi-precious stone prized since antiquity for its intense color. As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai, Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation. Lapis beads have been found at burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus. It was used in the mask of Tutankhamun. At the end of the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into ultramarine, today, mines in northeast Afghanistan and Pakistan are still the major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are produced from mines west of Lake Baikal in Russia. Smaller quantities are mined in Italy, Mongolia, the United States, the name Lapis lazuli came to be associated with its color. The English word azure, French azur, Italian azzurro, Polish lazur, Romanian azur and azuriu, Portuguese and Spanish azul, the most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is lazurite, a feldspathoid silicate mineral with the formula 861-2. Most lapis lazuli also contains calcite, sodalite, and pyrite, some samples of lapis lazuli contain augite, diopside, enstatite, mica, hauynite, hornblende, nosean, and sulfur-rich löllingite geyerite. Lapis lazuli usually occurs in marble as a result of contact metamorphism. The intense blue color is due to the presence of the radical anion in the crystal. An electronic excitation of one electron from the highest doubly filled molecular orbital into the lowest singly occupied orbital results in an intense absorption line at λmax ~617 nm. Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the Kokcha River valley of Badakhshan province in northeastern Afghanistan, Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained this material through trade from Afghanistan, during the height of the Indus Valley Civilisation about 2000 BC, the Harappan colony now known as Shortugai was established near the lapis mines. In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the Andes and it is mined in smaller amounts in Angola, Argentina, Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado. Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewelry, carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, small statues, during the Renaissance, Lapis was ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine for use in frescoes and oil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended in the early 19th century when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available, Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gilson process, which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates. It may also be substituted by spinel or sodalite, or by dyed jasper or howlite, Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the Neolithic age
46.
Motif (visual arts)
–
In art and iconography, a motif is an element of an image. A motif may be repeated in a pattern or design, often many times, the related motif of confronted animals is often seen alone, but may also be repeated, for example in Byzantine silk and other ancient textiles. Ornamental or decorative art can usually be analysed into a number of different elements and these may often, as in textile art, be repeated many times in a pattern. Important examples in Western art include acanthus, egg and dart, many designs in Islamic culture are motifs, including those of the sun, moon, animals such as horses and lions, flowers, and landscapes. Motifs can have effects and be used for propaganda. The idea of a motif has become used more broadly in discussing literature, geometric, typically repeated, Meander, palmette, rosette, gul in Oriental rugs, acanthus, egg and dart, Bead and reel, Pakudos, Sauwastika, Adinkra symbols. Figurative, Master of Animals, confronted animals, velificatio, Death, dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-26869-1 Jones, Owen. Dover Publications, Revised edition, ISBN 0-486-25463-1 Welch, Patricia Bjaaland, chinese art, a guide to motifs and visual imagery. Turtle Publishing, ISBN 0-8048-3864-X Visual motifs Theater of Drawing
.jpg)
_01.jpg)
