1.
Conceptual art
–
Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Some works of art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the art critic Clement Greenbergs vision of Modern art during the 1950s. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as conceptual with an artists intention. The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades. The artistic tradition does not see an object as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art. This concept, also called Art esthapériste, derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually, the current incarnation of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small. In 1961 the term art, coined by the artist Henry Flynt in his article bearing the term as its title. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts, in 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s - in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is, later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. Lawrence Weiner said, Once you know about a work of mine you own it, theres no way I can climb inside somebodys head and remove it. It is sometimes reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s. This linguistic turn reinforced and legitimized the direction the artists took. Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art, osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9,2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art
Conceptual art
–
Joseph Kosuth,
One and Three Chairs (1965)
Conceptual art
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Marcel Duchamp,
Fountain, 1917. Photograph by
Alfred Stieglitz
Conceptual art
–
Lawrence Weiner. Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of a Whole, The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005.
Conceptual art
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Stuckist artists leave a coffin, marked "The death of conceptual art", outside the
White Cube gallery in
Shoreditch, July 25, 2002.
2.
Philosophical realism
–
Contemporary philosophical realism is the belief that some aspects of reality are ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes, perceptions, linguistic practices, beliefs, etc. Realism may be spoken of with respect to other minds, the past, the future, universals, mathematical entities, moral categories, the material world, and thought. Realism can also be promoted in a sense, in which case it asserts the mind-independent existence of the world. Philosophers who profess realism often claim that truth consists in a correspondence between cognitive representations and reality, realists tend to believe that whatever we believe now is only an approximation of reality but that the accuracy and fullness of understanding can be improved. In some contexts, realism is contrasted with idealism, today it is more usually contrasted with anti-realism, for example in the philosophy of science. The oldest use of the term appears in medieval scholastic interpretations and adaptations of Greek philosophy. As universals were considered by Plato to be ideal forms, this stance is also called Platonic idealism. Platos Forms include numbers and geometrical figures, making them a theory of realism, they also include the Form of the Good. Medieval realism developed out of debates over the problem of universals, universals are terms or properties that can be applied to many things, such as red, beauty, five, or dog. Realism in this context, contrasted with conceptualism and nominalism, holds that such universals really exist, independently, moderate Realism holds that they exist, but only insofar as they are instantiated in specific things, they do not exist separately from the specific thing. Conceptualism holds that they exist, but only in the mind and its roots can be found in responses to such philosophers as John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume. The common sense realists found skepticism to be absurd and so contrary to experience that it had to be rejected. Naïve realism, also known as realism, is a philosophy of mind rooted in a common sense theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. In contrast, some forms of idealism assert that no world exists apart from mind-dependent ideas, the naive realist view is that objects have properties, such as texture, smell, taste and colour, that are usually perceived absolutely correctly. We perceive them as they really are, scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by science is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. Within philosophy of science, it is framed as an answer to the question how is the success of science to be explained. The debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of unobservable entities apparently talked about by scientific theories, generally, those who are scientific realists assert that one can make reliable claims about unobservables as observables. Analytical philosophers generally have a commitment to realism, in the sense of regarding the scientific method as a reliable guide to the nature of reality
Philosophical realism
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
3.
Scholasticism
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It originated as an outgrowth of and a departure from Christian monastic schools at the earliest European universities. The Scholastic thought is known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to other fields of study. Some of the figures of scholasticism include Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure. Important work in the tradition has been carried on well past Aquinass time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina. The terms scholastic and scholasticism derive from the Latin word scholasticus and the latter from the Greek σχολαστικός, forerunners of Christian scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally science of discourse, and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam. The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages, charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire and these schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning. During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the west except in Ireland, Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena, one of the founders of scholasticism, Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers. The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury and this period saw the beginning of the rediscovery of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the half of that century. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, as these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, at the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities The 13th, the early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe, powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. His work formed the basis of the commentaries that followed
Scholasticism
–
14th-century image of a university lecture
Scholasticism
4.
William of Ockham
–
William of Ockham was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. He is commonly known for Occams razor, the principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April, William of Ockham was born in Ockham, Surrey in 1285 and joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, because of this, he acquired the honorific title Venerabilis Inceptor, or Venerable Beginner. During the Middle Ages, theologian Peter Lombards Sentences had become a work of theology. William of Ockham was among these scholarly commentators, however, Ockhams commentary was not well received by his colleagues, or by the Church authorities. In 1324, his commentary was condemned as unorthodox by a synod of bishops and it is generally believed that these charges were levied by Oxford chancellor John Lutterell. The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had summoned to Avignon. A theological commission had been asked to review his Commentary on the Sentences, Michael of Cesena had asked Ockham to review arguments surrounding Apostolic poverty. The Franciscans believed that Jesus and his apostles owned no property either individually or in common, and this brought them into conflict with Pope John XXII. After studying the works of John XXII and previous papal statements, in return for protection and patronage Ockham wrote treatises that argued for emperor Louis to have supreme control over church and state in the Holy Roman Empire. However it should be noted that Ockhams philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical and he spent much of the remainder of his life writing about political issues, including the relative authority and rights of the spiritual and temporal powers. After Michael of Cesenas death in 1342, William became the leader of the band of Franciscan dissidents living in exile with Louis IV. Ockham died on 9 April 1347 and he was officially rehabilitated by Innocent VI in 1359. William of Ockham believed only faith gives us access to theological truths, Ockhams theism was based solely on private revelation and faith. He believed that science was a matter of discovery and saw God as the ontological necessity. His importance is as a theologian with a strongly developed interest in logical method, in scholasticism, Ockham advocated reform in both method and content, the aim of which was simplification
William of Ockham
–
William of Ockham – Sketch labelled "frater Occham iste", from a manuscript of Ockham's Summa Logicae, 1341
William of Ockham
–
William of Ockham
William of Ockham
–
Quaestiones in quattuor libros sententiarum
5.
Jesuit
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Jesuit
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Jesuit
–
Society of Jesus
Jesuit
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Jesuit
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
6.
John Locke
–
John Locke FRS was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the Father of Liberalism. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon and his work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers and his contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness and he postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. This is now known as empiricism, an example of Lockes belief in Empiricism can be seen in his quote, whatever I write, as soon as I discover it not to be true, my hand shall be the forwardest to throw it into the fire. This shows the ideology of science in his observations in that something must be capable of being tested repeatedly, challenging the work of others, Locke is said to have established the method of introspection, or observing the emotions and behaviours of one’s self. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset. He was baptised the same day, soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, after completing studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, in the autumn of 1652 at the age of twenty. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of philosophers, such as René Descartes. Locke was awarded a degree in February 1656 and a masters degree in June 1658. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesburys home at Exeter House in London, in London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had an effect on Lockes natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Lockes medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesburys liver infection became life-threatening, Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo surgery to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life, Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Lockes political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672, following Shaftesburys fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks
John Locke
–
John Locke by
Richard Westmacott, University College, London
John Locke
–
John Locke
John Locke
–
John Locke's
Kit-cat portrait by
Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London
John Locke
7.
Gottfried Leibniz
–
Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction
Gottfried Leibniz
–
Portrait by
Christoph Bernhard Francke
Gottfried Leibniz
–
Engraving of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Gottfried Leibniz
–
Stepped Reckoner
Gottfried Leibniz
–
Leibniz's correspondence, papers and notes from 1669-1704,
National Library of Poland.
8.
Immanuel Kant
–
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is considered a central figure in modern philosophy. Kant took himself to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy and his beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that peace could be secured through universal democracy. He believed that this will be the outcome of universal history. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause, Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason, the Metaphysics of Morals, which dealt with ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, Prussia. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter, was born in Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg. His father, Johann Georg Kant, was a German harness maker from Memel, Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin. Kant was the fourth of nine children, baptized Emanuel, he changed his name to Immanuel after learning Hebrew. Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student and he was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics, despite his religious upbringing and maintaining a belief in God, Kant was skeptical of religion in later life, various commentators have labelled him agnostic. Common myths about Kants personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwaits introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. It is often held that Kant lived a strict and disciplined life. He never married, but seemed to have a social life — he was a popular teacher. He had a circle of friends whom he met, among them Joseph Green. A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 16 kilometres from Königsberg his whole life, in fact, between 1750 and 1754 he worked as a tutor in Judtschen and in Groß-Arnsdorf
Immanuel Kant
–
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
–
Immanuel Kant by
Carle Vernet (1758-1836)
9.
A priori and a posteriori
–
The Latin phrases a priori and a posteriori are philosophical terms of art popularized by Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of philosophy. These terms are used with respect to reasoning to distinguish necessary conclusions from first premises from conclusions based on sense observation, a posteriori knowledge or justification is dependent on experience or empirical evidence, as with most aspects of science and personal knowledge. There are many points of view on two types of knowledge, and their relationship gives rise to one of the oldest problems in modern philosophy. The terms a priori and a posteriori are primarily used as adjectives to modify the noun knowledge, however, a priori is sometimes used to modify other nouns, such as truth. Philosophers also may use apriority and aprioricity as nouns to refer to the quality of being a priori, although definitions and use of the terms have varied in the history of philosophy, they have consistently labeled two separate epistemological notions. See also the related distinctions, deductive/inductive, analytic/synthetic, necessary/contingent, the intuitive distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge is best seen in examples. A priori Consider the proposition, If George V reigned at least four days and this is something that one knows a priori, because it expresses a statement that one can derive by reason alone. A posteriori Compare this with the proposition expressed by the sentence and this is something that one must come to know a posteriori, because it expresses an empirical fact unknowable by reason alone. Several philosophers reacting to Kant sought to explain a priori knowledge without appealing to, as Paul Boghossian explains and that has never been described in satisfactory terms. One theory, popular among the positivists of the early 20th century, is what Boghossian calls the analytic explanation of the a priori. The distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions was first introduced by Kant, in short, proponents of this explanation claimed to have reduced a dubious metaphysical faculty of pure reason to a legitimate linguistic notion of analyticity. However, the explanation of a priori knowledge has undergone several criticisms. Most notably, Quine argued that the distinction is illegitimate. Quine states, But for all its a priori reasonableness, a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn and that there is such a distinction to be drawn at all is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith. While the soundness of Quines critique is highly disputed, it had an effect on the project of explaining the a priori in terms of the analytic. The metaphysical distinction between necessary and contingent truths has also related to a priori and a posteriori knowledge. A proposition that is true is one whose negation is self-contradictory. Consider the proposition that all bachelors are unmarried and its negation, the proposition that some bachelors are married, is incoherent, because the concept of being unmarried is part of the concept of being a bachelor
A priori and a posteriori
–
Time Portal
10.
Epistemology
–
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
Epistemology
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
11.
John McDowell
–
John Henry McDowell is a South African philosopher, formerly a fellow of University College, Oxford and now University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. Although he has written extensively on metaphysics, epistemology, ancient philosophy, McDowell was one of three recipients of the 2010 Andrew W. Mellon Foundations Distinguished Achievement Award. and is a Fellow of both the American Academy of Arts & Sciences and the British Academy. McDowell has, throughout his career, understood philosophy to be therapeutic and thereby to leave everything as it is, McDowell completed a B. A. at the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland before moving to New College, Oxford as a Rhodes scholar in 1963. McDowells earliest published work was in ancient philosophy, most notably including a translation of, in the 1970s he was active in the Davidsonian project of providing a semantic theory for natural language, co-editing a volume of essays entitled Truth and Meaning. McDowell edited and published Evanss influential posthumous book The Varieties of Reference, acquaintance with such data is the highest common factor across the two cases. That seems to force us into a concession that our knowledge of the world is indirect. McDowell strongly resists this argument, he not deny that there is something psychologically in common between the subject who really sees the cat and the one that fails to do so. But that psychological commonality has no bearing on the status of the state of mind from the point of view of assessing whether she is in a position to acquire knowledge. In favourable conditions, experience can be such as to make manifest the presence of objects to observers – that is perceptual knowledge, when we succeed in knowing something by perceiving it, experience does not fall short of the fact known. But this just shows that a successful and a failed perceptual thought have nothing interesting in common from the point of view of appraising them as knowledge, McDowell developed the view that has come to be known as secondary property realism, or sensibility or moral sense theory. The theory proceeds via the device of an ideally virtuous agent and she has the right concepts and the correct grasp of concepts to think about situations in which she finds herself by coming to moral beliefs. Secondly, for such a person such moral beliefs are automatically over-riding over other reasons she may have and in a way, they silence other reasons. He believes that this is the best way to capture the idea that moral reasons are specially authoritative. McDowell also here departs from the interpretation of the Humean theory of how action is motivated. The Humean claims that any action, hence any moral action, is motivated by a combination of two mental states, one a belief and one a desire. The belief functions as a representation, the desire functions to supply the distinctively motivational part of the combination. For example, we understand the desire, as a Humean original existence, without relating it back to the circumstances that impinged on the agent. Implicit in this account is a theory of the status of values, moral agents form beliefs about the moral facts
John McDowell
–
John McDowell in Paris, October 2007
12.
Lyco art
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Paul Hartal is a Canadian painter and poet, born in Szeged, Hungary. He has created the term Lyrical Conceptualism to characterize his style in painting and poetry, and has created a manifesto to describe his thesis. Hartal emigrated to Israel in 1957 and on to Montreal, Quebec in 1973, in 1987 Hartal founded the Centre for Art, Science, and Technology in Montreal, which he directs. He is a curator of the Israel Museum. Hartal paints in a style with additional elements such as photographs. Lyrical Conceptualism does not impose any formal limitations on the artist’s freedom, instead of competition it advocates cooperation. In our post-industrial society, science and technology determine our lifestyle, consequently, art must concern itself with science and technology. However, science and technology should not be our masters but our servants, Hartal has published books of poetry, a book outlining his manifesto, and a novel. He has had exhibitions in Germany, New York, Montreal. His work is in the Guggenheim Museum in New York, the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa, and other galleries in Italy, Israel, lyco art, or lyrical conceptualism, is a term coined by Hartal. In 1975, Hartal published A Manifesto on Lyrical Conceptualism, introducing Lycoism as a new art idea on the table of art. ”In this work, Hartal proposes a theory of art which runs contrary to what he claims is the traditional belief. The art critic Balint Szombathy notes that lyrical conceptualism encapsulates no less a fusion of polarities than the term-amalgams of lyrical expressionism and it is possible to characterize these diametrically opposed juxtapositions, he says, as attempts to equalize incompatible elements for the sake of synthesis. Lyco art identifies the meaning of art with its life-serving purpose, concerning itself with cultural transformation and the human condition, it seeks to expand the boundaries of aesthetics. Lyco Art creates a bridge between the impulsive, intuitional, and planned elements of the creative process, thereby moving along the whole continuum of formative energies. In applying theory to practice in design and painting, Lycoism finds its expression in coded colors, accordingly, warm hues and amorphous shapes might correspond to emotion and the irrational, while cold colors and geometric forms might express the rational and the logical. In addition, since science and technology impact so much of modern lifestyle during the age, Lycoism views the relationship of art, science. Lycoism refuses to polarize science and art, instead, it seeks to unify aesthetics and ethics in works which involve the use of science, in accordance with these premises, Hartal formed The Centre for Art, Science and Technology in Montreal during the 1980s
Lyco art
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Paul Hartal, 2008, San Diego, California, US.
Lyco art
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Chateau - Oil on canvas, 76 cm x 92 cm, 1976 Collection: Musee du Chateau Ramezay Museum, Montreal
Lyco art
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Tree of Life with Six Fingers - Acrylic on canvas, 18" x 24", 2003 Collection of Hanseo University Art Museum, Seoul
13.
Catholic Encyclopedia
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The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed to give its readers full and authoritative information on the cycle of Catholic interests, action. The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company, a company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedias Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company, in 1912 the companys name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the projects lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and it records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. The volumes came out sequentially the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912, The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1,1908 and this review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. A first supplement was published in 1922, a supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated commemorative volume was awarded to patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers states that, The work is entirely new, the editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston, under United States copyright law, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. Knight founded the website New Advent to house the undertaking, volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997, in 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent website. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is a transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words. Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons
Catholic Encyclopedia
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Cover page of 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 1.
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
"Conceptualism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). 1911.
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