1.
Juan Manuel Blanes
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Juan Manuel Blanes was a noted Uruguayan painter of the Realist school. Blanes was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1830 and he was raised by his mother, with whom he relocated to the countryside in his early teens. Blanes took an interest in drawing at this point, and shortly afterwards, was hired as an illustrator for a Montevideo newsdaily, earning extra income with watercolors, he returned to his mother and, in 1854, established his first atelier. He married María Linari, and in 1855, the couple settled in Salto, the experience became a valuable calling card for Blanes, who became one of Uruguays most sought-after portraiteurs. The 1871 outbreak of a fever epidemic in Buenos Aires inspired his first renowned work. His 1872 portrait of the Argentine War of Independence hero, General José de San Martín, was also a success in Buenos Aires, and Blanes was invited to Chile to display the historic depiction. The portraits 1877 display was followed by Blanes second stay in Florence, where he completed The Battle of Sarandí, a depiction of another milestone in Uruguays nationhood. These works, and his portraits of life in his homeland did not garner the interest he expected in Italy, however. Blanes resumed his work, which remained popular among the local gentry. Among the most notable was a portrait of President Máximo Santos, the most well-known from this later period, however, was Artigas en la Ciudadela, an homage to one of Uruguays most respected early patriots, José Gervasio Artigas. This success was followed by the 1889 death of Blanes wife, however and he returned to Uruguay alone, and continued to create historic and landscape art. A few years later, Juan Luis lost his life in an accident and in 1899, Blanes hurried to the Tuscan city in hopes of locating his son, and a friend from a previous visit made him a guest in her house. Searching for nearly two years, the 70-year-old Blanes died in Ms. Manettis Vía di Mezzo residence. The city of Montevideo established the Municipal Museum of Fine Arts, a José Artigas statue based on Blanes portrait was cast in bronze in Uruguay during World War II as a gift to the United States. Juan Manuel Blanes Municipal Museum of Fine Arts National Museum of Visual Arts, Montevideo, Blanes
2.
Julio Argentino Roca
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Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and again from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904. Julio Roca was born in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán in 1843 into a prominent local family. He graduated from the National College in Concepción del Uruguay, Entre Ríos, before he was 15, Roca joined the army of the Argentine Confederation, on 19 March 1858. He also fought in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay between 1865 and 1870, Roca rose to the rank of colonel serving in the war to suppress the revolt of Ricardo López Jordán in Entre Ríos. President Nicolás Avellaneda later promoted him to General after his victory over rebel general José M. Arredondo in the battle of Santa Rosa, leading the loyalist forces. The Indians frequently assaulted frontier settlements and stole horses and cattle, and this land conquest would also strengthen Argentinas strategic position against Chile. The April 11 elections for president, which came a sweeping victory for the voters of Roca, on June 13 the Electoral College met and elected President General Roca and Vice President Francisco Bernabé Madero. But in Buenos Aires it was brewing a revolution against the triumph of Roca, four days later the fighting began, which ended on June 25 with an agreement between the province and the nation, the revolution of 1880 had cost 3,000 dead. Shortly before the presidential inauguration Roca was passed in Congress federalization of Buenos Aires, under his mandate the so-called laicist laws were passed, which nationalized a series of functions that previously were under the control of the Church. He also created the so-called Registro Civil, an index of all births, deaths, President Roca also made primary education free of charge by nationalizing education institutions run by the Church. This led to a break in relations with the Vatican, however, financial speculation and government corruption marred his administration. In May 1886 Roca was the subject of an assassination attempt. Roca did not participate in the 1890 revolution, which was instigated by Leandro N. Alem, however, he was pleased in the resulting weakness of Miguel Juárez Celman. Roca himself had put forward Juárez Celman as his successor, who happened to be his brother-in-law. However, Celman distanced himself from Roca and reprivatized large sectors of the economy in a corrupt fashion, after his first presidency Roca became a senator and Minister of the Interior under Carlos Pellegrini. After President Luis Sáenz Peña resigned in January 1895, José Evaristo Uriburu took over the presidency, because of this, Roca again assumed the duties of President between 28 October 1895 and 8 February 1896, when Uriburu was ill. In the middle of 1897 the Partido Autonomista Nacional party put forward Roca as a candidate once more. Unopposed, he was able to begin a regular time in office on 12 October 1898
3.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
4.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
5.
Tehuelche people
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The Tehuelche people is the generic name given to a group of indigenous peoples of Patagonia and the southern pampas regions of Argentina and Chile. Tehuelche is a Mapuche language word meaning Fierce People and they were also called Patagones by Spanish explorers, who found large footprints made by the tribes on the Patagonian beaches. These large footprints were made by the guanaco leather boots that the Tehuelche used to cover their feet. According to the 2001 census,4,300 Tehuelche lived in the provinces of Chubut and Santa Cruz, there are now no Tehuelche tribes living in Chile, though some Tehuelche were assimilated into Mapuche groups over the years. The Tehuelche people have a history of over 14,500 years in the region, the nomadic lifestyle of Tehuelches left scarce archeological evidence of their past. They were hunter-gatherers living as nomads, during the winters they lived in the lowlands, catching fish and shellfish. During the spring they migrated to the highlands of Patagonia and the Andes Mountains, where they spent the summer and early fall. Although they developed no original pottery, they are known for their cave paintings. The Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, on March 31,1520, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed and made contact with the Tehuelche people. The Spanish never colonized their lands, with the exception of coastal settlements. It took more than 300 years before the Argentine government occupied the southern Patagonia, as nomads, the Tehuelche lived with limited possessions, as they had to move across long distances. Their rock tools were made of obsidian or basalt, as those rocks were malleable. Those rocks, however, could be found in certain parts of Patagonia. The Tehuelche hunted many species in the Patagonia, including whales, sea mammals, small rodents and sea birds, their prey was guanacos. Both species were found at the same places, as the rheas eat the larvae that grow in the guanacos manure. Everything from the guanaco was used by the Tehuelche, the meat and blood were used for food, the fat to grease their bodies during winter, the Tehuelches also gathered fruits that grew during the Patagonian summer. Those fruits were the sweet foods in their diet. The Tehuelche originally spoke Tehuelche, also known as Aonikenk, one of the Chonan languages, later, with the Araucanization of Patagonia, many tribes started to speak variants of Mapudungun, the Mapuche language
6.
Mapuche
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The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of present-day Patagonia. Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua River to the Chiloé Archipelago, today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population. They are particularly concentrated in Araucanía, many have migrated to the Santiago area for economic opportunities. The Mapuchen is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, the Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture, their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, they would unite in larger groupings and they are known for the textiles woven by women, which have been goods for trade for centuries, since before European encounter. The Araucanian Mapuche inhabited at the time of Spanish arrival the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, South of it, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians. However, this term is now considered pejorative by some people, the name was likely derived from the placename rag ko, meaning clayey water. The Quechua word awqa, meaning rebel, enemy, is not the root of araucano. Some Mapuche mingled with Spanish during colonial times, and their descendants make up the group of mestizos in Chile. But, Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the Chilean Occupation of Araucanía, since then Mapuches have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land, archaeological finds have shown the existence of a Mapuche culture in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically Mapuches differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia and this suggests a different origin or long lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations. Troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuches between the Maule River and the Itata River there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River, thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organization and their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization
7.
Conquest of the Desert
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Under General Roca, the Conquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia and ended the possibility of Chilean expansion there. Argentine troops killed more than a thousand enemy combatants and displaced over 15,000 more from their traditional lands, ethnic European settlers developed the lands for agriculture, turning it into a breadbasket that made Argentina an agricultural superpower in the early 20th century. The Conquest is commemorated on the 100 peso bill in Argentina, apologists have described the Conquest as bringing civilization, while revisionists have labeled it a genocide. The Spanish had purchased the Buenos Aires hinterland from the local Indians to be used for cattle raising and this use displaced most of the animals traditionally hunted by the natives. The Indians responded by attacking the towns, killing settlers and releasing or driving off many cattle, in retaliation, the Spanish colonists built forts and defended themselves from the frequent attacks. Many Indians were forced to abandon their tribes to work on the farms, some assimilated or intermarried with the white population. The group known as developed from working on the ranches. After Argentina achieved independence in 1816, the provinces had numerous conflicts as they struggled over how to organize, once these were settled, the government wanted to quickly occupy the lands claimed by the young republic. It also wanted to increase the agricultural production and offer new lands to prospective immigrants. By this time Chile had founded Punta Arenas in Magellan Strait in 1845, later in 1861 Chile began the occupation of the Araucanía, which alarmed Argentine authorities because of its rivals growing influence in the zone. Chile had defeated the Mapuche in their central region and this indigenous tribe had strong language and cultural ties to the nomadic tribes on the east side of the Andes, with whom they share the same language. In 1872 the indigenous leader Calfucurá and his 6,000 followers attacked the cities of General Alvear, Veinticinco de Mayo and they killed 300 settlers and drove off 200,000 head of cattle. These events were a catalyst for the government to mount the Conquest of the Desert, the Indians drove the stolen cattle from the incursions to Chile through the Rastrillada de los chilenos and traded them for goods. They expected eventually to occupy lands in the future. The first step was to connect Buenos Aires and the Fortines with telegraph lines, the government signed a peace treaty with chieftain Juan José Catriel. But he broke it a time later, as together with chieftain Namuncurá and 3,500 warriors, he attacked Tres Arroyos, Tandil, Azul. The casualties were higher than in 1872, Catriel and Namuncurás forces killed 400 settlers, captured 300, Alsina attacked the Indians, forcing them to fall back, and leaving fortines on his way south to protect the conquered territories. He also constructed the 374 km long trench named zanja de Alsina and it was supposed to be a fortified border to the unconquered territories
8.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
9.
Indigenous peoples in Argentina
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Argentina received 6.6 million immigrants, second only to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of countries such as Canada, Brazil and Australia. The earliest evidence of indigenous peoples yet discovered in what today is Argentina is the Piedra Museo archaeological site in Santa Cruz Province, the Cueva de las Manos, in the same province, is over 10,000 years old. By the year 1500, many different indigenous communities lived in what is now modern Argentina and they were not a unified group but many independent ones, with distinct languages, societies, and relations with each other. As a result, they did not face the arrival of the Spanish colonization as a block and had varied reactions toward the Europeans. The Spanish people looked down on the population, to the point that they held in doubt whether they had souls. For this reason, they kept very little information about them. In the 19th century major population movements altered the original Patagonian demography, between 1820 and 1850 the original Aonikenk people were conquered and expelled from their territories by invading Mapuche armies. By 1870 most of northern Patagonia and the south east Pampas were Araucanized, the expansion of European immigrant communities and the railways westward into the Pampas and south into Patagonia was met with Malón raids by displaced tribes. This led to the Conquest of the Desert in the 1870s, Indigenous cultures in Argentina were consequently affected by a process of invisibilization, promoted by the government during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th. In addition to the population in Argentina, most Argentines are descended from indigenous peoples or have some indigenous ancestry. Many genetic studies have shown that Argentinas genetic footprint is not overwhelmingly European and it was also found there were great differences in the ancestry amongst Argentines as one traveled across the country. For example, the population in the North West provinces of Argentina were on average of 66% Amerindian, 33% European, and 1% of African ancestry. Similarly, the study showed that the population in the North Eastern provinces of Argentina were on average 43% of Amerindian, 54% European. The population of the Southern provinces of Argentina, such as Rio Negro and Neuquen, were on average 40% of Amerindian, 54% European, and 6% of African ancestry. The study indicated that Argentines were as a made up of 38% Amerindian,58. 9% of European. Again, there were huge difference in the ancestry from across the various regions of the country. For example, Argentines who hailed from Patagonia were 45% Amerindian, the population in the North West part of the country were made up of 69% of Amerindian, 23% of European, and 8% of African ancestry. The population in the Gran Chaco part of the country were 38% of Amerindian, 53% of European, the population in the Mesopotamian part of the country were 31% of Amerindian, 63% of European, and only 6. 4% of African ancestry
10.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
11.
White people
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White people is a racial classification specifier, used for people of Europid ancestry, with the exact implications dependent on context. The contemporary usage of people or a white race as a large group of populations contrasting with black, American Indian. It is today used as a racial classifier in multiracial societies, such as North Africa, United States. The term white race or white people entered the major European languages in the later 17th century, in the context of racialized slavery, description of populations as white in reference to their skin color predates this notion and is found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient sources. Scholarship on race generally distinguishes the concept from pre-modern descriptions of collective difference. In the literature of the Ancient Near East and Classical Antiquity and we know that Egyptians were not oblivious to skin color, however, because artists paid attention to it in works of art, to the extent the pigments at the time permitted. Classicist James Dee states the Greeks do not describe themselves as white people—or as anything else because they had no word in their color vocabulary for themselves. Peoples skin color did not carry meaning, what mattered is where they lived. Religious conversion was sometimes described figuratively as a change in skin color, similarly, the Rigveda uses krsna tvac black skin as a metaphor for irreligiosity. The Ancient Egyptian funerary text known as the Book of Gates distinguishes four groups in a procession and these are the Egyptians, the Levantine/Canaanite peoples or Asiatics, the Nubians and the fair-skinned Libyans. The Egyptians are depicted as a reddish brown, the Nubians as black skinned, the Semites from the Levant and Canaan as light skinned. Herodotus described the Scythian Budini as having blue eyes and bright red hair. And the Egyptians – quite like the Colchians – as melánchroes and he also gives the possibly first reference to the common Greek name of the tribes living south of Egypt, otherwise known as Nubians, which was Aithíopes. Later Xenophon described the Aethiopians as black and the Persian troops as white compared to the skin of Greek troops. These color adjectives are found in contrast to the standard set by the own group. According to historian Irene Silverblatt, Race thinking … made social categories into racial truths, Alastair Bonnett argues that white identity, as it is presently conceived, is an American project, reflecting American interpretations of race and history. According to Gregory Jay, a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Before the age of exploration, group differences were based on language, religion. … the European had always reacted a bit hysterically to the differences of skin color, in the 16th and 17th centuries, East Asian peoples were almost uniformly described as white, never as yellow
12.
Breadbasket
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The breadbasket of a country is a region which, because of richness of soil and/or advantageous climate, produces large quantities of wheat or other grain. Rice bowl is a term used to refer to Southeast Asia. Such regions may be the subject of political disputes which may even escalate into full military conflicts. Sicily and Africa were considered the breadbaskets of the Roman Republic, later on, Egypt was considered the breadbasket of the Roman Empire. Crimea was the source of a quantity of grain supplied to Greek city-states. Since subsistence agriculture was the dominant economic system in most of Moroccos history, all regions produced their own wheat and barley to feed themselves and their livestock. With the European commercial penetration in the half of the 19th century. The Chaouia and Doukkala plains became the most important suppliers of wheat for export and this is logical given their proximity to the coast. The ports of Casablanca and Feddala, todays Mohammedia, serviced the Chaouia Plain while the port of Mazagan serviced Doukkala, the Free State province is often considered the breadbasket of South Africa due to its wheat, sunflower and maize fields. The Overberg region in the Western Cape is also known as the breadbasket of South Africa due to its large wheat fields, rhodesia was known as the breadbasket of Africa, exporting wheat, tobacco, and corn to the rest of the continent and beyond. Rhodesia contained the most fertile farmland on the continent, the Punjab and Haryana regions are considered the breadbaskets of India. West Bengal is said to be the rice bowl of India, even though its rice production is just enough to be self-sufficient for the provinces large population, it is the largest producer of rice in India. The Punjab province is considered the breadbasket of Pakistan, sichuan has historically been known as the province of abundance due to its agricultural prowess. The regions on the banks of the Yellow River and Yangtze River southern Jiangsu, the Al-Jazira area in northwestern Syria, and its Euphrates basin is considered the countrys breadbasket due to its abundance of wheat. The plains of Java are considered the rice bowls of Indonesia, Kedah is considered the rice bowl of Malaysia, accounting for about half of Malaysias total production of rice. In 2008, the government of Kedah banned the conversion of fields to housing. The province of Nueva Ecija found on Luzon island is considered the granary of the Philippines because of the vast tracts of land used for rice production. The Chao Phraya delta is considered the bowl of Thailand
13.
Genocide
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Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term genocide was coined in a 1943 book responding to mass murder of populations in the 20th century, in 1943, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, the term described the systematic destruction of a nation or people, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno-, Lemkin defined genocide as follows, Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history. Lemkins lifelong interest in the murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians in 1915. He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to together to prevent the occurrence of such events. In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said I became interested in genocide because it happened so many times and it happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention, the CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. The USSR argued that the Conventions definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. ”The conventions purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as follows, In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights, noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements, in the case of Onesphore Rwabukombe the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement and didnt follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ. The phrase in whole or in part has been subject to discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 ICTY8 that Genocide had been committed. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the destruction of entire human groups. The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations
14.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
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The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
15.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
16.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
17.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
18.
Frontier
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A frontier is the political and geographical area near or beyond a boundary. The term came from French in the 15th century, with the meaning borderland—the region of a country that fronts on another country, a frontier can also be referred to as a front. A difference has also established in academic scholarship between Frontier and Border, the latter denoting a fixed, rigid and clear-cut form of state boundary. In the European Union, the frontier is the region beyond the borders of the European Union itself. EU has designated the countries surrounding it as part of the European Neighbourhood and this is a region of primarily less-developed countries, many of which aspire to become part of the union. Current applicants include Turkey and many countries in the Balkans. Romania and Bulgaria joined EU in 2007, if all or most East European states become members, the frontier may be the boundaries with Russia and Turkey. The expansion of Russia to the north, south and east exploited ever-changing frontier regions over several centuries, the outside was another term frequently used in colonial Australia, this term seemingly covered not only the frontier but the districts beyond. Settlers at the frontier thus frequently referred to themselves as the outsiders or outside residents, the word frontier has often meant a region at the edge of a settled area, especially in North American development. It was a zone where explorers, pioneers and settlers were arriving. Frederick Jackson Turner said that the significance of the frontier was that as pioneers moved into the frontier zone, for example, Turner argues that in the United States in 1893, unlimited free land in this zone was available, and thus offered the psychological sense of unlimited opportunity. This, in turn, had many such as optimism, future orientation, shedding the restraints of land scarcity. Lawrence, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna River and James, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Only a few thousand French migrated to Canada, although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and Mississippi River watersheds, as far as the Rocky Mountains, they did not usually settle down. French settlement in these areas was limited to a few small villages on the lower Mississippi. The Dutch set up fur trading posts in the Hudson River valley, followed by grants of land to patroons. The typical English settlements were quite compact and small—under 3 square kilometres, conflict with the Native Americans arose out of political issues, i. e. who would rule. Early frontier areas east of the Appalachian Mountains included the Connecticut River valley, the French and Indian Wars of the 1760s resulted in a complete victory for the British, who took over the French colonial territory west of the Appalachians to the Mississippi River
19.
Salado River (Buenos Aires)
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The Salado River is a river in northern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The Salados mouth is about 170 kilometres south of the city of Buenos Aires, the Salados drainage basin is about 170,000 square kilometres, which is over half of the provinces area. The region receives an average of 2,000 millimetres of precipitation. Nearly 1 million people live in the basin, hydrological studies have been performed in the Salado basin, principally in the Azul, Buenos Aires creek basin by the Instituto de Hidrologia de Llanuras de Azul. Ecological studies have been done by the Ecology group of Facultad de Agronomía de la UNICEN, in the 19th century, before the Conquest of the Desert, the Salado River served as frontier boundary between the Spanish colonised lands and those still under control of the indigenous peoples. Because Argentina has another, more important Salado River, in the part of the country
20.
Gaucho
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Gaucho or gaúcho is a word with several meanings. Because historical gauchos were reputed to be brave, if unruly, the word is also applied metaphorically to mean Noble, brave and generous, in its purest sense, gaucho referred to the nomadic, often outlaw inhabitants of the great plains of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. In current usage, gaucho usually designates the rural working class in general, the gaucho is a national symbol in both Argentina and Uruguay. Gauchos became greatly admired and renowned in legends, folklore and literature, beginning late in the 19th century, after the heyday of the gauchos, they were celebrated by South American writers. There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the term and it may derive from the Spanish term chaucho, in turn derived from a Turkish low-rank military term Chiaus, through Arabic Shawsh which became broadly applied to any guard/watcher or aide. The first recorded use of the dates to Argentine independence in 1816. The 18th century chronicler Alonso Carrió de la Vandera speaks of Gauderios when it mentions the Gauchos or Huasos as poorly dressed men, another plausible origin is from a South American indigenous language, such as Mapudungun cauchu, kauču, or Quechua wahcha. It could also derive from Arabic wahcha which means the state of being lonely in the wilderness, an essential attribute of a gaucho was that he was a skilled horseman. Without a horse the gaucho felt himself unmanned, a gaucho could ride as soon as he could walk. The naturalist William Henry Hudson recorded that the gauchos of his childhood used to say and he described meeting a blind gaucho who was obliged to beg for his food yet behaved with dignity and went about on horseback. By reputation the quintessential gaucho caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas could throw his hat on the ground and scoop it up while galloping his horse, without touching the saddle with his hand. A popular copla was, Mi caballo y mi mujer viajaron para Salta, el que se vuelva. It was the passion to own all his steeds in matching colours. Recalled Hudson, The gaucho, from the poorest worker on horseback to the largest owner of lands and cattle, has, or had in those days, the caudillo El Chacho Peñalosa described the low point of his life as In Chile − and on foot. The gaucho plays an important symbolic role in the nationalist feelings of this region, especially that of Argentina, Paraguay, the epic poem Martín Fierro by José Hernández used the gaucho as a symbol against corruption and of Argentine national tradition, pitted against Europeanising tendencies. Martín Fierro, the hero of the poem, is drafted into the Argentine military for a war, deserts. The image of the gaucho is often contrasted to the slaves who worked the northern Brazilian lands. Further literary descriptions are found in Ricardo Güiraldes Don Segundo Sombra, the gaucho tendency to violence over petty matters is also recognized as a typical trait
21.
Juan Manuel de Rosas
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Juan Manuel de Rosas, nicknamed Restorer of the Laws, was a politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although born into a family, Rosas independently amassed a personal fortune. Rosas enlisted his workers in a militia, as was common for rural proprietors. Victorious in warfare, personally influential, and with vast landholdings and he eventually reached the rank of brigadier general, the highest in the Argentine army, and became the undisputed leader of the Federalist Party. In December 1829, Rosas became governor of the province of Buenos Aires, in 1831, he signed the Federal Pact, recognising provincial autonomy and creating the Argentine Confederation. When his term of office ended in 1832, Rosas departed to the frontier to wage war on the indigenous peoples, after his supporters launched a coup in Buenos Aires, Rosas was asked to return and once again took office as governor. Rosas reestablished his dictatorship and formed the repressive Mazorca, an armed parapolice that killed thousands of citizens, elections became a farce, and the legislature and judiciary became docile instruments of his will. Rosas created a cult of personality and his regime became totalitarian in nature, Rosas faced many threats to his power during the late 1830s and early 1840s. Rosas persevered and extended his influence in the provinces, exercising control over them through direct and indirect means. By 1848, he had extended his power beyond the borders of Buenos Aires and was ruler of all of Argentina, Rosas also attempted to annex the neighbouring nations of Uruguay and Paraguay. When the Empire of Brazil began aiding Uruguay in its struggle against Argentina, Rosas declared war in August 1851 and this short conflict ended with the defeat of Rosas and his flight to Britain. His last years were spent in living as a tenant farmer until his death in 1877. Rosas garnered a public perception among Argentines as a brutal tyrant. In 1989, his remains were repatriated by the government in an attempt to promote unity, seeking forgiveness for him. Rosas remains a figure in Argentina in the 21st century. Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas was born on 30 March 1793 at his familys house in Buenos Aires. He was the first child of León Ortiz de Rosas and Agustina López de Osornio, León Ortiz was the son of an immigrant from the Spanish Province of Burgos. A military officer with a career, León Ortiz had married into a wealthy Criollo family
22.
Cuyo (Argentina)
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Cuyo is the name given to the wine-producing, mountainous area of central-west Argentina. Historically it comprised the provinces of San Juan, San Luis, the modern term New Cuyo indicates both Cuyo proper and the province of La Rioja. New Cuyo is a political and economic macroregion, but culturally La Rioja is part of the North-West rather than of Cuyo, the soil is arid and reddish, crossed by few rivers. Most of the rivers are fed by the thawing of snow on the peaks, the Desaguadero River is the main collector, receiving waters from the Bermejo, Vinchina and Salado before reaching the Colorado River. Viticulture is one of the activities of the area. The wine production of the region represents almost 80% of national production, olives, potatoes, tomatoes and some fruits are also cultivated, and there is production of sweets and preserved foodstuffs. Quarrying and oil exploitation are other important industries, the cities and towns in the region are characterised by colonial low houses and churches, and narrow streets, contrasting in the principal cities with the modern parts. The Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, founded in 1939, is the most important within these provinces, and has its campus in Mendoza, the table below includes data for the year 2013 for the 23 provinces Table of Cuyo provinces according to the 2001 census. The region of Cuyo has a climate or a semi-arid climate with an average annual precipitation of about 100 to 500 millimetres that is generally unreliable from year to year. The region, which encompasses a range of latitudes combined with altitudes ranging from 500 m to nearly 7,000 m means that it has a diverse range of different climates. In general, most of the region has a climate with higher altitude valleys having a more milder climate. At the highest altitudes, icy conditions persist year round, the diurnal range is very large with very hot temperatures during the day followed by cold nights. Amongst all locations in Argentina, the region has the largest diurnal range in the country areas in San Juan Province having a diurnal range exceeding 19.1 °C. The Andes prevent rain–bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean from coming in, with very low humidity, abundant sunshine throughout the year, and a temperate climate, the region is suitable for wine production. Droughts are often frequent and prolonged, more than 85% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March, which represents the warm season. In contrast, the months are dry due to these systems weakening. Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than the areas since they receive more summer rainfall. As such, most of Mendoza province and San Juan province receive the lowest annual precipitation with mean summer precipitation averaging less than 100 mm and in rare cases, no summer rainfall
23.
Punta Arenas
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Punta Arenas is the capital city of Chiles southernmost region, Magallanes and Antartica Chilena. The city was renamed as Magallanes in 1927, but in 1938 it was changed back to Punta Arenas. It is the largest city south of the 46th parallel south, as of 1977 Punta Arenas has been one of only two free ports in Chile. During the remainder of the 1800s, Punta Arenas grew in size and importance due to the maritime traffic. This period of growth resulted from the waves of European immigrants, mainly from Croatia and Russia attracted to the gold rush and sheep farming boom in the 1880s. The largest sheep company, controlling 10,000 square kilometres in Chile and Argentina, was based in Punta Arenas, since its founding Chile has used Punta Arenas as a base to defend its sovereignty claims in the southernmost part of South America. This led, among other things, to the Strait of Magellan being recognized as Chilean territory in the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina. The geopolitical importance of Punta Arenas has remained high in the 20th, the English 18th-century explorer John Byron is sometimes credited with naming this area, calling it Sandy Point. But it was not until 1843 that the government tried to establish a fort, the name Punta Arenas was derived from the Spanish term Punta Arenosa, a literal translation of the English name Sandy Point. The city has also known as Magallanes. Today that term is used to describe the administrative region which includes the city. Punta Arenas has been nicknamed the city of the red roofs for the metal roofs that characterized the city for many years. Since about 1970 the availability of colors in protective finishes has resulted in greater variety in the characteristic metal roofs. Located on the Brunswick Peninsula, Punta Arenas is among the largest cities in the entire Patagonian Region, in 2012, it had a population of 127,454. It is roughly 1,418.4 km from the coast of Antarctica, the Magallanes region is considered part of Chilean Patagonia. Magallanes is Spanish for Magellan, and was named for Ferdinand Magellan, while circumnavigating the earth for Spain, he passed close to the present site of Punta Arenas in 1520. Early English navigational documents referred to this site as Sandy Point, the city proper is located on the northeastern shore of Brunswick Peninsula. Except for the shore, containing the settlements of Guairabo, Rio Amarillo and Punta San Juan
24.
Strait of Magellan
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The Strait of Magellan, also called the Straits of Magellan, is a navigable sea route separating mainland South America to the north and Tierra del Fuego to the south. The strait is the most important natural passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Strait of Magellan was called the Dragons Tail, and there were also the Cape of Good Hope and the coast of Africa. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer and navigator in the service of Charles I of Spain, the fleet would become known as the Armada de las Molucas or Fleet of the Moluccas. The expeditionary fleet of five ships set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20,1519, before the passage of the Strait, Álvaro de Mesquita became captain of the San Antonio, and Duarte Barbosa of Victoria. Later, Serrão became captain of Concepcion, San Antonio, charged to explore Magdalen Sound, failed to return to the fleet, instead sailing back to Spain under Estêvão Gomes who imprisoned the captain Mesquita. Magellans ships entered the strait on November 1,1520, All Saints Day, magellans chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, called it the Patagonian Strait, and others Victoria Strait, commemorating the first ship entering it. Within seven years it was being called Estrecho de Magallanes in honor of Magellan, the Spanish Empire and the Captaincy General of Chile used it as the southern boundary of their territory. The first Spanish colony was established in 1584 by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and these towns suffered severe food shortages, and when the English navigator Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed the place Port Famine, other early explorers included Francis Drake. In February 1696 the first French expedition, under the command of M. de Gennes reached the Strait of Magellan, the expedition is described by the young French explorer, engineer and hydrographer François Froger in his A Relation of a Voyage. A report on the survey was presented at two meetings of the Geographical Society of London in 1831, Chile took possession of the Strait of Magellan on May 23,1843. President Bulnes of Chile ordered this expedition after consulting the Chilean libertador Bernardo OHiggins, the first Chilean settlement was Fuerte Bulnes, situated in a forested zone on the north side of the strait. Fuerte Bulnes was later abandoned, and in 1848 the city of Punta Arenas was founded farther north where the Magellanic forests meets the Patagonian plains. In Tierra del Fuego, across the strait from Punta Arenas, Argentina effectively recognized Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan in the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina. Argentina had previously claimed all of the strait, or at least the third of it. In 1840 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the first to use steamships for commercial traffic in the strait, until the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was the main route for steamships traveling from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Sailing ships, however, partly because of winds and currents in the strait, generally preferred the Drake Passage. The strait is approximately 570 kilometres long and about 2 kilometres wide at its narrowest point, the northwestern portion of the strait is connected with other sheltered waterways via the Smyth Channel
25.
Araucanization
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The Araucanization of Patagonia was the process of the expansion of Mapuche culture, influence, and its Mapudungun language from Araucanía across the Andes into the plains of Patagonia. Historians disagree over the period during which the expansion took place. Amerindian peoples of the pampas, such as the Puelche and Tehuelche, together with Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl, Mapudungun was among the few Amerindian languages that expanded in use on the continent after the beginning of European colonization. This area of the Patagonia was generally isolated from European settlement until late in the 19th century, the Mapuche who migrated to Patagonia lived often as nomads. As European settlers established frontier settlements, the Mapuche raided them for cattle or looted their produce and they drove off the cattle stolen in the incursions and took them to Chile through the mountain passes to trade for goods, especially alcoholic beverages. The main trail for this trade was called Camino de los chilenos, the lonco Calfucurá crossed the Andes from Chile to the Pampas around 1830 to aid the indigenous people, after Juan Manuel de Rosas, the governor of Buenos Aires, started to fight the Boreanos tribe. However, other sources contradict this statement, saying that de Rosas contacted the leader in Chile for help fighting against the Boreanos tribe. In 1859 Calfucurá attacked Bahía Blanca in Argentina with 3,000 warriors, many other bands of Mapuche also became involved the internal conflicts of Argentina until the Conquest of the Desert. Argentine authorities were worried that strong connections between the Araucanized tribes and Chile would give Chile influence over the pampas, both Argentina and Chile claimed the Patagonia. The Argentine government feared that in case of war, the natives would side with the Chileans, after this, Argentina organized its forces to launch what it called the Conquest of the Desert and attacked indigenous people for years. It is estimated more than 5000 native peoples were killed or captured in that major assault. However, the losses to the Army were minimal, with only 13 soldiers killed, the 100 peso bill of Argentina has a picture honoring the Conquest of the Desert on one side. Araucanía Conquest of the Desert Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia List of Mapudungun placenames Occupation of Araucanía War of Arauco
26.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
27.
Camino de los chilenos
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Camino de los chilenos ran a length of about 1000 km from the Buenos Aires Province to the mountain passes of Neuquén Province. The cattle were traded in Chile for weapons and alcoholic beverages and this trade has been pointed out as the single most important cause of the war that affected the southern provinces of Argentina during large parts of the 19th century. Therefore, the demand for cattle by Chilean merchants was fueling the conflict in Argentina, to counter the cattle raids a trench called Zanja de Alsina was built by Argentina in the pampas in the 1870s. The use of trade route effectivelly ended with the Conquest of the Desert carried out by the Argentine Army. Richard O. Perry, Argentina and Chile, The Struggle for Patagonia 1843-1881, The Americas, Vol.36,3, pp. 347-363, published by Academy of American Franciscan History
28.
Adolfo Alsina
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Adolfo Alsina Maza was an Argentine lawyer and Unitarian politician, and one of the founders of the Partido Autonomista and the National Autonomist Party. Alsina was born in Buenos Aires, the son of Unitarian politician Valentín Alsina and he moved to Montevideo, Uruguay when Juan Manuel de Rosas became Governor of Buenos Aires Province for the second time, in 1835. In the neighbouring country Alsina started his law studies, after the Battle of Caseros in 1852, his family returned to Argentina, and his father was named a Minister by president Vicente López y Planes. Adolfo finished law school and joined the Unitarian army in the civil war, in 1860, after the Battle of Pavón and the National Union Pact, he took part in the commission responsible for the constitution reform of 1860. He was elected a deputy in 1862, when the subject of federalisation, supported by Bartolomé Mitre, was considered in the Chamber of Deputies, Alsina provoked a split in the Partido Unitario and founded the Partido Autonomista. In 1866 he was elected governor of the Buenos Aires Province, Alsina considered running for president, but withdrew when he discovered he did not have the support of most of the province. Domingo Sarmiento was elected president, and named Alsina his vice-president, the first stage of the Conquest of the Desert began with the creation of a two meter deep, three meter wide trench called zanja de Alsina to prevent the free movement of horses and stolen cattle. Alsina also ordered the creation of forts intercommunicated by telegraph, trying to understand the native peoples, he decided to study the situation personally, but he fell ill while in the pampas town of Carhué, and died of renal failure, aged 48
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President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
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Tres Arroyos
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Tres Arroyos is a city in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. It is the seat of Tres Arroyos Partido. The city has a population of Dutch and Danish descent. Roughly 5 km from the city of Tres Arroyos lies the Arroyo Seco archaeological site, over 40 skeletons, presumably in burial positions, were found at the site, dated to estimated age of 9000 years B. P. The site includes tools, hunting implements and fossils of extinct mammals, much of the extensive materials are on display at the José A. Mulazzi Municipal Museum, which includes reconstructions of how the people of the time lived. The city is home to Huracán de Tres Arroyos, a team playing in the regional leagues. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
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Tandil
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Tandil is the main city of the homonymous partido, located in Argentina, in the southeast of Buenos Aires Province, just north-northwest of the Tandilia hills. The city was founded in 1823 and its name originates from the Piedra Movediza which later fell, the city is the birth place of many notable sports personalities, as well as current president of Argentina Mauricio Macri. Tandil is located 180 metres above sea level and its coordinates are 37°19′08″S 59°08′05″W, the city borders Rauch and Azul, Ayacucho and Balcarce, Lobería, Necochea and Benito Juárez and Azul and Benito Juárez. Tandil is in a known as the Humid Pampa. According to the 2001 census, Tandil had a population of 108,109, the total area of the Tandil partido is 4,935 km2. Tandils climate is mild and humid, with a temperature of 13.8 °C and 888.6 millimetres of precipitation annually. Mornings are often cold in autumn, winter and spring, fog is very common in autumn and winter, when frosts are also common. Minimum temperatures below −5 °C have been recorded in the winter months, rainfall occurs throughout the year but more frequently in summer. Snow and heat waves are not very common, the climatological data in the table below is from the period 1981–1990, The name of the city comes from the Mapuche words tan, and lil. It is probably a reference to the Piedra Movediza, a boulder which stood seemingly miraculously balanced on the edge of a rocky foothill. The Moving Stone toppled on February 29,1912, and split into two pieces at the bottom of the hill, some people thought that tan in fact meant moving. In order to demonstrate the slight movements of the boulder, it was practice to place bottles or some other things under its base to see them break. As of May 2007, a replica was set up in the place where the original stood. The replica, made by engineering students, is cemented in place. The town was founded by Martín Rodríguez on April 4,1823, with time the original natives became acculturated and mixed with the increasing European population. The vast majority of immigrants came from Spain and Italy, but also Danish people settled, Tandil was designated a city in 1895 and became a popular tourist destination attracting people from Buenos Aires and other parts of Argentina. The Piedra Movediza fell in 1912 and split in two below and this was the way the locals would prove to visitors that the rock, in fact, moved, since the movement was too subtle to be detected by the naked eye. There have been projects to restore the rock, and a stone was placed where the original used to be
32.
Azul, Buenos Aires
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Azul is the head city of the Azul Partido, located at the center of the Buenos Aires Province in Argentina,300 km south of Buenos Aires. It has 63,000 inhabitants as per the 2001 census and its principal, goods-producing economic activities are agriculture and the raising of cattle for meat exports. Home to a dynamic services sector, over 2,000 commercial businesses are registered in the city. The town was founded on December 16,1832, following Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas orders for the construction of a fort, San Serapio Mártir del Arroyo Azul, to guard against indigenous raids. Subsequent land grants led to the developemt of a stable community, the local cathedral, Nuestra Señora del Rosario, was consecrated in 1906. The towns cemetery portal and main slaughterhouse were both designed by architect Francisco Salamone, and contain elements of Art Deco style, built in the late 1930s, these buildings were some of the first examples of modern architecture in rural Argentina. The town was the scene of an attack on outlying Army barracks by the far-left ERP on January 19,1974, Azul is home to the schools of Agronomy and Law of the National University of Central Buenos Aires. The Teatro Español, founded in the city in 1897, is among the most important of the central pampas area, the Casa Ronco is named after the collector Batolomé Ronco. Azul was declared Argentinas City of Cervantes by UNESCO in 2007, tandilfullchat, Gente zona de Azul Pcia. Bs. As. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
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Mendoza Province
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The Province of Mendoza is a province of Argentina, located in the western central part of the country in the Cuyo region. Its capital city is the city of Mendoza. Covering an area of 148.827 km², it is the seventh biggest province of Argentina with 5. 35% of the total area. The population for 2010 is 1,741,610 inhabitants, archeological studies have determined that the first inhabitants in the area date from the Holocene, but there are few remains of those people to know their habits. The earliest sites of human occupation in Mendoza Province, Agua de la Cueva, in the basins of the Atuel River, in 300 BC lived a group of people that lived via hunting and the cultivation of maize, pumpkins and beans. Those valleys saw the rise of the Agrelo culture, ancestor of the Huarpes and they were later influenced greatly by the Inca empire during the 15th century. Oral tradition sets the arrival of the Inca Túpac Yupanqui to Coquimbo in 1470, puelches and other groups received a strong influence of the Mapuches. The first Spanish conquerors came around 1550 from the Viceroyalty of Peru, in 1561 Mendoza was founded by the conquistador Pedro del Castillo. Until the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and he received important support from Mendoza when he led his Army of the Andes from Plumerillo to the 1817 crossing of the Andes, in his campaign to end Spanish rule in Chile. The Province of Cuyo was ultimately divided in 1820, and Mendoza parted ways with San Luis, the 1861 earthquake nearly destroyed the city of Mendoza, which had to be almost entirely reconstructed. In 1885 railways were built to the province, allowing for transport of the regions wines to the countrys trade hub of Buenos Aires. Following the development of the industry in the province around 1900, Mendoza began to grow quickly, attracting tens of thousands of European immigrants. In 1939 the National University of Cuyo, one of the more important universities of the country, was founded in the province, increasing their presence in the Mendoza Legislature, the Democrats became an obstacle to progressive Governor Ernesto Ueltschi, an ally of president Arturo Frondizis. With majorities in both houses by 1961, they had Gov. Ueltschi removed and Democrat Vice-governor Francisco Gabrielli appointed in his stead, elected governor in his own right in 1963, Gov. These events came to a head in April,1972, however, upon the return to democracy in March 1973, Mendoza voters turned to a left-leaning Peronist, Alberto Martínez Baca. Alarmed by this move from the otherwise pragmatic Martínez Baca, President Perón had him removed in June 1974, fernández and Cobos won in the first round, and Cobos became Vice President of Argentina, he was replaced by pro-Kirchner Justicialist candidate Celso Jaque as governor. The province is represented by three senators in the Argentine Senate, currently María Perceval, Ernesto Sanz and Mónica Troadello, Mendoza is represented by 10 deputies in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies. His faction of the UCR won a significant victory in the 2009 mid-term elections in Mendoza, the geography of the province descends from 6,959 metres at the summit of Aconcagua to the semi-flat lands of the east
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Remington Rolling Block rifle
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The Remington Rolling Block rifle was a breech-loading rifle produced from the mid-1860s into the early 20th century by E. Remington and Sons. The action was extremely strong, and could withstand the increased pressure of the new smokeless powders coming into use by the late 1880s. Later models were produced in. 30-06 Springfield, 7×57mm Mauser, in.43 Spanish it was the chief service arm of the Spanish Army from 1870–1893, and was used by reserve and militia forces for many years thereafter. Many Rolling Block rifles were used by Argentina before being replaced in 1891 by the new 7. 65mm Mauser, the Remington rolling block also became the standard service rifle of the Danish Army. During the Franco-Prussian War, France acquired 210,000 Rolling Block rifles to make up for a shortage of the standard-issue Chassepot. In November 1914, production of the Rolling Block was resumed, in the form of a French contract for rifles in 8×50mmR Lebel,100,291 such rifles were delivered by 1916, and used to equip rear-line troops. Along with the Sharps rifle it was one of two rifles probably used more than any other by the hunters who hunted the American bison herds in the 1870s and 1880s. Rolling block, the operating principle Remington rolling block M1867, as used by the Swedish, Springfield Model 1870, as used by the United States Navy, produced by Springfield Armory under license. Springfield Model 1871, as used by the United States Army, produced by Springfield Armory under license
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Choele Choel
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Its long distance bus terminal is a common stop for buses going to both sea-side Patagonia and North-Andean Patagonia. During the 1990s, the used to serve regular flights to Buenos Aires. Originally named Nicolás Avellaneda, it was founded on July 9,1879 by General Conrado Villegas, after a flood, the inhabitants moved to a place known as Pampa de los Molinos. They would stay there until Match 18,1882, when the settlement was moved to its current location. The town acquired special importance during the Conquest of the Desert, in 1883, a post office was installed in the town. The Provincial School #10 was created in 1904, and in 1917 the Library, irish Argentine writer Rodolfo Walsh was born in the town in 1927. Choele Choel is home to a sizable Russian community, besides the European immigrant communities common to most of Argentina, there are several versions regarding the meaning of Choele Choel, it might be from the Araucan language, translated as Yellow flower race, or from the Tehuelche language. Another version translates it as Bark scarecrows, Choele Choel has a semi-arid climate. Winters are cool with a July mean of 7.5 °C, with temperatures that frequently drop below 0 °C. Cloudy days are common during winter, averaging 7–9 days from June to August although sunny days can occur as well, sumemrs are very hot, dry, and sunny with daytime temperatures averaging 31 to 32 °C and cool nighttime temperatures, averaging 14 to 15 °C. Precipitation is low, averaging 308.9 millimetres which is evenly distributed throughout the year
Argentina
Mapuches
