1.
Kinship
–
Anthropologist Robin Fox states that the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the raw material as exists in the animal world. These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of economic, political. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of relationships in one or more human cultures. Further, even within two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i. e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, in some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors and this may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into groups, roles, categories. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of relationship, a relationship may be relative or reflect an absolute. Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession, many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared origin, a shared historical or cultural connection. For example, a person studying the roots of human languages might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, in biology, kinship typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members of a species. It may also be used in this sense when applied to human relationships. Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, in most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Kin terminologies can be descriptive or classificatory
2.
Cousin marriage
–
Cousin marriage is marriage between cousins. Opinions and practice vary widely across the world, in some cultures and communities, cousin marriage is considered ideal and actively encouraged, in others, it is subject to social stigma. Cousin marriage is common in the Middle East, for instance, in some countries outside that region, it is uncommon but still legal. In others, it is seen as incestuous and is prohibited, it is banned in China and Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea. Supporters of cousin marriage where it is banned may view the prohibition as discrimination, worldwide, more than 10% of marriages are between first or second cousins. In the past, cousin marriage was practiced within indigenous cultures in Australia, North America, South America, various religions have ranged from prohibiting sixth cousins or closer from marrying, to freely allowing first-cousin marriage. Cousin marriage is an important topic in anthropology and alliance theory, children of more distantly related cousins have less risk of harmful genetic mutations. In fact, a study of Icelandic records indicated that marriages between third or fourth cousins may be optimal, at least from the perspective of producing the most children and grandchildren. According to Professor Robin Fox of Rutgers University, 80% of all marriages in history may have been second cousins or closer. The founding population of Homo sapiens was small,700 to 10,000 individuals, therefore, proportions of first-cousin marriage in Western countries have declined since the 19th century. In the Middle East, cousin marriage is strongly favored. Cousin marriage was legal in all states before the Civil War, anthropologist Martin Ottenheimer argues that marriage prohibitions were introduced to maintain the social order, uphold religious morality, and safeguard the creation of fit offspring. Writers such as Noah Webster and ministers like Philip Milledoler and Joshua McIlvaine helped lay the groundwork for such viewpoints well before 1860 and this led to a gradual shift in concern from affinal unions, like those between a man and his deceased wifes sister, to consanguineous unions. To many, Morgan included, cousin marriage, and more specifically parallel-cousin marriage, was a remnant of a primitive stage of human social organization. Morgan himself had married his cousin in 1853, in 1846, Massachusetts Governor George N. Briggs appointed a commission to study idiots in the state, and this study implicated cousin marriage as responsible for idiocy. Within the next two decades, numerous reports appeared with similar conclusions, that cousin marriage sometimes resulted in deafness, blindness, and idiocy. Despite being contradicted by other studies like those of George Darwin and Alan Huth in England and Robert Newman in New York and these developments led to 13 states and territories passing cousin marriage prohibitions by the 1880s. Though contemporaneous, the movement did not play much of a direct role in the bans
3.
Incest
–
Incest is sexual activity between family members or close relatives. The incest taboo is and has one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos. Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages, in societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime. Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as milk-siblings, stepsiblings, third-degree relatives on average share 12. 5% genes, and sexual relations between them is viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable. The children of incestuous relationships were regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today, in most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited. A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding, a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a genetic relationship. But inbreeding is not the basis for the incest taboo for two reasons. First, most prohibitions on incest cover affinity relationships—that is, relationships created by marriage —as well as created by adoption. And second, the incest taboo also applies to non-procreative sex—for example, some societies, such as the Balinese and some Inuit tribes, have different views about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest. However, sexual relations with a first-degree relative are almost universally forbidden, the English word incest is derived from the Latin incestus, which has a general meaning of impure, unchaste. It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense and in the modern sense. The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century, before the Latin term came in, incest was known in Old English as sib-leger or mǣġhǣmed but in time, both words fell out of use. In ancient China, first cousins with the surnames were not permitted to marry. Several of the Egyptian Pharaohs married their siblings and had children with them. For example, Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun, and was himself the child of an union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister-wife. It is now accepted that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period. Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, in the sequel to Oedipus, Antigone, his four children are also punished for their parents incestuousness. Incest appears in the accepted version of the birth of Adonis
4.
Generation
–
A generation is all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It can also be described as, the period, generally considered to be about thirty years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults. The word generate comes from the Latin generāre, meaning to beget, a familial generation is a group of living beings constituting a single step in the line of descent from an ancestor. In developed nations the average generation length is in the high 20s and has even reached 30 years in some nations. These changes can be attributed to social factors, such as GDP and state policy, and related individual-level variables, particularly a womans educational attainment. Conversely, generation length has changed little and remains in the low 20s in less developed nations, an intergenerational rift in the nuclear family, between the parents and two or more of their children, is one of several possible dynamics of a dysfunctional family. Coalitions in families are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction, social generations are cohorts of people who were born in the same date range and share similar cultural experiences. The idea of a generation, in the sense that it is used today. Prior to that the concept, generation had generally referred to family relationships, in 1863, French lexicographer Emile Littré had defined a generation as, all men living more or less at the same time. Several trends promoted a new idea of generations, as the 19th century wore on and these trends were all related to the processes of modernisation, industrialisation, or westernisation, which had been changing the face of Europe since the mid-18th century. One was a change in mentality about time and social change, the increasing prevalence of enlightenment ideas encouraged the idea that society and life were changeable, and that civilization could progress. This encouraged the equation of youth with social renewal and change, by the end of the 19th century, European intellectuals were disposed toward thinking of the world in generational terms—in terms of youth rebellion and emancipation. Two important contributing factors to the change in mentality were the change in the structure of society. Because of the social and economic change, young men particularly were less beholden to their fathers. Greater social and economic mobility allowed them to flout their authority to a greater extent than had traditionally been possible. Additionally, the skills and wisdom of fathers were often less valuable than they had due to technological and social change. During this time, the period between childhood and adulthood, usually spent at university or in service, was also increased for many people entering white-collar jobs. This category of people was very influential in spreading the ideas of youthful renewal, another important factor was the breakdown of traditional social and regional identifications
5.
Meiosis
–
This process occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi. Errors in meiosis resulting in aneuploidy are the known cause of miscarriage. In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of division to produce four potential daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II and this S-phase can be referred to as premeiotic S-phase or meiotic S-phase. Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase, a subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata between the homologous chromosomes. During Meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis, in some cases all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores, or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum. Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse to form a zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, for example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes, half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes that contain one set of 23 chromosomes, when two gametes fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the number of chromosomes. First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with other and exchange DNA by homologous recombination leading to physical connections between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to daughter cells by the spindle apparatus. The cells then proceed to a division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal DNA, furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids
6.
Kings of France
–
The monarchs of the Kingdom of France and its predecessors ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks in 486 till the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870. Sometimes included as kings of France are the kings of the Franks of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled from 486 until 751, and of the Carolingians, who ruled until 987. The Capetian dynasty, the descendants of Hugh Capet, included the first rulers to adopt the title of king of France for the first time with Philip II. The Capetians ruled continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848, the branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. With the House of Bonaparte Emperors of the French ruled in 19th century France and it was used on coins up to the eighteenth century. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. They used the title Emperor of the French and this article lists all rulers to have held the title King of the Franks, King of France, King of the French or Emperor of the French. For other Frankish monarchs, see List of Frankish kings, in addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340–60, 1369-1420, and 1422–1801 also claimed the title of King of France. For a short time, this had some basis in fact – under the terms of the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Charles VI had recognized his son-in-law Henry V of England as regent and heir. Henry V predeceased Charles VI and so Henry Vs son, Henry VI, most of Northern France was under English control until 1435, but by 1453, the English had been expelled from all of France save Calais, and Calais itself fell in 1558. Nevertheless, English and then British monarchs continued to claim the title for themselves until the creation of the United Kingdom in 1801. The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a known as Francia in Latin. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior, the Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. In 751, a Carolingian, Pepin the Younger, dethroned the Merovingians and with the consent of the Papacy, the Robertians were Frankish noblemen owing fealty to the Carolingians, and ancestors of the subsequent Capetian dynasty. Odo, Count of Paris, was chosen by the western Franks to be their king following the removal of emperor Charles the Fat, the Bosonids were a noble family descended from Boso the Elder, their member, Rudolph, was elected King of the Franks in 923. After the death of Louis V, the son of Hugh the Great and grandson of Robert I, the Capetian Dynasty, the male-line descendants of Hugh Capet, ruled France continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848. They were direct descendants of the Robertian kings, the cadet branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon
7.
Bernard Gui
–
He is known for his tenure as Inquisitor of Toulouse against the Albigenses at the behest of Pope Clement V and Pope John XXII between 1307 and 1323. He was born at Royères, in the Limousin, in 1261 and he entered the Dominican Convent at Limoges, and made his profession in 1280. Ten Years later he was made Prior of Albi, and subsequently at Carcassonne, at Castres, people convicted of heresy during the time of the Inquisition were turned over to the secular arm for punishment. Out of all those convicted during examination by Gui,42 were executed, the four sects of Christian heretics Gui wrote about in his Inquisitor’s Guide were the Manicheans, the Waldensians, the False Apostles, and the Beguines. Other groups which were not considered Christian but were cited in Gui’s Inquisitor’s Guide as “treacherous” were Jews, as well as Sorcerers, Fortune-tellers, and those who summon demons. In recompense for his services as Inquisitor he was made Bishop of Tui in Spain, by Pope John XXII, Bernard Gui died on 30 December 1331 at the castle of Lauroux in the present-day Hérault department, south France. This work, lost for a time, was published in full by the abbé Douais at Toulouse in 1886. Bernard is also the author of a number of treatises, Abrégé de la doctrine chrétienne, Traité de la messe, Traité sur la conception de la Vierge. Bernard Gui is an antagonist in the historical novel The Name of the Rose by Umberto Eco, in the 1986 movie based on the book, his part was played by F. Murray Abraham. Bernard Gui also appears in the novels of Catherine Jinks, including The Notary. Gui is also mentioned in Victor Hugos novel Les Misérables. Le livre des sentences de linquisiteur Bernard Gui and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed
8.
Prohibited degree of kinship
–
In law, a prohibited degree of kinship refers to a degree of consanguinity between persons that results in certain actions between them becoming illegal. Two major examples of prohibited degrees are found in incest and nepotism, incest refers to sexual relations and marriage between closely related individuals, nepotism is the preference of blood-relations in the distribution of a rank or office. An incest taboo against relations between parent and child or two full-blooded siblings is a cultural universal, the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church have a long history of various marital prohibitions. These function to limit intermarrying between two closely related relatives, in South Korea it had historically been forbidden to marry someone with the same surname and clan regardless of the distance of the relation, but this law was ruled unconstitutional in 1999. Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity and this was calculated by counting up from one prospective partner to the common ancestor, then down to the other prospective partner. The first prohibited degree of consanguinity was a relationship while a second degree would be a sibling relationship. A third degree would be an uncle/aunt with a niece/nephew while fourth degree was between first cousins, any prospective marriage partner with a blood relationship outside these prohibited degrees was considered acceptable. Canon law followed civil law until the ninth century, when the Western Church increased the number of prohibited degrees from four to seven. The method of calculation was changed to simply count the number of generations back to the common ancestor. This meant that marriage to anyone up to and including a cousin was prohibited. The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 decreed a change from seven prohibited degrees back to four. As of February 2010,30 U. S. states prohibit most or all marriage between first cousins, and a bill is pending in Maryland that would prohibit most first cousins from marrying, six states prohibit marriages between first cousins once removed. Some states that cousin marriage recognize cousin marriages performed in other states. Statutes in the U. S. state of Georgia disqualify a juror if that person is related by consanguinity or affinity to any party within the degree as computed according to the civil law. Cousin marriage Inbreeding Nepotism Mahram Consanguinity – Catholic Encyclopaedia Dont hire the family – Article regarding Texas nepotism statutes, published by the Texas Association of Counties
9.
Cousin
–
A cousin is a relative with whom a person shares one or more common ancestors. In the general sense, cousins are two or more away from any common ancestor, thus distinguishing a cousin from an ancestor, descendant, sibling, aunt, uncle, niece. However, in common parlance, cousins typically refers to first cousins as the children of ones uncles, systems of degrees and removals are used in the English-speaking world to describe the exact relationship between two cousins and the ancestor they have in common. The ordinals in the terms first cousins, second cousins, third cousins, the number of G words used to describe this ancestor will determine how close the relationship is. For example, having great-great-grandparents in common would be third cousins, when the cousins are not the same generation, they are described as removed. In this case, the number of generations to the common ancestor is used to determine the degree. Note that the ages of the cousins are irrelevant to the definition of the cousin relationship, the following is a list of less common cousin terms. A cousin chart, or table of consanguinity, is helpful in identifying the degree of relationship between two people using their most recent common ancestor as the reference point. Cousinship between two people can be described in degrees and removals by determining how close, generationally. Another visual chart used in determining the relationship between two people who share a common ancestor is based upon a rhombus shape, usually referred to as a canon law relationship chart. The chart is used by placing the common progenitor in the top space in the diamond-shaped chart, then follow the line down the outside edge of the chart for each of the two people until their respective relationship to the common ancestor is reached. Upon determining that place along the opposing outside edge for each person, the information contained in the common intersection defines the relationship. Then, following the spaces inward, they would intersect in the brother diamond
10.
Intestate succession
–
Intestacy is the condition of the estate of a person who dies without having made a valid will or other binding declaration. Alternatively this may apply where a will or declaration has been made, but only applies to part of the estate. Intestacy law, also referred to as the law of descent and distribution, a forced share can often only be decreased on account of some very specific misconduct by the forced heir. After the Statute of Wills 1540, Englishmen could dispose of their lands and their personal property could formerly be disposed of by a testament, hence the hallowed legal merism last will and testament. Common law sharply distinguished between property and chattels. This law became obsolete as England moved from being a feudal to a mercantile society, in most contemporary common-law jurisdictions, the law of intestacy is patterned after the common law of descent. The operation of these laws varies from one jurisdiction to another, in England and Wales the Intestacy Rules have been uniform since 1925 and similar rules apply in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and many Commonwealth countries and Crown dependencies. If there are children, grandchildren, or great-grandchildren, the spouse receives the personal possessions, the other half passes to the children equally at 18, with provision for grandchildren whose parents have died before the intestate deceased. The law on intestacy in Scotland broadly follows that of England, a notable difference is that all possible relatives can qualify for benefit. Once a class is exhausted, succession continues to the line of ascendants, followed by siblings. In a complete absence of relatives of the whole or half-blood, the Crown has a discretion to benefit people unrelated to the intestate, e. g. those with moral claims on the estate. In the United States intestacy laws vary from state to state under the American practice of federalism, likewise, in Canada the laws vary from province to province. As in England, most jurisdictions apply rules of succession to determine next of kin who become legal heirs to the estate. Also, as in England, if no identifiable heirs are discovered, attempts in the United States to make the law with respect to intestate succession uniform from state to state have been met with limited success. Federal law controls intestacy of Native Americans, the state of Washington also has codified its intestacy law. New York has perhaps the most complicated law of descent of distribution, floridas intestacy statute permits the heirs of a deceased spouse of the decedent to inherit, in the event that the decedent has no other heirs. In certain jurisdictions such as France, Switzerland, the US state of Louisiana, in England and Wales, the rules of succession are the Intestacy Rules set out in the Administration of Estates Act and associated legislation. The Act sets out the order for distribution of property in the estate of the deceased
11.
Indulgentiarum Doctrina
–
Indulgentiarum doctrina, so called from its incipit, is an apostolic constitution about indulgences, dated 1 January 1967. By this document Pope Paul VI, responding to suggestions made at the Second Vatican Council, Pope Paul explained that sin bring punishments inflicted by Gods sanctity and justice, which must be expiated either here on earth or else in the life to come. Such expiation generally takes the form of penance, traditionally described as prayers, fasting, and alms, the document stressed that the Churchs aim was not merely to help the faithful make due satisfaction for their sins, but chiefly to bring them to greater fervour of charity. For all men who walk this earth daily commit at least venial sins, indulgences cannot be gained without a sincere conversion of outlook and unity with God. An indulgence is the remission before God of the punishment due sins already forgiven as far as their guilt is concerned. An indulgence is partial or plenary according as it removes either part or all of the punishment due sin. Indulgences can always be applied to the dead by way of suffrage, the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum reached its fourth edition in Latin in 1999, and is available on the Holy Sees website. An English translation of the edition is available online. The Enchiridion Indulgentiarum differs from the Raccolta in that it only the most important prayers and works of piety, charity. In this way, the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, in spite of its smaller size, there are four general grants of indulgence, which are meant to encourage the faithful to infuse a Christian spirit into the actions of their daily lives and to strive for perfection of charity. Devoting oneself or ones goods compassionately in a spirit of faith to the service of ones brothers and sisters in need, freely abstaining in a spirit of penance from something licit and pleasant. Freely giving open witness to ones faith before others in particular circumstances of everyday life, adoration of Jesus in the Eucharist for at least half an hour. The pious exercise of the Stations of the Cross, a plenary indulgence may also be gained on some occasions, which are not everyday occurrences. They include, Receiving, even by radio or television, the blessing given by the Pope Urbi et Orbi or that which a bishop is authorized to give three times a year to the faithful of his diocese. Taking part devoutly in the celebration of a day devoted on a level to a particular religious purpose. Under this heading come the annual celebrations such as the World Day of Prayer for Vocations, taking part for at least three full days in a spiritual retreat. Taking part in some functions during the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity including its conclusion, a specific plenary indulgence is normally authorized to those properly disposed who attend a newly ordained priests First Mass. This is not the same as any indulgence granted, if any, from attending the Ordination Mass itself, since he only concelebrates that Mass, with the ordaining Bishop being the principal celebrant
12.
Pastor bonus
–
Pastor bonus is an apostolic constitution promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 28 June 1988. It thus strengthens the unity of the faith and the communion of the people of God and it replaced the previous governing document, Regimini Ecclesiæ universæ, which was released by Paul VI in 1967. It delineated the roles of the Secretariat of State, Congregations, Tribunals, Pontifical Councils, Administrative Services and it also established the norms for the Ad limina visits of bishops to Rome and the relationship between the Holy See and the particular Churches and episcopal conferences. Among the changes formulated in the constitution was the re-integration of the Council for Public Affairs of the Church into the Secretariat of State as the Section for Relations with States. The Council for Public Affairs of the Church had previously been a section of the Secretariat of State, the constitution also opened membership in dicasteries to priests, deacons, religious, and lay persons. Pastor bonus continued the opening of the government of the church by allowing representatives of all the faithful to have a role in the Roman Curia. As of March 2016, Pastor bonus has been amended in 2011, by Quaerit semper, in 2013, by Ministrorum institutio and Fides per doctrinam, and in 2014, by Confermando una tradizione. On the same day the Apostolic Letter Fides per doctrinam transferred the competence of catechesis from the Congregation for Clergy to the Pontifical Council for Promoting New Evangelization, in October 2013, Pope Francis and his Council of Cardinals were reviewing Pastor bonus for possible further revisions. It also established the Secretariat for the Economy as a dicastery of the Roman Curia, original text Full text, translated to English by Francis C. C. F. Kelly, James H. Provost, and Michel Thériault and revised by Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops and the Secretariat of State, changing needs, changing names, Reform of Curia is Vatican tradition, Catholic New Service,13 July 2014
13.
Pontificalis Domus
–
The apostolic letter motu proprio Pontificalis Domus was issued by Pope Paul VI on 28 March 1968, in the fifth year of his pontificate. It reorganized the Papal Household, which had been known then as the Papal Court. Paul VI begins the letter with his rationale for reorganizing the Papal Household and his goal in reorganizing its structure will be to stress the essentially spiritual mission of the Pope, as well to serve the civic and international aspects of the Popes office. To conclude the introduction, Paul VI reinstates the original and noble name of the Papal Court, the first section deals with the overarching structure of the Papal Household. It states that the Papal Household shall be composed of clergy and laity. All members of the Papal Household are subject to the direction of the Prefect of the Apostolic Palace, all offices will be voided upon the vacancy of the Apostolic See, and no offices are hereditary. Furthermore, all ceremonies of the Papal Household will be categorized as either sacred or civil, the civil ceremonies are distinguished as either audiences of official character or of a non-official character. The second section deals with the organization of the Papal Chapel, the last point of this section defines the role of clerics of the Papal Chapel, who are to assist the Pope at the altar, under the guidance of the papal masters of ceremonies. The third and last section of the document deals with the Papal Family, the Family is composed of both ecclesiastical and lay members. The Master of the Sacred Apostolic Palace is to retain his office, the Secretary of Briefs to Princes and the Secretary of Latin Letters retain their titles. The responsibilities of the Secretary to Embassies and Secretary of the Wardrobe are commuted to the office of the Prelates of the Antechamber, the title of Sub-Auditor remains abolished in both name and office. Domestic Prelates and Secret Chamberlains Supernumerary remain part of the Papal Family, likewise, the Secret Chamberlains of the Cape and Sword are to be retained under the title Gentlemen of His Holiness, and the Bussolanti take the new name of Attachés of the Antechamber. The many offices of honorific ecclesiastical titles—i. e and those given to clerics styled Monsignori—are reduced to three categories, Protonotaries Apostolic, Prelates of Honor of His Holiness, and Chaplains of His Holiness. All the other categories were abolished, the Corps of the Noble Pontifical Guard assumed the name Honor Guard of the Pope, and rendered only an honorary service. The Swiss Guard, the Palatine Guard, and the Pontifical Gendarmerie remained in service
14.
1917 Code of Canon Law
–
The 1917 Code of Canon Law, also referred to as the Pio-Benedictine Code, was the first official comprehensive codification of Latin canon law. It was promulgated on 27 May 1917 and took effect on 19 May 1918. It was in force until the 1983 Code of Canon Law took legal effect and it has been described as the greatest revolution in canon law since the time of Gratian. This was also the law that for the first time in Roman Catholic Church history. Papal attempts at codification of the mass of canon law spanned the eight centuries since Gratian produced his Decretum c. In the 13th century especially canon law became the object of scientific study, the most important of these were the five books of the Decretales Gregorii IX and the Liber Sextus of Bonaface VIII. Some of it became obsolete and contradictions crept in so that it became difficult in recent times to discover what was of obligation and where to find the law on a particular question. When the Vatican Council met in 1869 a number of bishops of different countries petitioned for a new compilation of law that would be clear. The council never finished its work and no attempt was made to bring the legislation up to date, by the 19th Century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms. Many of these were difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and this situation impelled Pope St. Pius X to order the creation of the first Code of Canon Law, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, the work having been begun by Pius X and promulgated by Benedict XV, it is sometimes called the Pio-Benedictine Code, but more often the 1917 Code. The Catholic universities of the world and the bishops of all countries were asked to cooperate, the scholars began the work and a copy of the first draft was sent to the bishops for suggestions. Every Latin bishop had the right to keep a representative in Rome to give him voice at the meetings of the codification commission. By the winter of 1912, the span of the code had been completed. The new code was completed in 1916, the code was promulgated on 27 May 1917 as the Code of Canon Law by his successor, Pope Benedict XV, who set 19 May 1918 as the date on which it came into force. For the most part, it applied only to the Latin Church except when it treats of things that, by their nature, apply to the Oriental, the numbering of the canons was not to be altered. It was in force until Canon 6 §1 1° of the 1983 Code of Canon Law took legal effect, the congregations were instead to issue Instructions on the canons of the code, and to make it clear that they were elucidating particular canons of the code. This was done so as not to make the code obsolete soon after it was promulgated, the 1917 Code was very rarely amended, and then only slightly
15.
Corpus Juris Canonici
–
The Corpus Juris Canonici is a collection of significant sources of the canon law of the Catholic Church that was applicable to the Latin Church. It was replaced by the 1917 Code of Canon Law which went into effect in 1918, the 1917 Code was later replaced by the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the codification of canon law currently in effect for the Latin Church. In 1990, Oriental canon law was codified in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, which is currently in effect for the Eastern Catholic Churches. The Corpus juris canonici was used in courts of the Catholic Church such as those in each diocese. The term corpus juris canonici was used to denote the system of canonical law beginning in the thirteenth century, the term corpus here denotes a collection of documents, corpus juris, a collection of laws, especially if they are placed in systematic order. It may signify also an official and complete collection of a made by the legislative power. The expression corpus juris may also mean, not the collection of laws itself, hence Benedict XIV could rightly say that the collection of his Bulls formed part of the corpus juris. One best explains the signification of the corpus juris canonici by showing the successive meanings which were usually assigned to it in the past. Under the name of corpus canonum were designated the collection of Dionysius Exiguus, at the present day, under the above title are commonly understood these three collections with the addition of the Decretum of Gratian, the Extravagantes of John XXII, and the Extravagantes Communes. Thus understood, the dates back to the 16th century and was officially sanctioned by Gregory XIII. The earliest editions of these texts printed under the now usual title of Corpus juris canonici, in the strict sense of the word the Church does not possess a corpus juris clausum, i. e. A collection of laws to which new ones cannot be added, E. of privileges not only granted by the Holy See but also inserted in the official collections of canon law. He did this to obviate the difficulties which beset the study of practical, external theology, in spite of its great reputation and wide diffusion, the Decretum has never been recognized by the Church as an official collection. The general laws of a date than the Decree of Gratian have been called Extravagantes. These were soon brought together in new collections, five of which possessed a special authority, two of them, namely the third and the fifth, are the most ancient official compilations of the Roman Church. But soon the new era of official collections began to dawn, in 1230 Gregory IX ordered St. Raymund of Pennafort to make a new collection, which is called the Decretals of Gregory IX. To this collection he gave force of law by the Bull Rex pacificus,5 September 1234 and this collection is also known to canonists as the Liber extra, i. e. extra Decretum Gratiani. Boniface VIII published a code on 3 March 1298, called the Sixth Book of the Decretals
16.
Decretum Gratiani
–
It forms the first part of the collection of six legal texts, which together became known as the Corpus Juris Canonici. It was used by canonists of the Roman Catholic Church until Pentecost 1918 and he did this to obviate the difficulties which beset the study of practical, external theology, i. e. the study of canon law. In spite of its reputation and wide diffusion, the Decretum has never been recognized by the Church as an official collection. It is divided into three parts, the third part, entitled De consecratione, treats of the sacraments and other sacred things and contains 5 distinctions. Each distinction or question contains dicta Gratiani, or maxims of Gratian, Gratian himself raises questions and brings forward difficulties, which he answers by quoting auctoritates, i. e. canons of councils, decretals of the popes, texts of the Scripture or of the Fathers. These are the canones, the remaining portion, even the summaries of the canons. It is to be noted that many auctoritates have been inserted in the Decretum by authors of a later date and these are the Paleœ, so called from Paucapalea, the name of the principal commentator on the Decretum. The Roman revisers of the 16th century corrected the text of the Decree, the Decretum is quoted by indicating the number of the canon and that of the distinction or of the cause and the question. XI indicates the first part of the Decree, VI, refers to the second part, 33rd cause, question 3, distinction VI, canon 1, c. 8, de Cons. d. II refers to the part, distinction II. XII, q.3 refers to the part, cause XII, question 3. Sometimes, especially in the case of well-known and much-quoted canons,4, i. e. the 29th canon of the second part, cause XVII, question 4. Occasionally the first words alone are quoted, in both cases, to find the canon it is necessary to consult the alphabetical tables that contain the first words of every canon. Gratian was a lawyer from Bologna. He flourished in the mid 12th century, little else is known about his biography. He is sometimes referred to as Franciscus Gratianus, Johannes Gratian. For a long time he was believed to have born at the end of the 11th century. Since the 11th century, Bologna had been the centre of the study of law, as well as of Roman law
17.
Didache
–
The Didache, also known as The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, is a brief anonymous early Christian treatise, dated by most modern scholars to the first century. The first line of this treatise is The teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the twelve apostles. The text, parts of which constitute the oldest extant written catechism, has three main sections dealing with Christian ethics, rituals such as baptism and Eucharist, and Church organization, the opening chapters describe the virtuous Way of Life and the wicked Way of Death. The Lords Prayer is included in full, baptism is by immersion, or by affusion if immersion is not practical. Fasting is ordered for Wednesdays and Fridays, Two primitive Eucharistic prayers are given. Church organization was at a stage of development. Itinerant apostles and prophets are important, serving as chief priests, meanwhile, local bishops and deacons also have authority and seem to be taking the place of the itinerant ministry. The Didache is considered the first example of the genre of Church Orders, the Didache reveals how Jewish Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their practice for Gentile Christians. The Didache is similar in ways to the Gospel of Matthew. The opening chapters, which appear in other early Christian texts, are likely derived from an earlier Jewish source. The Didache is considered part of the group of second-generation Christian writings known as the Apostolic Fathers, however, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church broader canon includes the Didascalia, a work which draws on the Didache. Lost for centuries, a Greek manuscript of the Didache was rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios, a Latin version of the first five chapters was discovered in 1900 by J. Schlecht. Many English and American scholars once dated the text to the late 2nd century CE, a view still held today, additionally, apart from two minuscule fragments, the Greek text of the Didache has only survived in a single manuscript, the Codex Hierosolymitanus. Dating the document is made difficult both by the lack of hard evidence and its composite character. The Didache may have compiled in its present form as late as 150. The Two Ways section is based on an earlier Jewish source. The community that produced the Didache was probably based in Syria, the text was lost, but scholars knew of it through the writing of later church fathers, some of whom had drawn heavily on it. In 1873 in Istanbul, metropolitan Philotheos Bryennios found a Greek copy of the Didache, written in 1056, hitchcock and Brown produced the first English translation in March 1884
18.
Collectio canonum quadripartita
–
The Collectio canonum quadripartita is an early medieval canon law collection, written around the year 850 in the ecclesiastical province of Reims. The Quadripartita is a manual of canon and penitential law. Even well into the century the Quadripartita was being copied by scribes. This work should not be confused with the early twelfth-century Latin translation of Old English law known as the Quadripartitus, through the Middle Ages the private penitential system became an increasingly elaborate and ritualized institution. These short lists of sins made up a genre of texts known as the penitential handbook and their popularity was rivalled only by their variety, as the number of manuals in circulation grew, so did the discrepancies between them. This gave rise during the ninth century to a backlash against the diversity of penitentials. During the Carolingian period there evolved two different yet overlapping contexts in which the penitentials were used, the first of these was the pastoral context of confession between priest and parishioner. By the ninth century, chapters from penitential manuals had entered many of the canon law collections then being copied and compiled on the Continent. Since at least the fifth and sixth centuries, canon law collections could boast of being repositories of the ancient and authoritative conciliar and papal judgements of the Christian church. As such, these collections had at first stood in stark contrast to the early penitentials, whose lists of sins, in time, however, the genres of collectio and penitential blended together. The collections began to more like penitentials, even as penitentials everywhere were beginning to take on characteristics of the more formal collectiones. Problems of textual stability and genre were further exacerbated by the fact no one code or collection of canon law claimed status as the recognized standard. It was in context of fluctuating generic and textual boundaries in France that the Quadripartita developed. Books 3 and 4 are significantly longer than books 1 and 2, there are nine extant manuscripts which contain the Quadripartita, dating from as early as the ninth century to as late as the twelfth, ranging geographically from Italy to England. The sigla given below are those introduced by Michael Elliot, of the nine manuscripts extant today which contain the Quadripartita six contain the collection without its full complement of four books. One can see from the evidence that some copies circulated without Book 1, some without Book 3. More often than not, however, the entire four-book collection seems to have been transmitted intact, some copies transmitted only Book 4, which could sometimes be found tacked onto the end of the Collectio Dacheriana. The Quadripartita is now understood to be an anonymous work, however, since the seventh century the Quadripartita has been attributed variously to Hrabanus Maurus, Ecgberht of York and Halitgar of Cambrai
19.
Collectio canonum Quesnelliana
–
The Collectio canonum Quesnelliana is a vast collection of canonical and doctrinal documents prepared in Rome sometime between 494 and 610. It was first identified by Pierre Pithou and first edited by Pasquier Quesnel in 1675, the standard edition used today is that prepared by Girolamo and Pietro Ballerini in 1757. The compiler’s principal of selection seems to have been any and all documents that support doctrinal unity in general. Interestingly, the compiler of the Quesnelliana has avoided inclusion of doubtful or spurious documents, like the so-called Symmachean forgeries, but this would seem to be the extent of discrimination exercised in the compilation of the Quesnelliana. It contains Latin translations of the councils that are taken from a now lost collection of Latin canons made ca. The Africano-Romanum collection/translation predates the competing fifth-century Latin translation that Dionysius Exiguus referred to as the prisca, both the Africano-Romanum and prisca translations were largely superseded by the arrival, shortly after 500, of the superior translations of the several collections of Dionysius Exiguus. Most historians have accepted the Ballerini brothers’ dating of the Quesnelliana to just before the end of the fifth century, older scholarship, beginning with the Ballerinis, argued that the Quesnelliana was a Gallic collection, though one with an admittedly Roman colour. French historians then developed the theory that the collection originated at Arles, however, more recent scholarship, making much more of the Quesnelliana’s Roman colour, has argued for an Italian, possibly even Roman origin. Relatively recent work by Joseph Van der Speeten has shown that the Quesnelliana, or at least one of its constituent parts, if true, this places the Quesnelliana definitively at Rome during the first decade of the sixth century. The Quesnelliana has been valued by historians for its large complement of correspondence by Pope Leo I. While the exact nature of the source material for the Leonine letters is still a subject of debate. Detlev Jasper remarks that The compiler of the Quesnelliana seems to have been interested in Pope Leo’s writings. He gathered the letters that were available and put them at the end of his collection as numbers LXVII to XCVIIII, although without any recognizable order or organization. The compiler’s main goal seems to have been to maximize the number of Leonine letters in the collection, nevertheless, the Quesnelliana remained a popular work well into the ninth century, particularly in Francia. Most likely this was because of the papal letters it contained that dealt with disciplinary matters that retained ecclesiastical importance throughout the Middle Ages
20.
Collectio canonum Wigorniensis
–
The Collectio canonum Wigorniensis is a medieval canon law collection originating in southern England around the year 1005. The author of Recension A is currently unknown, other recensions also exist, slightly later in date than the first. These later recensions are extensions and augmentations of Recension A, and are known collectively as Recension B, cross and Hamers edition, Wulfstans canon law collection Thorpes edition in vol. Wormald, The making of English law, King Alfred to the twelfth century, vol. I, legislation and its limits. Wulfstan’s canon law collection, eds J. E, cross and A. Hamer, Anglo-Saxon texts 1. A Wulfstan manuscript, containing institutes, laws and homilies, ed. H. R. Loyn, Early English manuscripts in facsimile 17
21.
Benedictus Deus (Pius IV)
–
Benedictus Deus is a papal bull written by Pius IV in 1564 which ratified all decrees and definitions of the Council of Trent. This was seen by Church contemporaries of Pius IV as an attempt to strengthen the influence of the Papacy against the rise of Conciliarism exemplified by the Council of Trent itself, there is a more minor bull of the same title written by Benedict XII in 1336. Pii Divina Providentia papae quarti super confirmatione oecumenii & generalis concilii Tridentini, mexicopoli, Ocharte,1565 Text at archive. org The full text of Benedictus Deus at Wikisource
Catholicism portal
. PMID 24294299.
