1.
Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
2.
Etiquette
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Etiquette is a code of behavior that delineates expectations for social behavior according to contemporary conventional norms within a society, social class, or group. The French word étiquette, literally signifying a tag or label, was used in a sense in English around 1750. Etiquette has changed and evolved over the years, in the 3rd millennium BC, Ptahhotep wrote The Maxims of Ptahhotep. The Maxims were conformist precepts extolling such civil virtues as truthfulness, self-control, learning by listening to everybody and knowing that human knowledge is never perfect are a leitmotif. Avoiding open conflict wherever possible should not be considered weakness, stress is placed on the pursuit of justice, although it is conceded that it is a gods command that prevails in the end. Some of the maxims refer to ones behaviour when in the presence of the great, how to choose the right master, others teach the correct way to lead through openness and kindness. Greed is the base of all evil and should be guarded against, while generosity towards family, confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher whose philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. Baldassare Castiglione, count of Casatico, was an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissance author, who is probably most famous for his authorship of The Book of the Courtier. The work was an example of a book, dealing with questions of the etiquette and morality of the courtier, and was very influential in 16th century European court circles. ”During the Enlightenment era. Upwardly mobile middle class bourgeoisie increasingly tried to identify themselves with the elite through their adopted artistic preferences and their standards of behaviour. They became preoccupied with precise rules of etiquette, such as when to show emotion, influential in this new discourse was a series of essays on the nature of politeness in a commercial society, penned by the philosopher Lord Shaftesbury in the early 18th century. Its stated goal was to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality, the allied notion of civility – referring to a desired social interaction which valued sober and reasoned debate on matters of interest – also became an important quality for the polite classes. Established rules and procedures for proper behaviour as well as conventions, were outlined by gentlemens clubs. Periodicals, including The Tatler and The Spectator, infused politeness into English coffeehouse conversation, as their explicit purpose lay in the reformation of English manners and morals. It was Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield who first used the word etiquette in its meaning, in his Letters to His Son on the Art of Becoming a Man of the World. This work comprised over 400 letters written from 1737 or 1738 and continuing until his sons death in 1768, the letters were first published by his sons widow Eugenia Stanhope in 1774. Chesterfield endeavoured to decouple the issue of manners from conventional morality, the Letters were full of elegant wisdom and perceptive observation and deduction. Frequent and loud laughter is the characteristic of folly and ill-manners, it is the manner in which the mob express their joy at silly things
3.
Bringing Up Baby
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Bringing Up Baby is a 1938 American screwball comedy film directed by Howard Hawks, starring Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant, and released by RKO Radio Pictures. The film tells the story of a paleontologist in a number of predicaments involving a scatterbrained woman, the screenplay was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde from a short story by Wilde which originally appeared in Colliers Weekly magazine on April 10,1937. The script was specifically for Hepburn, and was tailored to her personality. Filming began in September 1937 and wrapped in January 1938, it was over schedule, production was frequently delayed due to uncontrollable laughing fits between Hepburn and Grant. Hepburn struggled with her performance and was coached by her co-star. A tame leopard was used during the shooting, its trainer was off-screen with a whip for all its scenes. Although it has a reputation as a flop upon its release, Bringing up Baby was moderately successful in many cities, the films reputation began to grow during the 1950s, when it was shown on television. Nowadays, it is considered one of the greatest films ever made, David Huxley is a mild-mannered paleontologist. For the past four years, he has been trying to assemble the skeleton of a Brontosaurus but is missing one bone, the intercostal clavicle. Adding to his stress is his marriage to the dour Alice Swallow and the need to impress Elizabeth Random. The day before his wedding, David meets Susan Vance by chance on a golf course and she is a free-spirited young lady, and Mrs. Randoms niece. Susans brother, Mark, has sent her a tame leopard from Brazil named Baby to give to their aunt, Susan thinks David is a zoologist, and persuades David to go to her country home in Connecticut to help bring up Baby. Complications arise since Susan has fallen in love with David and tries to him at her house as long as possible to prevent his marriage. David finally receives the intercostal clavicle, but Susans dog George takes it out of its box, the dowager is unaware of Davids identity, since Susan has introduced him as Mr. Bone. Baby and George run off, and Susan and David mistake a dangerous leopard who was being driven to be euthanized from a circus for Baby. After considerable running around, David and Susan are jailed by a befuddled town policeman, Constable Slocum, when Slocum does not believe their story, Susan tells him they are members of the Leopard Gang, she calls herself Swingin Door Susie, and David Jerry the Nipper. David fails to convince the constable that Susan makes things up from motion pictures shes seen, eventually, Alexander Peabody shows up to verify everyones identity. Susan, who during a police interview contrived to sneak out a window, David saves her, using a chair to shoo the big cat into a cell
4.
Proxemics
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Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behaviour, communication, and social interaction. Proxemics is one among several subcategories in the study of communication, including haptics, kinesics, vocalics. Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term in 1963, defined proxemics as the interrelated observations, in his foundational work on proxemics, The Hidden Dimension, Hall emphasized the impact of proxemic behavior on interpersonal communication. Proxemics remains a hidden component of communication that is uncovered through observation. Hall described the interpersonal distances of man in four zones, intimate space, personal space, social space, the distance surrounding a person form space. The space within intimate distance and personal distance is called personal space, the space within social distance and out of personal distance is called social space. And the space within public distance is called public space, personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, permitting a person to enter personal space and entering somebody elses personal space are indicators of perception of those peoples relationship. An intimate zone is reserved for friends, lovers, children. Another zone is used for conversations with friends, to chat with associates, a further zone is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances. A fourth zone is used for speeches, lectures, and theater, essentially, entering somebodys personal space is normally an indication of familiarity and sometimes intimacy. However, in society, especially in crowded urban communities, it can be difficult to maintain personal space, for example when in a crowded train. Many people find such physical proximity to be disturbing and uncomfortable. In an impersonal, crowded situation, eye contact tends to be avoided, even in a crowded place, preserving personal space is important, and intimate and sexual contact, such as frotteurism and groping, is unacceptable physical contact. Research links the amygdala with emotional reactions to proximity to other people, first, it is activated by such proximity, and second, in those with complete bilateral damage to their amygdala, such as patient S. M. lack a sense of personal space boundary. As the researchers have noted, Our findings suggest that the amygdala may mediate the repulsive force that helps to maintain a distance between people. A persons personal space is carried with them everywhere they go and it is the most inviolate form of territory. Body spacing and posture, according to Hall, are reactions to sensory fluctuations or shifts, such as subtle changes in the sound
5.
University of Arizona
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The University of Arizona is a public research university in Tucson, Arizona, United States. Founded in 1885, the UA was the first university in the Arizona Territory, the university operates two medical schools and is affiliated with the regions only academic medical centers. The university is home to the James E. Rogers College of Law and numerous other nationally ranked graduate. During the 2015-2016 academic year, there was an enrollment of 43,088 students. The University of Arizona is governed by the Arizona Board of Regents, the University of Arizona is one of the elected members of the Association of American Universities and is the only representative from the state of Arizona to this group. Known as the Arizona Wildcats, the teams are members of the Pac-12 Conference of the NCAA. UA athletes have won titles in several sports, most notably mens basketball, baseball. The official colors of the university and its teams are UA Red. After the passage of the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862, the push for a university in Arizona grew, the University of Arizona was approved by the Arizona Territorys Thieving Thirteenth Legislature in 1885, which also selected the city of Tucson to receive the appropriation to build the university. Tucson had hoped to receive the appropriation for the mental hospital. Tucson was largely disappointed with receiving what was viewed as an inferior prize. Construction of Old Main, the first building on campus, began on October 27,1887, and classes met for the first time in 1891 with 32 students in Old Main, which is still in use today. Because there were no schools in Arizona Territory, the university maintained separate preparatory classes for the first 23 years of operation. The University of Arizona offers 334 fields of study leading to bachelors, masters, doctoral, academic departments and programs are organized into colleges and schools. Currently, grades are given on a strict 4-point scale with A worth 4, B worth 3, C worth 2, D worth 1 and E worth zero points. In 2004, there were discussions with students and faculty that may lead the UA towards eventual usage of the grading system in future years. As of December 2015, the university uses the 4-points scale. The Center for World University Rankings in 2015 ranked Arizona 68th in the world, the 2015–16 Times Higher Education World University Rankings rated University of Arizona 163rd in the world and the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings ranked it 233rd
6.
William F. Buckley Jr.
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William Frank Buckley Jr. was an American conservative author and commentator. Former Senate Republican leader Bob Dole said Buckley lighted the fire, Buckley wrote God and Man at Yale and more than fifty other books on writing, speaking, history, politics, and sailing, including a series of novels featuring CIA agent Blackford Oakes. Buckley referred to himself as either a libertarian or conservative and he resided in New York City and Stamford, Connecticut. His mother, from New Orleans, was of Swiss-German, German, the sixth of ten children, Buckley moved as a boy with his family to Mexico, and then to Sharon, Connecticut, before beginning his formal schooling in Paris, where he attended first grade. By age seven, he received his first formal training in English at a day school in London, his first and second languages were Spanish, as a boy, Buckley developed a love for music, sailing, horses, hunting, and skiing. All of these interests would be reflected in his later writings, just before World War II, at age 13, he attended high school at the Catholic preparatory school Beaumont College in England. During the war, Buckleys family took in the future British historian Alistair Horne as a child war evacuee and he and Horne remained lifelong friends. Buckley and Horne both attended the Millbrook School, in Millbrook, New York, and graduated as members of the Class of 1943, at Millbrook, Buckley founded and edited the schools yearbook, The Tamarack, his first experience in publishing. When Buckley was a man, his father was an acquaintance of libertarian author Albert Jay Nock. William F. Buckley, Sr. encouraged his son to read Nocks works, as a youth, Buckley developed many musical talents. He played the very well, later calling it the instrument I love beyond all others. He was an accomplished pianist and appeared once on Marian McPartlands National Public Radio show Piano Jazz, a great admirer of Johann Sebastian Bach, Buckley said that he wanted Bachs music played at his funeral. Buckley was homeschooled through the 8th grade using the Calvert School of Baltimores Homeschool Curriculum, Buckley attended the National Autonomous University of Mexico in 1943. The following year upon his graduation from the U. S. Army Officer Candidate School, in his book, Miles Gone By, he briefly recounts being a member of Franklin Roosevelts honor guard upon the Presidents death. He served stateside throughout the war at Fort Benning, Georgia, Fort Gordon, Georgia, with the end of World War II in 1945, he enrolled in Yale University, where he became a member of the secret Skull and Bones society and was a masterful debater. He was an member of the Conservative Party of the Yale Political Union. Buckley studied political science, history, and economics at Yale and he excelled on the Yale Debate Team, and under the tutelage of Yale professor Rollin G. Osterweis, Buckley honed his acerbic style. These two officers remained lifelong friends, in a November 1,2005, column for National Review, Buckley recounted that while he worked for the CIA, the only employee of the organization that he knew was Hunt, his immediate boss
7.
Dick Cavett
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Richard Alva Dick Cavett is an American television personality and former talk show host notable for his conversational style and in-depth discussions. Cavett appeared regularly on nationally broadcast television in the United States in five consecutive decades, the 1960s through the 2000s. Cavett was born in Nebraska, but sources differ as to the town, locating his birthplace in either Gibbon, where his family lived, or nearby Kearney. Cavett himself has stated that Gibbon was his birthplace and his mother, Erabel Era, and his father, Alva B. When asked by Lucille Ball on his own show about his heritage, he said he was Scottish, Irish, English, and possibly partly French, and he also mentioned that one grandfather came over from England, and the other from Wales. Cavetts grandparents all lived in Grand Island, Nebraska and his paternal grandparents were Alva A. Cavett and Gertrude Pinsch. His paternal grandfather was from Diller, Nebraska and his grandmother was an immigrant from Aachen. His maternal grandparents were the Rev. R. R. the Rev. Richards was from Carmarthen, Wales, and was a Baptist minister who served parishes across central Nebraska. Cavetts parents taught in Comstock, Gibbon, and Grand Island, three years later, both of his parents landed teaching positions in Lincoln, Nebraska, where Cavett completed his education at Capitol, Prescott, and Irving schools and Lincoln High School. When Cavett was ten, his mother died of cancer at age 36 and his father subsequently married Dorcas Deland, also an educator, originally from Alliance, Nebraska. On September 24,1995, Lincoln Public Schools dedicated the new Dorcas C. Cavett Elementary School in their honor. In eighth grade, Cavett directed a live Saturday-morning radio show sponsored by the Junior League, one of his high-school classmates was actress Sandy Dennis. Cavett was elected president of the student council in high school. Before leaving for college, he worked as a caddy at the Lincoln Country Club and he also began performing magic shows for $35 a night under the tutelage of Gene Gloye. In 1952, Cavett attended the convention of the International Brotherhood of Magicians in St. Louis, around the same time, he met fellow magician Johnny Carson,11 years his senior, who was doing a magic act at a church in Lincoln. While attending Yale University, Cavett played in and directed dramas on the radio station, WYBC. In his senior year, he changed his major from English to drama and he also took advantage of any opportunity to meet stars, routinely going to shows in New York to hang around stage doors or venture backstage. He would go so far as to carry a copy of Variety or a piece of company stationery in order to look inconspicuous while sneaking backstage or into a TV studio
8.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
9.
Mario Vargas Llosa
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Vargas Llosa is one of Latin Americas most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. He writes prolifically across an array of genres, including literary criticism and journalism. His novels include comedies, murder mysteries, historical novels, several, such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, have been adapted as feature films. Many of Vargas Llosas works are influenced by the perception of Peruvian society. Increasingly- however- he has expanded his range, and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world, in his essays, Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world. Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with literary modernism, while he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro, Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with his policies. He ran for the Peruvian presidency in 1990 with the center-right Frente Democrático coalition, advocating classical liberal reforms, Mario Vargas Llosa was born to a middle-class family on March 28,1936, in the Peruvian provincial city of Arequipa. He was the child of Ernesto Vargas Maldonado and Dora Llosa Ureta. Shortly after Marios birth, his father revealed that he was having an affair with a German woman, consequently, Vargas Llosa lived with his maternal family in Arequipa until a year after his parents divorce, when his maternal grandfather was named honorary consul for Peru in Bolivia. With his mother and her family, Vargas Llosa then moved to Cochabamba, Bolivia and his maternal family, the Llosas, were sustained by his grandfather, who managed a cotton farm. As a child, Vargas Llosa was led to believe that his father had died—his mother and her family did not want to explain that his parents had separated, while in Piura, Vargas Llosa attended elementary school at the religious academy Colegio Salesiano. In 1946, at the age of ten, he moved to Lima and his parents re-established their relationship and lived in Magdalena del Mar, a middle-class Lima suburb, during his teenage years. While in Lima, he studied at the Colegio La Salle, when Vargas Llosa was fourteen, his father sent him to the Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Lima. At the age of 16, before his graduation, Vargas Llosa began working as an amateur journalist for local newspapers, in 1953, during the government of Manuel A. Odría, Vargas Llosa enrolled in Limas National University of San Marcos, to study law and literature. He married Julia Urquidi, his maternal uncles sister-in-law, in 1955 at the age of 19, Vargas Llosa began his literary career in earnest in 1957 with the publication of his first short stories, The Leaders and The Grandfather, while working for two Peruvian newspapers. Upon his graduation from the National University of San Marcos in 1958, despite Mario and Julias unexpected financial status, the couple decided to remain in Paris where he began to write prolifically. Their marriage lasted only a few years, ending in divorce in 1964. As of 2015, he is in a relationship with Filipina Spanish socialite and TV personality Isabel Preysler, Vargas Llosas first novel, The Time of the Hero, was published in 1963
10.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
11.
Greeting
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Greetings sometimes are used just prior to a conversation or to greet in passing, such as on a sidewalk or trail. While greeting customs are highly culture and situation-specific and may change within a culture depending on status and relationship. Greetings can be expressed both audibly and physically, and often involve a combination of the two and this topic excludes military and ceremonial salutes but includes rituals other than gestures. A greeting, or salutation, can also be expressed in written communications, such as letters, some epochs and cultures have had very elaborate greeting rituals, for example, greeting of a sovereign. Conversely, secret societies have often furtive or arcane greeting gestures and rituals, such as a secret handshake, in some languages and cultures, the same word or gesture is used as both greeting and farewell. Examples are Good day in English, As-Salamualaikum in Arabic, Aloha in Hawaiian, Shalom in Hebrew, Namaste in Hindi, the bow and handshake are also used for both greeting and leave taking. A greeting can consist of an exchange of formal expression, kisses, handshakes, hugs, the form of greeting is determined by social etiquette, as well as by the relationship of the people. Gestures are the most obvious signal, for instance greeting someone with open arms is generally a sign that a hug is expected, however, crossing arms can be interpreted as a sign of hostility. Facial expression, body language and eye contact reflect emotions and interest level, a frown, slouching and lowered eye contact suggests disinterest, while smiling and an exuberant attitude is a sign of welcome. Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings and this basic gesture remained normal in very many situations from the Middle Ages until men typically ceased wearing hats in the mid-20th century. However the gesture was never used by women, for whom their head-covering included considerations of modesty, when a man was not wearing a hat he might touch his hair to the side of the front of his head to replicate a hat tipping gesture. The Arabic term salaam, refers to the practice of placing the palm on the heart, before. A Chinese greeting features the right fist placed in the palm of the left hand, the gesture may be used on meeting and parting, and when offering thanks or apologies. In India, it is common to see the Namaste greeting where the palms of the hands are pressed together and it is typical for the person to say adab arz hai, or just adab. It is often answered with the same or the word Tasleem is said as an answer or sometimes it is answered with a gesture of acceptance. Hand position is important, the superiors hand must be higher than the inferiors. Muslim men will clasp both hands, palms together at the chest and utter the correct Islamic slametan phrase, which may be followed by cheek-to-cheek contact, a quick hug or loose handshake. Pious Muslim women rotate their hands from a vertical to perpendicular prayer-like position in order to touch the finger tips of the male greeter
12.
Dialogue
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Dialogue is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. In the 20th century, philosophical treatments of dialogue emerged from thinkers including Mikhail Bakhtin, Paulo Freire, Martin Buber, although diverging in many details, these thinkers have articulated a holistic concept of dialogue as a multi-dimensional, dynamic and context-dependent process of creating meaning. Educators such as Freire and Ramón Flecha have also developed a body of theory, the term dialogue stems from the Greek διάλογος, its roots are διά and λόγος. The first extant author who uses the term is Plato, in whose works it is associated with the art of dialectic. Latin took over the word as dialogus, in the West, Plato has commonly been credited with the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form. Ancient sources indicate, however, that the Platonic dialogue had its foundations in the mime and these works, admired and imitated by Plato, have not survived and we have only the vaguest idea of how they may have been performed. The Mimes of Herodas, which were found in a papyrus in 1891, Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. By about 400 BC he had perfected the Socratic dialogue, all his extant writings, except the Apology and Epistles, use this form. Following Plato, the became a major literary genre in antiquity. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium, also, Two French writers of eminence borrowed the title of Lucian’s most famous collection, both Fontenelle and Fénelon prepared Dialogues des morts. Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, in English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his treatise, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. His contemporary, the Scottish philosopher David Hume wrote Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a prominent 19th-century example of literary dialogue was Landor’s Imaginary Conversations. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799, in Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés and those on Painting by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Platos model, include Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Galiani, Leopardi, in the 19th century, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. English writers including Anstey Guthrie also adopted the form, but these seem to have found less of a popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. Authors who have employed it include George Santayana, in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo. Also Edith Stein and Iris Murdoch used the dialogue form, Stein imagined a dialogue between Edmund Husserl and Thomas Aquinas. Murdoch included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos, Two Platonic Dialogues, more recently Timothy Williamson wrote Tetralogue, a philosophical exchange on a train between four people with radically different epistemological views
