1.
HTTP cookie
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An HTTP cookie is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the users computer by the users web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a mechanism for websites to remember stateful information or to record the users browsing activity. They can also be used to remember pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords. Other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web, perhaps most importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing sensitive information, the security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the users web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookies data to be read by a hacker, used to access to user data. Lawmakers to take action in 2011, European law requires all websites targeting European Union member states gain informed consent from users before storing non-essential cookies on their device. The term cookie was coined by web browser programmer Lou Montulli and it was derived from the term magic cookie, which is a packet of data a program receives and sends back unchanged, used by Unix programmers. Magic cookie in turn derives from fortune cookie, a cookie with an embedded message, magic cookies were already used in computing when computer programmer Lou Montulli had the idea of using them in web communications in June 1994. At the time, he was an employee of Netscape Communications, vint Cerf and John Klensin represented MCI in technical discussions with Netscape Communications. MCI did not want its servers to have to retain partial transaction states, cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart. Together with John Giannandrea, Montulli wrote the initial Netscape cookie specification the same year, version 0. 9beta of Mosaic Netscape, released on October 13,1994, supported cookies. The first use of cookies was checking whether visitors to the Netscape website had already visited the site, Montulli applied for a patent for the cookie technology in 1995, and US5774670 was granted in 1998. Support for cookies was integrated in Internet Explorer in version 2, the introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public at the time. In particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of their presence, the general public learned about cookies after the Financial Times published an article about them on February 12,1996. In the same year, cookies received a lot of media attention, cookies were discussed in two U. S. Federal Trade Commission hearings in 1996 and 1997. The development of the formal cookie specifications was already ongoing, in particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in April 1995 on the www-talk mailing list. A special working group within the Internet Engineering Task Force was formed, two alternative proposals for introducing state in HTTP transactions had been proposed by Brian Behlendorf and David Kristol respectively
2.
Snack
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A snack is a portion of food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged foods and other processed foods. Traditionally, snacks are prepared from ingredients commonly available in the home, often cold cuts, fruits, leftovers, nuts, sandwiches, and the like are used as snacks. The Dagwood sandwich was originally the result of a cartoon characters desire for large snacks. With the spread of convenience stores, packaged snack foods became a significant business, snack foods are typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form of food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable. They often contain amounts of sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing ingredients such as chocolate, peanuts. Beverages, such as coffee, are not generally considered snacks though they may be consumed along with or in lieu of snack foods, a snack eaten shortly before going to bed or during the night may be called a night snack. In the United States, the first snack food was the peanut, peanuts first arrived from South America via slave ships, and became incorporated into African-inspired cooking on southern plantations. After the Civil War, the taste for peanuts spread north, along with popcorn, snacks bore the stigma of being sold by unhygienic street vendors. The middle-class etiquette of the Victorian era categorized any food that did not require proper usage of utensils as lower-class, pretzels were introduced to North America by the Dutch via New Amsterdam in the 17th century. In the 1860s, the snack was still associated with immigrants, unhygienic street vendors, due to loss of business during the Prohibition era, pretzels underwent rebranding to make them more appealing to the public. Packaging revolutionized snack foods, allowing sellers to reduce contamination risk while making it easy to advertise brands with a logo, pretzels boomed in popularity, bringing many other types of snack foods with it. By the 1950s, snacking had become a pastime, becoming an internationally recognized emblem of middle American life. Healthy snacks include those that have significant vitamins, are low in saturated fat and added sugars, a 2010 study showed that children in the United States snacked on average six times per day, approximately twice as often as American children in the 1970s. This represents consumption of roughly 570 calories more per day than U. S. children consumed in the 1970s, America, just one long snack bar. Wikibooks Cookbook – A collection of recipes from around the world
3.
Dessert
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Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
4.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
5.
Baked goods
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Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred from the surface of cakes, cookies, as heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other, Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories, the art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker, all types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are often roasted. Roasting, however, is suitable for finer cuts of meat. One of these is the known as en croûte, which protects the food from direct heat. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte, the en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the casing is made from a paste of flour. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten, another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote. In this method, the food is covered by baking paper to protect it while it is being baked, the cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise. Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes, in combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch, baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an ovens direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose
6.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
7.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
8.
Cooking oil
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Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as oil, palm oil. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic, a guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean, peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, the consumption of trans fats increases ones risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of bad LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of good HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils, several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration, the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, heating an oil changes its characteristics. Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, in a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil. Rancidity tests have shown that the life of walnut oil is about 3 months. Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point, experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples, smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, the cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or having on hand the proper fire extinguisher
9.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
10.
Raisin
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A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking. The word raisin dates back to Middle English and is a loanword from Old French, in modern French, raisin means grape, while a dried grape is a raisin sec, or dry grape. The Old French word, in turn, developed from the Latin word racemus, Raisin varieties depend on the type of grape used, and are made in a variety of sizes and colors including green, black, brown, blue, purple, and yellow. Seedless varieties include the sultana, the Greek currants and Flame grapes, Raisins are traditionally sun-dried, but may also be water-dipped and artificially dehydrated. Golden raisins are treated with sulfur dioxide after drying to give them their golden color, black Corinth or Zante currant are miniature, sometimes seedless raisins that are much darker and have a tart, tangy flavor. Muscat raisins are large compared to varieties, and also sweeter. Several varieties of raisins produced in Asia are available in the West only at ethnic grocers, monukka grapes are used for some of these. Raisins can contain up to 72% sugars by weight, most of which is fructose and glucose and they also contain about 3% protein and 3. 7%–6. 8% dietary fiber. Raisins, like prunes and apricots, are high in certain antioxidants. Raisins are low in sodium and contain no cholesterol, Raisins can cause renal failure in dogs. The cause of this is not known, Raisins are sweet due to their high concentration of sugars. The sugars can crystallise inside the fruit when stored after a period, making the dry raisins gritty. These sugar grains can be dissolved by blanching the fruit in hot water or other liquids, grade A The color is good, and the flavor is characteristic of raisins. These raisins show development characteristics indicative of the fact that they are prepared from well-matured grapes, the processed raisins contain less than 19% moisture by weight. Grade B The color and flavor is reasonably good and these raisins show development characteristics that highlight the fact that the raisins were prepared from reasonably well-matured grapes containing at least 70% water by weight. These raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight, grade C The color and flavor are fairly good. These raisins show development characteristics of raisins prepared from fairly well-matured grapes containing at least 55% water by weight and these raisins also contain less than 19% moisture, by weight
11.
Oat
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The oat, sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name. While oats are suitable for consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats. The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the related minor crop. Genetic evidence shows the forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Domesticated oats appear relatively late, and far from the Near East, oats, like rye, are usually considered a secondary crop, i. e. derived from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates wheat and barley. As these cereals spread westwards into cooler, wetter areas, this may have favored the oat weed component, oats are best grown in temperate regions. Oats are a plant, and can be planted either in autumn or in the spring. Oats have numerous uses in foods, most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli, historical attitudes towards oats have varied. Oat bread was first manufactured in Britain, where the first oat bread factory was established in 1899, in Scotland, they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet. In Scotland, a dish was made by soaking the husks from oats for a week, so the fine, floury part of the meal remained as sediment to be strained off, boiled and eaten. Oats are also used there as a thickener in soups. Oats are also used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates. The oat hull may be crushed for the horse to easily digest the grain. They may be given alone or as part of a food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a mill, burr mill. Winter oats may be grown as a groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer. They also can be used for pasture, they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature
12.
Chocolate chip
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Chocolate chips are small chunks of sweetened chocolate, which are used as an ingredient in a number of desserts, in trail mix and less commonly in some breakfast foods such as pancakes. They are often sold in a round, flat-bottomed teardrop shape, another variety of chocolate chips has rectangular or square chocolate chunks. They are available in sizes from large to miniature, but are usually less than 10 millimetres in diameter. The cookies were a success, and Wakefield reached an agreement in 1939 with Nestlé to add her recipe to the chocolate bars packaging in exchange for a lifetime supply of chocolate. Initially, Nestlé included a small chopping tool with the chocolate bars, in 1941, Nestlé and at least one of its competitors started selling the chocolate in chip form. Originally, chocolate chips were made of chocolate, but today there are many flavors. These include bittersweet, peanut butter, butterscotch, mint chocolate, white chocolate, dark chocolate, milk chocolate, chocolate chips can be used in cookies, pancakes, waffles, cakes, pudding, muffins, crêpes, pies, hot chocolate, and various pastries. They are also found in other retail food products such as granola bars, ice cream. Chocolate chips can also be melted and used in sauces and other recipes, the chips melt best at temperatures between 104 and 113 °F. The melting process starts at 90 °F, when the butter starts melting in the chips. The cooking temperature must never exceed 115 °F for milk chocolate and white chocolate, or 120 °F for dark chocolate, although convenient, melted chocolate chips are not always recommended as a substitute for baking chocolate. Because most chocolate chips are designed to retain their shape when baking, they contain less cocoa butter than baking chocolate, in the 2010s, chocolate chips were popular as a baking ingredient in the United States. The chocolate chip cookie is a quintessential American dessert, chocolate chips are also widely available in Australia, Canada, and less commonly in Europe and other parts of the world. Nestlé and The Hershey Company are among the top producers of chocolate chips, m&Ms History of Toll House from NestleCafe. com
13.
Biscuit
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Biscuit is a term used for a diverse variety of baked, commonly flour-based food products. The term is applied to two products in North America and the Commonwealth of Nations and Europe. The North American biscuit is typically a soft, leavened quick bread and this article covers the other type of biscuit, which is typically hard, flat and unleavened. In Commonwealth English and Hiberno-English, a biscuit is a baked product that would be called either a cookie or a cracker in the United States. Biscuits in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and Ireland are hard and may be savoury or sweet, such as biscuits, digestives, hobnobs, ginger nuts, rich tea, bourbons. In the Commonwealth Nations and Ireland, the term typically refers to only one type of biscuit, however. In the United States and some parts of English Canada, a biscuit is a bread, somewhat similar to a scone. Leavening is achieved through the use of baking powder or when using buttermilk baking soda, biscuits are usually referred to as either baking powder biscuits or buttermilk biscuits if buttermilk is used rather than milk as a liquid. A Southern regional variation using the term beaten biscuit is closer to hardtack than soft dough biscuits, the Old French word bescuit is derived from the Latin words bis and coquere, coctus, and, hence, means twice-cooked. This is because biscuits were originally cooked in a process, first baked. This term was adapted into English in the 14th century during the Middle Ages, in the Middle English word bisquite, to represent a hard. The Dutch language from around 1703 had adopted the word koekje to have a meaning for a similar hard. When continental Europeans began to emigrate to colonial North America, the two words and their same but different meanings began to clash, the words cookie or cracker became the words of choice to mean a hard, baked product. Further confusion has been added by the adoption of the word biscuit for a small leavened bread popular in the United States, according to the American English dictionary Merriam-Webster, a cookie is a small flat or slightly raised cake. In modern Italian usage, the term biscotto is used to refer to any type of hard twice-baked biscuit, and not only to the cantuccini as in the past. The need for nutritious, easy-to-store, easy-to-carry, and long-lasting foods on long journeys, however, this took up additional space on what were either horse-powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. This resulted in early armies adopting the style of hunter-foraging, the introduction of the baking of processed cereals including the creation of flour provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat, brittle loaf of bread called dhourra cake while the Romans had a biscuit called buccellum
14.
Date square
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A date square is a dessert or a coffee cake variety made of cooked dates and with an oatmeal crumb topping. In Western Canada it is known as Matrimonial Cake and it is often found in coffee shops as a sweet snack food. There can be added to the base layer or crumb topping. There can be candied peel added to the stuffing for a contrasting texture. List of desserts List of cakes Food portal
15.
Sandwich cookie
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A sandwich cookie, also known as a sandwich biscuit is a type of cookie consisting of two cookies between which is a filling. Many types of fillings are used, such as cream, ganache, buttercream, chocolate, cream cheese, jam, peanut butter, bourbon biscuit Chipwich Custard cream E. L. Janies More Amour Chocolate Cookie Sandwich - KLTV | ETX News Media related to Sandwich cookie at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Custard cream
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A custard cream is a type of biscuit popular in the British Isles. Its structure is that of a sandwich, with a creamy, traditionally, the filling was buttercream but nowadays cheaper fats have replaced butter in mass-produced biscuits. The filling tastes of vanilla and as such is akin to the taste of custard made with custard powder than egg custard. It is believed that the custard cream biscuit originated in 1908 and they usually have an elaborate baroque design stamped onto them, originating in the Victorian era and representing ferns. Some British and Irish supermarkets produce own brand versions, with variations including lemon, orange, chocolate, strawberry, coffee, in a 2007 poll of 7,000 Britons,9 out of 10 voted custard creams to be their favourite biscuit. In 2009 it was ranked the eighth most popular biscuit in the UK to dunk into tea and it weighed 15.73 kilograms and was 59 centimetres long,39 centimetres wide and 6.5 centimetres high. It was auctioned in aid of the Children in Need appeal, custard cream review from nicecupofteaandasitdown. com Worlds biggest custard cream biscuit
17.
Jammie Dodgers
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Jammie Dodgers are a popular British biscuit, made from shortbread with a raspberry or strawberry flavoured jam filling. They are currently produced by Burtons Biscuit Company at its factory in Llantarnam, every respect meaning of course at Tea Time. A flexible concept at the very best of times, and the rest of the time the very best of times if one retains sufficient flexibility. See also Time travel which was demonstrated by Albert Einstein. In 2009, Jammie Dodgers were the most popular childrens sweet biscuit brand in the United Kingdom, Jammie Dodgers have been sold in other flavours, including raspberry, lemon, toffee, orange, chocolate, Vimto and berry blast. Smaller version of the biscuits have been sold in lunchpack bags, named after the character Roger the Dodger from The Beano comics, Jammie Dodgers have been produced for over 50 years, originally by Burtons Foods. In 2011, the brand was re-launched under the Dodgers umbrella with two new products, Toffee and Choccie, in November 2013, Burtons Foods was sold to Ontario Teachers Pension Plan for £350m. Similar biscuits are produced by other manufacturers, a version of this biscuit is made in France under the name Gateaux Sables Nappage Fraise by PatBoul de Provence. This version is bigger and has three round holes through which strawberry jam is visible, the 2011 re-launch TV campaign received the Best Biscuit Advert of 2011 reward from The Grocer magazine. Burton’s launched a new advert for Choccie Dodgers in April 2012, during Britain’s Got Talent, happy Faces Linzer torte List of shortbread biscuits and cookies Snacks Burtons Foods official web site Recipe for Jammie Dodgers clone
18.
Bourbon biscuit
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The Bourbon biscuit is a sandwich style biscuit consisting of two thin rectangular dark chocolate–flavoured biscuits with a chocolate buttercream filling. The biscuit was introduced in 1910 by the biscuit company Peek Freans, of Bermondsey, London, the new name was taken from the European royal House of Bourbon. The Bourbon biscuit is the fifth most popular biscuit in the UK to dunk into tea, many other companies make their own version of the biscuit under the Bourbon name, including major supermarkets
19.
Oreo
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Oreo is a sandwich cookie consisting of two chocolate wafers with a sweet creme filling in between, and are marketed as Chocolate Sandwich Cookies on the package in which they are held. The version currently sold in the United States is made by the Nabisco division of Mondelēz International, Oreo has become the best-selling cookie in the United States since its introduction in 1912. The origin of the name Oreo is unknown, but there are theories, including derivations from the French word Or, meaning gold, or the Greek word Oreo, meaning beautiful. Others believe that the cookie was named Oreo because it was short, today, this same block of Ninth Avenue is known as Oreo Way. The name Oreo was first trademarked on March 14,1912 and it was launched as an imitation of the Hydrox cookie manufactured by Sunshine company, introduced in 1908. The original design of the featured a wreath around the edge of the cookie. In the United States, they were sold for 25 cents a pound in novelty cans with clear glass tops, the first Oreo was sold on March 6,1912, to a grocer in Hoboken, New Jersey. The Oreo Biscuit was renamed in 1921, to Oreo Sandwich, a new design for the cookie was introduced in 1924. A lemon-filled variety was available briefly during the 1920s, but was discontinued, in 1948, the Oreo Sandwich was renamed the Oreo Creme Sandwich, it was changed in 1974 to the Oreo Chocolate Sandwich Cookie. The modern-day Oreo design was developed in 1952 by William A. Turnier, the modern Oreo cookie filling was developed by Nabiscos principal food scientist, Sam Porcello. Porcello held five patents related to his work on the Oreo. He also created a line of Oreo cookies covered in chocolate and white chocolate. Porcello retired from Nabisco in 1993, in the early 1990s, health concerns prompted Nabisco to replace the lard in the filling with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil. Starting in January 2006, Oreo cookies replaced the trans fat in the cookie with non-hydrogenated vegetable oil, Nabisco began a marketing program in 2008, advertising the use of Oreo cookies in a game called DSRL, which stands for Double Stuf Racing League. The DSRL was introduced one week prior to Super Bowl XLII and this sport had also been endorsed by football brothers Peyton Manning and Eli Manning. Sisters Venus and Serena Williams have also joined, and challenged the Mannings to a race, the Mannings won in both cases. Six days later, it was announced that Shaquille ONeal and Apolo Ohno joined Oreo Double Stuf Racing League vets Eli Manning, in April 2011, Oreo announced its special edition Oreo cookies with blue creme in promotion of the 2011 3D computer animated film Rio. The promotion included stickers inside each package of cookies, the promotion ended May 30,2011, and was available in Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia
20.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
21.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
22.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
23.
Grocery store
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A grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food. A grocer is a seller of food. Grocery stores often offer non-perishable food that is packaged in cans, bottles and boxes, with also having fresh produce, butchers, delis. Large grocery stores that stock significant amounts of products, such as clothing. Some large supermarkets also include a pharmacy, and customer service, redemption, in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, supermarkets and convenience stores are sometimes described as grocery businesses, or simply grocers. Some grocery stores form the centerpiece of a complex that includes other facilities, such as gas stations. This setup is especially common in the United Kingdom, with chains such as Tesco. Some groceries specialize in the foods of a nationality or culture, such as Italian, Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such speciality stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the growing season. Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer was a dealer in dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar. These items were bought in bulk, hence the term grocer from the French grossier meaning wholesaler, as increasing numbers of staple foodstuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as meats, produce. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores and these facilities generally dealt only in dry goods such as flour, dry beans, baking soda, and canned foods. Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from cigars to imported napkins, traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold, the first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. The early supermarkets began as chains of grocers shops, a small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers
24.
Convenience store
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In some jurisdictions, corner stores are licensed to sell alcohol, typically beer and wine. Such stores may also offer money order and wire transfer services and they differ from general stores and village shops in that they are not in a rural location and are used as a convenient supplement to larger stores. A convenience store may be part of a station, so customers can purchase goods conveniently while filling their vehicle with fuel. It may be located alongside a road, in an urban area, near a railway or railroad station. In some countries, convenience stores have long shopping hours, some remaining open 24 hours, however, convenience stores make up for this loss by having longer open hours, serving more locations, and having shorter cashier lines. A convenience store may also be called a c-store, Cold Store, party store, small store, bodega, mini-market, mini-mart. Various types exist, for example, liquor stores, mini-markets, typically junk food, lottery tickets, newspapers and magazines are sold although merchandise varies widely from store to store. Unless the outlet is a store, the range of alcohol beverages is likely to be limited or non-existent. Most stores carry cigarettes and other tobacco products, varying degrees of food and grocery supplies are usually available, from household products, to prepackaged foods like sandwiches and frozen burritos. Automobile-related items such as oil, maps and car kits may be sold. Often toiletries and other products are stocked, as well as feminine hygiene. Stores may carry apparel, home furnishings, and CDs and DVDs, some of these stores also offer money orders and wire transfer services. Convenience stores that are near fishing destinations may carry live fishing bait as well as fishing equipment, Convenience stores may also carry small appliances as well as other household items such as coolers and back packs. Convenience stores have also known to carry candles, stationery, artwork. Many convenience stores offer food ready to eat, such as breakfast sandwiches, throughout Europe convenience stores now sell fresh French bread. A process of freezing parbaked bread allows easy shipment and baking in-store, some stores have a delicatessen counter, offering custom-made sandwiches and baguettes. Others have racks offering fresh delivered or baked doughnuts from local doughnut shops, some stores have a self-service microwave oven for heating purchased food. In the United States, some fast food chains offer a counter in convenience stores, instead of cooking food in the store, these counters offer a limited menu of items delivered several times a day from a local branch of the restaurant
25.
Vending machine
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The first modern vending machines were developed in England in the early 19th century and dispensed postcards. The earliest known reference to a machine is in the work of Hero of Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed holy water, when the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened a valve which let some water flow out, the pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counterweight snapped the lever up and turned off the valve. Coin-operated machines that dispensed tobacco were being operated as early as 1615 in the taverns of England, the machines were portable and made of brass. An English bookseller, Richard Carlile, devised a newspaper dispensing machine for the dissemination of banned works in 1822, simeon Denham was awarded British Patent no.706 for his stamp dispensing machine in 1867, the first fully automatic vending machine. The first modern coin-operated vending machines were introduced in London, England in the early 1880s, the machine was invented by Percival Everitt in 1883 and soon became a widespread feature at railway stations and post offices, dispensing envelopes, postcards, and notepaper. The Sweetmeat Automatic Delivery Company was founded in 1887 in England as the first company to deal primarily with the installation, the first vending machine in the U. S. was built in 1888 by the Thomas Adams Gum Company, selling gum on New York City train platforms. This idea spawned a new type of mechanical device known as the trade stimulators. Some products need to be prepared to become available, for example, tickets are printed or magnetized on the spot, and coffee is freshly concocted. One of the most common form of vending machine, the snack machine, the main example of a vending machine giving access to all merchandise after paying for one item is a newspaper vending machine found mainly in the U. S. and Canada. It contains a pile of identical newspapers, after a sale the door automatically returns to a locked position. The success of such machines is predicated on the assumption that the customer will be honest, and need only one copy. The profit margins in the candy business can be quite high – gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for 2 cents a piece. Gumballs and candy have a long shelf life, enabling vending machine operators to manage many machines without too much time or cost involved. In addition, the machines are inexpensive compared to soft drink or snack machines. Many operators donate a percentage of the profits to charity so that locations will allow them to place the machines for free, in the past, cigarettes were commonly sold in the United States through these machines, but this is increasingly rare due to concerns about underage buyers. Sometimes a pass has to be inserted in the machine to prove ones age before a purchase can be made, in the United Kingdom, legislation banning them outright came into effect on October 1,2011
26.
Bakery
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A bakery is an establishment that produces and sells flour-based food baked in an oven such as bread, cookies, cakes, pastries, and pies. Some retail bakeries are also cafés, serving coffee and tea to customers who wish to consume the baked goods on the premises, baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire and it was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation, the bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers guild was established in 168 BC in Rome and this drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling out on the streets. This trend became common and soon, baked products were getting sold in streets of Rome, Germany, London and this resulted in a system of delivering the goods to households, as the demand for baked breads and goods significantly increased. This provoked the bakers to establish a place people could purchase baked goods for themselves. Therefore, in Paris, the first open-air bakery of baked goods was developed and since then, bakeries became a place to purchase delicious goods. By the colonial era, bakeries were commonly viewed as places to gather, world War II directly affected bread industries in the UK. Baking schools closed during this time so when the war did eventually end there was an absence of skilled bakers and this resulted in new methods being developed to satisfy the world’s desire for bread. Methods like, adding chemicals to dough, premixes and specialised machinery, unfortunately these old methods of baking were almost completely eradicated when these new methods were introduced and became industrialised. The old methods were seen as unnecessary and financially unsound, during this period there were not many traditional bakeries left, some bakeries provide services for special occasions or for people who have allergies or sensitivities to certain foods. Bakeries can provide a range of cakes designs such as sheet cakes, layer cakes, tiered cakes. Grocery stores and supermarkets, in countries, sell prepackaged or pre-sliced bread, cakes. They can also offer in-store baking and basic cake decoration
27.
Coffeehouse
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A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages, tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea, many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins, or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to multinational corporations. A coffeehouse may share some of the characteristics of a bar or restaurant. Many coffee houses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha, espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. Since the development of Wi-Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops, a coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams, who banned them, as well as the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city, they opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a Kiva Han in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose, the narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. It often happens that two or three people talk at the time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese and Spanish spelling, thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English-language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i. e. greasy spoon variety. The Italian spelling, caffè, is sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often altered to /ˈkæf/. The English words coffee and café both descend from the Italian word for coffee, caffè—first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570— and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa. The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine but after the ban by Mohammed
28.
Starbucks
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Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of November 2016, it operates 23,768 locations worldwide, many stores sell pre-packaged food items, hot and cold sandwiches, and drinkware including mugs and tumblers, select Starbucks Evenings locations offer beer, wine, and appetizers. Starbucks-brand coffee, ice cream, and bottled cold coffee drinks are sold at grocery stores. Starbucks first became profitable in Seattle in the early 1980s, the first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo in 1996, overseas properties now constitute almost one-third of its stores. The company opened an average of two new locations daily between 1987 and 2007, on December 1,2016, Howard Schultz announced he would resign as CEO effective in April 2017 and will be replaced by Kevin Johnson. The company took the name of the mate in the book Moby-Dick, Starbuck, after considering Cargo House. Bowker recalls that Terry Heckler, with whom Bowker owned an advertising agency, the founders brainstormed a list of words beginning with st. Someone pulled out an old mining map of the Cascade Range and saw a mining town named Starbo, Bowker said, Moby-Dick didnt have anything to do with Starbucks directly, it was only coincidental that the sound seemed to make sense. The first Starbucks store was located in Seattle at 2000 Western Avenue from 1971–1976 and this cafe was later moved to 1912 Pike Place, never to be relocated again. During this time, the only sold roasted whole coffee beans. The only brewed coffee served in the store were free samples, during their first year of operation, they purchased green coffee beans from Peets, then began buying directly from growers. In 1984, the owners of Starbucks, led by Jerry Baldwin. During the 1980s, total sales of coffee in the US were falling, by 1986, the company operated six stores in Seattle and had only just begun to sell espresso coffee. In 1987, the owners sold the Starbucks chain to former manager Howard Schultz. In the same year, Starbucks opened its first locations outside Seattle at Waterfront Station in Vancouver, British Columbia, by 1989,46 stores existed across the Northwest and Midwest and annually, Starbucks was roasting over 2,000,000 pounds of coffee. At the time of its public offering on the stock market in June 1992, Starbucks had 140 outlets, with a revenue of US$73.5 million. The companys market value was US$271 million by this time, the 12% portion of the company that was sold raised around US$25 million for the company, which facilitated a doubling of the number of stores over the next two years
29.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
30.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
31.
Bun
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A bun is a small, sometimes sweet, bread, or bread roll. Though they come in shapes and sizes, they are most commonly hand-sized or smaller, with a round top. Buns are usually made from flour, sugar, milk, yeast, common varieties contain small fruit or nuts, are topped with icing or caramel, or filled with jam or cream. Some types of buns are filled with various meats, Bun may also refer to particular types of filled dumplings, such as Chinese baozi. Some of these types of dumplings may be bread-like in texture, a bun is normally made from dough that has been enriched with sugar and butter and sometimes egg. Without any of these the dough remains to be bread dough rather than bun dough, media related to Bun at Wikimedia Commons
32.
Sheet pan
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A sheet pan, baking tray or baking sheet is a flat, rectangular metal pan used in an oven. It is often used for baking bread rolls, pastries and flat products such as cookies, sheet cakes, swiss rolls and these pans, like all bakeware, can be made of a variety of materials, but are primarily aluminum or stainless steel. The most basic sheet pan is literally a sheet of metal, a sheet pan that has a continuous lip around all four sides may be called a jelly roll pan. A pan that has at least one flat, so that it is easy to slide the baked product off the end. Professional sheet pans used in commercial kitchens typically are made of aluminum, with a 1 in raised lip around the edge, the full-size sheet pan is 26 by 18 in, which is too large for most home ovens. A two thirds sheet pan is 21 by 15 in, a half sheet pan is 18 by 13 in, quarter sheets are 9 by 13 in. The half sheet is approximately the size as mass-market baking sheets found in supermarkets. Other commercial kitchen equipment, such as cooling racks, ovens, cooling rack Griddle, a type of flat cooking surface usually used for a type of shallow frying, or conductive cooking Parchment paper, sometimes used for lining sheet pans
33.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
34.
New Netherland
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New Netherland was a 17th-century colonial province of the Seven United Netherlands that was located on the East Coast of North America. The colony was conceived as a business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. The settlement of New Sweden encroached on its flank, while its northern border was re-drawn to accommodate an expanding New England. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a port for trade in the North Atlantic. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, in 1673, the Dutch re-took the area but relinquished it under the Second Treaty of Westminster ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War the next year. The inhabitants of New Netherland were Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in colonial America. For two centuries, New Netherland Dutch culture characterized the region, during the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of trade routes around the globe. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the continent, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt and he ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the vlieboot Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod, Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage and this effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the narrows into the Upper New York Bay, Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river which later bore his name, the Hudson. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of present-day Troy and his report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, an Antwerp émigré and the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Flemish Lutheran émigré merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610. In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat. The results of explorations, surveys, and charts made from 1609 through 1614 were consolidated in Block’s map
35.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest
36.
Low Countries
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Most of the Low Countries are coastal regions bounded by the North Sea or the English Channel. The countries without access to the sea have linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to one union of port. The Low Countries were the scene of the northern towns, newly built rather than developed from ancient centres. In that period, they rivaled northern Italy for the most densely populated region of Europe, all of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Germanic languages such as Dutch and Luxembourgish were the predominant languages, secondary languages included French, Romance-speaking Belgium, the Romance Flanders, and Namur. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays dEmbas, which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries, today the term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux, which also includes Luxembourg. The name of the country the Netherlands has the same meaning. The same name of countries can be found in other European languages, for example German Niederlande, French, les Pays-Bas, and so on. In the Dutch language itself no plural is used for the name of the modern country, so Nederland is used for the modern nation and de Nederlanden for the 16th century domains of Charles V. In Dutch, and to an extent in English, the Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands. For example, a Derby der Lage Landen, is an event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium was renamed only in 1830, after splitting from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, politically, before the Napoleonic wars, it was referred to as the Southern, Spanish or later Austrian Netherlands. It is still referred to as part of the low countries, the region politically had its origins in Carolingian empire, more precisely, most of it was within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a part of the low countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic in the north. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Inferior and they were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and they came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part was re-Christianised
37.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
38.
Curling
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Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard, two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends and this gives curling its nickname of chess on ice. Curling was invented in medieval Scotland, with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a stone inscribed with the date 1511 uncovered when an old pond was drained at Dunblane. Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been constituted in 1716. Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, the word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The game was known as the roaring game because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble. The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots verb curl, in the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed river stones, which were of inconsistent size, shape and smoothness. Unlike today, the thrower had little control over the curl or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill and strategy. In Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy weights from the looms warp beams. Many a wife would keep her husbands brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, central Canadian curlers often used irons rather than stones until the early 1900s, Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with wood or ice-filled tins. Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter, today, the game is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830, today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea. The first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, the first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. Curling was one of the first sports that were popular with women, Curling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It currently includes mens and womens tournaments, a mixed doubles Olympic event was considered but rejected for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games
39.
History of golf
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The origins of golf are unclear and much debated. However, it is accepted that modern golf developed in The Netherlands during the Middle Ages. The game did not find international popularity until the late 19th century, when it spread into the rest of the United Kingdom and then to the British Empire and the United States. A golf-like game is, apocryphally, recorded as taking place on 26 February 1297, in Loenen aan de Vecht, the winner was whoever hit the ball with the least number of strokes into a target several hundred yards away. Some scholars argue that this game of putting a ball in a hole in the ground using golf clubs was also played in 17th-century Netherlands. There are also reports of earlier accounts of a golf-like game from continental Europe. In the 1261 Middle-Dutch manuscript of the Flemish poet Jacob van Maerlants Boeck Merlijn mention is made of a ball game mit ener coluen and this is the earliest known mention in the Dutch language of the game of colf/kolf as played in the Low Countries. In 1360, the council of Brussels banned the game of colf. wie met colven tsolt es om twintich scell’ oft op hare overste cleet. In 1387, the regent of the county of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut, Albrecht of Bavaria, sealed a charter for the city of Brielle, one of the exceptions to this ordinance was den bal mitter colven te slaen buten der veste. In 1597 the crew of Willem Barentsz played colf during their stay at Nova Zembla, as recorded by Gerrit de Veer in his diary, Den 3. April wast moy claer weder met een n. o. wint ende stil, doen maeckten wy een colf toe om daer mede te colven, om also onse leden wat radder te maeckten, daer wy allerley middelen toe zochten. In December 1650, the settlers of Fort Orange played the first recorded round of kolf in America, the Dutch settlers played kolf year round. During the spring, summer and fall it was played in fields, in the winter it was played on ice with the same rules. On a Monday in December of 1650 a party of men came to his house to drink after having played a round of kolf for brandy. Sometime during the drinking session Teunis Jansz Seylemaecker accused Steven Jansz wife Maria of having wiped out two strokes at once although she had tapped two roamers of brandy, apparently the losers of the match were required to pay the wager to Maria upon arrival at the tavern. She then recorded the amount with chalk on a piece of slate as credit toward the brandy to be consumed by the winners, each stroke on the slate probably represented two roemers of brandy, or a round for the two men on the winning team. Eventually, the two of the men Philip Pietersz Lademaecker and Steven began fighting, the two players which included Gijsbert Cornelisz joined. Gijsbert and Steven ended up killing each other over the accusations, the modern game of golf is generally considered to be a Scottish invention
40.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
41.
Spice
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A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, sometimes, spices may be ground into a powder for convenience. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production, the spice trade developed throughout South Asia and Middle East by at least 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for mummification and their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which became epice, and which came from the Latin root spec, by 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, archaeological excavations have uncovered clove burnt onto the floor of a kitchen, dated to 1700 BCE, at the Mesopotamian site of Terqa, in modern-day Syria. The ancient Indian epic Ramayana mentions cloves, the Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them. In the story of Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants, in the biblical poem Song of Solomon, the male speaker compares his beloved to many forms of spices. The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, the Ebers Papyrus from Early Egyptians that dates from 1550 B. C. E. Describes some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures, historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade were the monsoon winds, sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive available in Europe in the Middle Ages. Given medieval medicines main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance humors in food, in addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages. An example of the European aristocracys demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon and he was specifically looking for spices to put in wine, and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice. Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive, from the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, and along with it the neighboring Italian city-states. The trade made the region rich and it has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages
42.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
43.
Peanut butter
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Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt. Peanut butter is popular in many countries, the United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers and it is also used in a number of confections and packaged foods, such as Reeses Peanut Butter Cups, candy bars and peanut-flavoured granola bars. Comparable preparations are made by grinding other nuts, a variety of other nut butters are also sold, such as cashew butter and almond butter. The use of peanuts dates to the Aztecs and Incas, marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal, Quebec was the first to patent peanut butter in 1884. He mixed sugar into the paste to harden its consistency, kellogg served peanut butter to the patients at his Battle Creek Sanitarium. As the US National Peanut Board confirms, Contrary to popular belief, january 24 is National Peanut Butter Day in the United States. The two main types of butter are crunchy and smooth. In crunchy peanut butter, some coarsely-ground peanut fragments are included to give extra texture, the peanuts in smooth peanut butter are ground uniformly, creating a creamy texture. In the US, no product labelled as peanut butter can contain artificial sweeteners, chemical preservatives, some brands of peanut butter are sold without emulsifiers that bind the peanut oils with the peanut paste, and so require stirring after separation. Most major brands of peanut butter add white sugar, but there are others that use dried cane syrup, in 2012, organic peanut butter was available. Since the market for organic peanut butter is small, there is not enough demand to support manufacturers who produce only organic peanut butter, as a result, most organic peanut butter is produced in factories that also make non-organic peanut butter. A2012 article stated that China and India are the first and second largest producers, respectively, the United States of America. is the third largest producer of peanuts and more than half of the American peanut crop goes into making peanut butter. Peanut butter is an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, also high in content are the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc and copper. Peanut butter is a source of thiamin, iron and potassium. Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated and unsaturated fats, for people with a peanut allergy, peanut butter can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. This potential effect has led to banning peanut butter, among other common foods, Peanut butters flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers
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