1.
Types of plant oils
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Plant oils or vegetable oils are oils derived from plant sources, as opposed to animal fats or petroleum. Macerated oils consist of an oil to which parts of plants are added. Essential oils are composed of aromatic compounds, extracted from plants by distillation. Vegetable fats and oils are what are most commonly called vegetable oils and these are triglyceride-based, and include cooking oils like canola oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils used for industrial purposes. Pressed vegetable oils are extracted from the plant containing the oil, the most common is the screw press, which consists of a large-diameter metal screw inside a metal housing. Oil seeds are fed into the housing, where the screws mash the seeds, the remaining solids, called seed cake, are either discarded or used for other purposes. Oil presses can be manual or powered. The second type of oil press is the ram press, where a piston is driven into a cylinder, crushing the seeds, ram presses are generally more efficient than screw presses. There has been recent interest in improving the design of mechanical oil presses, a press developed at MITs D-Lab, for example, is capable of exerting 800–1, 000psi to extract peanut oil. Industrial machines for extracting oil mechanically are call expellers, many expellers add heat and pressure, in order to increase the amount of oil extracted. If the temperature does not exceed 120 °F, the oil can be called cold-pressed, in modern vegetable oil production, oils are usually extracted chemically, using a solvent such as hexane. Chemical extraction is cheaper and more efficient than mechanical extraction, at a scale, leaving only 0. 5–0. 7% of the oil in the plant solids. Macerated or infused oils are oils to which other matter has been added, typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil. Essential oils are not oils but volatile aromatic compounds that are used in flavors, fragrances, essential oils are usually extracted by distillation. Maceration is also used as a means of extracting essential oils, triglyceride Vegetable fats and oils List of vegetable oils List of essential oils
Types of plant oils
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Olive oil
2.
Olive oil
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Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and it is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for oil lamps. It is associated with the Mediterranean diet for its health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine, the two are wheat and grapes. Olive trees have grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of oil, followed by Italy. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily. The composition of oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest. It consists mainly of acid, with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid. The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin, wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC, the wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor or in ancient Greece. It is not clear when and where trees were first domesticated, in Asia Minor, in the Levant. Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Palestine. Until 1500 BC, eastern areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC, the cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the islands economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and these belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh, dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth
Olive oil
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Extra-virgin olive oil
Olive oil
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Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in
Klazomenai,
Ionia (modern Turkey)
Olive oil
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Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)
Olive oil
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Olive crusher (trapetum) in Pompeii (79 AD)
3.
Vegetable oil
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A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. For this reason, vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called vegetable fats, in contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable waxes lack glycerin in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel. Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, the oils serve a number of purposes in this role, Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture. Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less, flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. Flavor base – oils can also carry flavors of other ingredients, secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective must have a flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, the hydrogenation process involves sparging the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, the elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation, as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to change its physical characteristics, as the degree of saturation increases, the oils viscosity and melting point increase. The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, a margarine made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to a risk of mortality from coronary heart disease. In the US, the Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, products not labeled vegetable oil margarine do not have that restriction. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products, many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products
Vegetable oil
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Olive oil
Vegetable oil
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Jambú oil
Vegetable oil
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Guava oil
Vegetable oil
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Pracachy or Pentaclethra macroloba
4.
List of vegetable oils
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Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Such oils have been part of culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements, many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the other uses include wood finishing, oil painting. There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, the oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent, the solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material, oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils, finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid-liquid extraction. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops is widely used and traded. By use, as described above, oils from plants are used in cooking, for fuel, for cosmetics, for medical purposes, the vegetable oils are grouped below in common classes of use. These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide oil production. All are also used as fuel oils, coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm, common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids dominant. Corn oil, one of the oils sold as salad. Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially, olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil, popular in West African and Brazilian cuisine. Peanut oil, an oil with some applications as a salad dressing
List of vegetable oils
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Olive oil
List of vegetable oils
–
Sunflowers, the seeds of which are the source of
sunflower oil.
List of vegetable oils
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Hazelnuts from the
Common Hazel, used to make
Hazelnut oil.
List of vegetable oils
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The fruit of the
sea-buckthorn
5.
Maceration (food)
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In food preparation, maceration is softening or breaking into pieces using a liquid. Raw, dried or preserved fruit or vegetables are soaked in a liquid to soften the food and/or absorb the flavor of the liquid into the food. In the case of fruit, particularly soft fruit such as strawberries and raspberries, they are often just sprinkled with sugar then left to sit. This process makes the food more flavorful and easier to chew, maceration is often confused with marination, which is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. Some herbal preparations call for maceration, as it is one way to extract delicate or highly volatile herbal essences cold, sometimes a cooking oil is used as the liquid for maceration – especially olive or some other vegetable oil. Maceration is the means of producing a flavored alcoholic beverage, such as cordials. Maceration of byproducts from food processing plants sometimes involves the use of a pump to create a blended slurry of food waste. The macerated substance, which can be described as a slurry, is often used for animal feed, fertilizer
Maceration (food)
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Maceration of dried fruit in rum and apple juice
6.
List of macerated oils
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Macerated oils are vegetable oils to which other matter, such as herbs, has been added. Commercially available macerated oils include all these, and others, herbalists and aromatherapists use not only these pure macerated oils, but blends of these oils, as well, and may macerate virtually any known herb. Base oils commonly used for maceration include almond oil, sunflower oil, and olive oil as well as other food-grade triglyceride vegetable oils, Arnica, from the flowers or leaves of the Arnica montana. Often uses olive oil as a base when used medicinally, or almond oil when used as a massage oil, calendula Carrot Chickweed Comfrey Galangal Horse Chestnut Linden blossom Marigold Meadowsweet Mullein Sea weed St. Johns Wort
List of macerated oils
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Myrrh
7.
Essential oil
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Not to be confused with Essential fatty acid An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted. An oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plants fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived, Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping and they are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar, rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example, methyl salicylate rather than oil of wintergreen, interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in an oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame. Claims for the efficacy of treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries. Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea oil, patchouli. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, as the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang which is purifed through a fractional distillation, the recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, the use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are not sold. Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed, due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry, before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate
Essential oil
–
Sandalwood oil
8.
List of essential oils
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Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are used in food flavoring. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques, Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils, infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds, agar oil or oodh, distilled from Agarwood. Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of, Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica. Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice, asafoetida oil, used medicinally and to flavor food. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, basil oil is used in making perfumes, as well as in aromatherapy. Bay oil is used in perfumery, Aromatherapeutic for sprains, colds, flu, insomnia, bergamot oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes. Black Pepper oil is distilled from the berries of Piper nigrum, the warm, soothing effect makes it ideal for treating muscle aches, pains and strains and promoting healthy digestion. Buchu oil, made from the buchu shrub, considered toxic and no longer widely used. Birch oil is aromatheapeutic for gout, Rheumatism, Eczema, Ulcers, camphor oil is used for cold, cough, fever, rheumatism, and arthritis. Cannabis flower essential oil, used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy, also used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles. Calamodin oil or Calamansi Essential Oil comes from a tree in the Philippines extracted via cold press or steam distillation. Caraway oil, used a flavoring in foods, also used in mouthwashes, toothpastes, etc. as a flavoring agent. Cardamom seed oil, used in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications, extracted from seeds of subspecies of Zingiberaceae. Also used as a fragrance in soaps, perfumes, etc, carrot seed oil, used in aromatherapy. Cedar oil, primarily used in perfumes and fragrances, Chamomile oil, There are many varieties of chamomile but only two are used in aromatherapy, Roman and German
List of essential oils
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The spice
star anise is distilled to make star anise oil
List of essential oils
–
Essential oil of
Eucalyptus
9.
Drying oil
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A drying oil is an oil that hardens to a tough, solid film after a period of exposure to air. The oil hardens through a reaction in which the components crosslink by the action of oxygen. Drying oils are a key component of oil paint and some varnishes, some commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil, and walnut oil. Their use has declined over the past several decades, as they have been replaced by alkyd resins, rags, cloth, and paper saturated with drying oils may combust spontaneously after a few hours as heat is released during the oxidation process. The drying, hardening, or, more properly, curing of oils is the result of autoxidation, the addition of oxygen to an organic compound and the subsequent crosslinking. This process begins with a molecule in the air inserting into carbon-hydrogen bonds adjacent to one of the double bonds within the unsaturated fatty acid. The resulting hydroperoxides are susceptible to crosslinking reactions, bonds form between neighboring fatty acid chains, resulting in a polymer network, often visible by formation of a skin-like film on samples. This polymerization results in stable films that, while somewhat elastic, diene-containing fatty acid derivatives, such as those derived from linoleic acid, are especially prone to this reaction because they generate pentadienyl radicals. Monounsaturated fatty acids, such as acid, are slower to undergo drying because the allylic radical intermediates are less stable. The early stages of the process can be monitored by weight changes in an oil film. The film becomes heavier as it absorbs oxygen, Linseed oil, for instance, increases in weight by 17 percent. As oxygen uptake ceases, the weight of the film declines as volatile compounds evaporate, as the oil ages, further transitions occur. A large number of the ester bonds in the oil molecules undergo hydrolysis. In the case of paints, some portion of free fatty acids react with metals in the pigment. Together, the various non-cross-linking substances associated with the polymer network constitute the mobile phases, unlike the molecules that are part of the network itself, they are capable of moving and diffusing within the film, and can be removed using heat or a solvent. The mobile phase may play a role in plasticizing paint films, carboxyl groups in the polymers of the stationary phase ionize, becoming negatively charged and form complexes with metal cations present in the pigment. The original network, with its nonpolar, covalent bonds, is replaced by an ionomeric structure, the structure of these ionomeric networks is not well understood. Most drying oils rapidly increase in viscosity after heating in the absence of air, if the oil is subjected to raised temperatures for a long time, it will become a rubbery oil-insoluble substance
Drying oil
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Using linseed oil and pigment for painting
10.
Oil paint
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Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, Oil paints have been used in Europe since the 12th century for simple decoration, but were not widely adopted as an artistic medium until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. Thickness of coat has considerable bearing on time required for drying, the literature abounds with incorrect theories and information, in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders, the oldest known oil paintings date from 650 AD, found in 2008 in caves in Afghanistans Bamiyan Valley, using walnut and poppy seed oils. Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax. Greek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, when thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as an expensive alternative to gold leaf. Early Christian monks maintained these records and used the techniques in their own artworks, theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommended linseed oil but advocated against the use of olive oil due to its long drying time. Oil paint was used as it is today in house decoration, as a tough waterproof cover for exposed woodwork. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings, in the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early painters, however, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used. As public preference for naturalism increased, the quick-drying tempera paints became insufficient to achieve the very detailed and precise effects that oil could achieve. Van Eyck’s mixture may have consisted of piled glass, calcined bones, the new mixture had a honey-like consistency and better drying properties. This mixture was known as oglio cotto—cooked oil, leonardo da Vinci later improved these techniques by cooking the mixture at a very low temperature and adding 5 to 10% beeswax, which prevented darkening of the paint. Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto each may have altered this recipe for their own purposes, the use of any cooked oils or Litharge darkens an oil painting rapidly
Oil paint
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View of Delft in oil paint, by
Johannes Vermeer.
Oil paint
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Pigments for sale at a market stall in
Goa,
India.
11.
Vegetable oil fuel
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Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. When vegetable oil is used directly as a fuel, in modified or unmodified equipment. Conventional diesel engines can be modified to ensure that the viscosity of the vegetable oil is low enough to allow proper atomization of the fuel. This prevents incomplete combustion, which would damage the engine by causing a build-up of carbon, straight vegetable oil can also be blended with conventional diesel or processed into biodiesel or bioliquids for use under a wider range of conditions. Rudolf Diesel was the father of the engine which bears his name and his first attempts were to design an engine to run on coal dust, but later designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers having a source of readily available. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their automobiles, in the 1990s Bougainvillea conflict, islanders cut off from oil supplies due to a blockade used coconut oil to fuel their vehicles. Most diesel car engines are suitable for the use of vegetable oil, also commonly called pure plant oil. One common solution is to add a heat exchanger and a fuel tank for the petrodiesel or biodiesel blend. In colder climates it is necessary to heat the vegetable oil fuel lines and tank as it can become very viscous. Single tank conversions have been developed, largely in Germany, which have been used throughout Europe and these conversions are designed to provide reliable operation with rapeseed oil that meets the German rapeseed oil fuel standard DIN51605. Modifications to the cold start regime assist combustion on start up. Suitably modified indirect injection engines have proven to be operable with 100% PPO down to temperatures of −10 °C, direct injection engines generally have to be preheated with a block heater or diesel fired heater. The exception is the VW Tdi engine for which a number of German companies offer single tank conversions, for long term durability it has been found necessary to increase the oil change frequency and to pay increased attention to engine maintenance. Many cars powered by indirect injection engines supplied by in-line injection pumps, or mechanical Bosch injection pumps are capable of running on pure SVO/PPO in all, engine reliability would depend on the condition of the engine. Attention to maintenance of the engine, particularly of the injectors, cooling system. Ideally the engine would be converted, the relatively high kinematic viscosity of vegetable oils must be reduced to make them compatible with conventional compression-ignition engines and fuel systems. Cosolvent blending is a low-cost and easy-to-adapt technology that reduces viscosity by diluting the oil with a low-molecular-weight solvent
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Rudolf Diesel
Vegetable oil fuel
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Biofuels
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Oil palms
12.
Biodiesel
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Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil – or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters, Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel in any proportions, Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil. The National Biodiesel Board also has a definition of biodiesel as a mono-alkyl ester. Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the diesel fuel marketplace. The B6 to B20 blends are covered by the ASTM D7467 specification, Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form, but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and biodiesel meters are set to X total volume, Biodiesel can be used in pure form or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme high-pressure common rail engines have strict limits of B5 or B20. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the lines where petrodiesel has been used. As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made, therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend. Since the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, biodiesel use has been increasing in the United States, in the UK, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation obliges suppliers to include 5% renewable fuel in all transport fuel sold in the UK by 2010. For road diesel, this effectively means 5% biodiesel, in 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated its intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized. The Volkswagen Group has released a statement indicating that several of its vehicles are compatible with B5 and B100 made from rape seed oil, the use of the specified biodiesel type in its cars will not void any warranty. Mercedes Benz does not allow diesel fuels containing greater than 5% biodiesel due to concerns about production shortcomings, any damages caused by the use of such non-approved fuels will not be covered by the Mercedes-Benz Limited Warranty. Starting in 2004, the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia decided to update its bus system to allow the fleet of city buses to run entirely on a fish-oil based biodiesel. This caused the city some initial issues, but after several years of refining. In 2007, McDonalds of UK announced it would start producing biodiesel from the waste oil byproduct of its restaurants and this fuel would be used to run its fleet. The British Royal Train on 15 September 2007 completed its first ever run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied by Green Fuels Ltd
Biodiesel
–
Bus run by biodiesel.
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel sample
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel locomotive and its external fuel tank at
Mount Washington Cog Railway
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel is also used in rental generators
13.
Fatty acid
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In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
Fatty acid
–
Three-dimensional representations of several fatty acids
Fatty acid
–
Comparison of the
trans isomer Elaidic acid (top) and the cis isomer
oleic acid (bottom).
14.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
15.
Monounsaturated fat
–
In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond, Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having an alkyl group at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other end. Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid when refrigerated, common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and oleic acid. Palmitoleic acid has 16 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 7 carbon atoms away from the methyl group and it can be lengthened to the 18-carbon cis-vaccenic acid. Oleic acid has 18 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 9 carbon atoms away from the acid group. The illustrations below show a molecule of acid in Lewis formula. Polyunsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease by providing more membrane fluidity than monounsaturated fats, the large scale KANWU study found that increasing monounsaturated fat and decreasing saturated fat intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low. However, some monounsaturated fatty acids may promote resistance, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be protective against insulin resistance. Studies have shown that substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased physical activity. More physical activity was associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet, from the study, it is shown that more monounsaturated fats lead to less anger and irritability. Foods containing monounsaturated fats reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, while possibly increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, however, their true ability to raise HDL is still in debate. Levels of oleic along with other monounsaturated fatty acids in red cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk, monounsaturated fats and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. In children, consumption of monounsaturated oils is associated with healthier serum lipid profiles, the Mediterranean Diet is one heavily influenced by monounsaturated fats. The diet in Crete is fairly high in total fat yet affords a protection from coronary heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts and high fat fruits such as olives. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat, the high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as much as 85% monounsaturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
16.
Polyunsaturated fat
–
Polyunsaturated fats are lipids in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens. Unsaturated refers to the fact that the molecules contain less than the amount of hydrogen. These materials exist as cis or trans isomers depending on the geometry of the double bond, saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats and this means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information, the position of the carbon-carbon double bonds in carboxylic acid chains in fats is designated by Greek letters. The carbon atom closest to the group is the alpha carbon. In fatty acids the carbon atom of the group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain is called the omega carbon because omega is the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond three carbons away from the carbon, whereas omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond six carbons away from the methyl carbon. The illustration below shows the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, while it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fats that are generally of greatest interest, these materials do also have non-food applications. Drying oils, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form films, are polyunsaturated fats. The most common ones are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and these oils are used to make paints and varnishes. In preliminary research, omega-3 fatty acids in algal oil, fish oil, fish, ongoing research indicates that omega-6 fatty acids in sunflower oil and safflower oil may also reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Among n-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with cognitive. In addition DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been shown in preliminary studies to decrease the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The importance of the ratio of essential fatty acids as established by comparative studies shows an Omega-6
Polyunsaturated fat
–
3D representation of
linoleic acid in a bent
conformation.
17.
Trans fat
–
Trans fat has been shown to consistently be associated, in an intake-dependent way, with increased risk of coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in Western nations. Fats contain long chains, which can either be unsaturated, i. e. have double bonds, or saturated. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations, Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat, most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any effect on HDL. In 2003 the World Health Organisation recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a persons diet. On 16 June 2015, the FDA finalized its determination that trans fats are not generally recognized as safe, in other countries, there are legal limits to trans fat content. Trans fats levels can be reduced or eliminated using saturated fats such as lard, palm oil or fully hydrogenated fats, other alternative formulations can also allow unsaturated fats to be used to replace saturated or partially hydrogenated fats. Hydrogenated oil is not a synonym for trans fat, complete hydrogenation removes all unsaturated fats, nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, during the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons. It took only two years until the fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial years production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes, in 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the US rights to the Normann patent, in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco. Further success came from the technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normanns hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, prior to 1910, dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleons reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk, it did not gain acceptance in the U. S. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the U. S. as a source of protein, what to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough available for consumers
Trans fat
–
Margarine, a common product that contains trans fatty acids
Trans fat
–
Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912
Trans fat
–
Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902
Trans fat
–
Salers Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contain naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities
18.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
19.
Coconut oil
–
Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
Coconut oil
–
Solidified "coconut butter" sold by a
Norwegian company
Coconut oil
–
Traditional way of making coconut oil using an
ox -powered mill in
Seychelles
Coconut oil
–
Coconuts drying outdoors in
Kozhikode,
Kerala for making
copra, which is used for making coconut oil
Coconut oil
–
Coconut tree
20.
Palm oil
–
Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit. The differences are in color, and in saturated fat content, palm oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature, Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost. In 2004, a group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns. It is believed that traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Palm oil from E. guineensiss has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as an oil in Europe. Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as a lubricant for machinery during Britains Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers Sunlight soap, by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically, of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family. The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is, Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients derived from it. After milling, various oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid, then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached, RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the worlds commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil
Palm oil
–
Palm oil block showing the lighter color that results from boiling
Palm oil
–
Oil palms (Elaeis guineensis).
Palm oil
–
A palm oil plantation in Malaysia.
Palm oil
–
A palm oil plantation in Indonesia.
21.
Palm kernel oil
–
Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the two edible oils derived from palm fruits, palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats, these give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and it is commonly used in commercial cooking because of its relatively low cost, and because it remains stable at high cooking temperatures and can be stored longer than other vegetable oils. Oil from the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis has long recognized in West African countries. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porims scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition, porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000. Palm kernel oil, similarly to coconut oil, is high in saturated fats and is more saturated than palm oil, Palm kernel oil is high in lauric acid which has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, both as LDL-C and HDL-C. Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty acids, Palm kernel oil is commonly used in commercial cooking because it is lower in cost than other oils and remains stable at high cooking temperatures. The oil can also be stored longer than other vegetable oils, the split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil/fat. Resembling coconut oil, palm oil is packed with myristic and lauric fatty acids and therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing powders. Lauric acid is important in making, a good soap must contain at least 15 per cent laurate for quick lathering. Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm
Palm kernel oil
–
Oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis)
Palm kernel oil
–
Oil palms
22.
Soybean oil
–
Soybean oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the soybean. It is one of the most widely consumed cooking oils, as a drying oil, processed soybean oil is also used as a base for printing inks and oil paints. To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, the oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated are sold as vegetable oil, or are ingredients in a variety of processed foods. Most of the residue is used as animal feed. In the 2002–2003 growing season,30, per 100 g, soybean oil has 16 g of saturated fat,23 g of monounsaturated fat, and 58 g of polyunsaturated fat. The major unsaturated fatty acids in soybean oil triglycerides are the polyunsaturates alpha-linolenic acid, 7-10%, and linoleic acid, 51%, and it also contains the saturated fatty acids stearic acid, 4%, and palmitic acid, 10%. The high-proportion of oxidation-prone linolenic acid is undesirable for some uses, three companies, Monsanto Company, DuPont/Bunge, and Asoyia in 2004 introduced low linolenic Roundup Ready soybeans. Hydrogenation may be used to reduce the unsaturation in linolenic acid, the resulting oil is called hydrogenated soybean oil. If the hydrogenation is only complete, the oil may contain small amounts of trans fat. The carcinogen N‐Nitrosodi-n-butylamine has been measured in soybean oil at a concentration of 290 μg/kg, in cheese at 20 to 30 μg/kg and it has also been detected in tobacco smoke at a concentration of 3 ng per cigarette. Soybean oil is used for frying and baking. It is also used as a condiment for salads, soybean oil is one of many drying oils, which means that it will slowly harden upon exposure to air, forming a flexible, transparent, and waterproof solid. Because of this property, it is used in printing ink. However, other oils may be superior for some drying oil applications, while soybean oil has no direct insect repellent activity, it is used as a fixative to extend the short duration of action of essential oils such as geranium oil in several commercial products. Soybean oil is traded at the Chicago Board of Trade in contracts of 60,000 pounds at a time, prices are listed in cents and hundredths of a cent per pound
Soybean oil
–
General
23.
Canola oil
–
B. campestris L. or Brassica juncea. To be called canola, the oil must contain less than 2% erucic acid, health concerns center around the fact that standard production may leave trace amounts of chemical solvent and that non-organic canola may be made from plants that have been genetically modified. It is also used as a source of biodiesel, in the 1970s, the Rapeseed Association of Canada chose the name canola to represent Can for Canada, and ola for oil. One dictionary purports that it stands for Can + o + l + a, Canola was developed through conventional plant breeding from rapeseed, an oilseed plant already used in ancient civilization as a fuel. The word rape in rapeseed comes from the Latin word rapum meaning turnip, turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, mustard, and many other vegetables are related to the two natural canola varieties commonly grown, which are cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa. The change in name serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, Brassica oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated by humanity, with documentation of its use in India 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago. Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to the 13th century and its use was limited until the development of steam power, when machinists found rapeseed oil clung to water- and steam-washed metal surfaces better than other lubricants. World War II caused high demand for the oil as a lubricant for the increasing number of steam engines in naval. When the war blocked European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil, a shortage developed. After the war, demand declined sharply, and farmers began to look for other uses for the plant, Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. Rapeseed oil had a taste and a disagreeable greenish color. It also contained a concentration of erucic acid. Feed meal from the plant also was not particularly appealing to livestock. A variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and this and other recent varieties have been produced using genetic engineering. In 2011, 26% of the acres sown were genetically modified canola, Canola was originally a trademark, but is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australia. In Canada, a definition of canola is codified in Canadian law. As of the 2013/2014 season, production in the ten leading territories was, Rapeseed is traded on the Euronext exchange. Canola oil is made at a facility by slightly heating
Canola oil
–
Close-up of rapeseed blooms
Canola oil
–
Canola flower
Canola oil
–
Canola field in
New South Wales, Australia
Canola oil
–
Canola being grown in
South Africa just outside of the City of
Cape Town.
Table Mountain is clearly visible in the far right. Canola is a relatively new crop in the country and was first cultivated in the early 1990s.
24.
Rapeseed
–
Rapeseed, also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rappi, rapaseed, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae, consumed in China and Southern Africa as a vegetable. The name derives from the Latin for turnip, rāpa or rāpum, older writers usually distinguished the turnip and rape by the adjectives round and long, respectively. Rutabagas, Brassica napobrassica, are considered a variety of B. napus. Some botanists also include the closely related B. rapa within B. napus, B. napus is cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, the third-largest source of vegetable oil in the world. The term rape derives from the Latin word for turnip, rapum, rapeseed is known by many common names in the English language. Some names have only applied to certain subspecies, forms. B. napus = B. napus subsp and this list is from the Germplasm Resources Information Network, which attributes the names to other sources, Brassica napus – rape B. napus subsp. Napus – Argentine canola, canola, colza, oilseed rape, napus f. annua – annual rape and summer rape B. napus subsp. Napus f. napus – swede rape B. napus subsp, napus var. pabularia – Hanover-salad, rape kale, and Siberian kale B. napus subsp. Rapifera – rutabaga, swede, Swedish turnip, and winter rape Brassica napus grows to 100 cm high with lower leaves pinnatifid and glaucous, the flowers are yellow and about 17 mm across. B. napus differs from B. nigra, but can be distinguished by the leaves which do not clasp the stem. In north-east of Ireland B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges, in 1973, Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption. Today, rapeseed is grown for the production of animal feeds, edible oils, and biodiesel, leading producers include the European Union, Canada, China, India. In India,6.7 million tons are produced annually, the Food and Agriculture Organization reports 36 million tons of rapeseed were produced in the 2003–2004 season, and estimated 58.4 million tons in the 2010–2011 season. In Europe, rapeseed is primarily cultivated for feed, owing to its very high lipid. Natural rapeseed oil contains 50% erucic acid, wild seeds also contain high levels of glucosinolates, chemical compounds that significantly lowered the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed. In North America, the term canola—a contraction of Canada and ola, meaning oil—became widely used to refer to rapeseed, the rapeseed is the harvested component of the crop. The crop is grown as a winter cover crop
Rapeseed
–
Rapeseed oil seed
Rapeseed
–
A sea of yellow rapeseed flowers
Rapeseed
–
Field of rapeseed in France
Rapeseed
–
Field of rapeseed
25.
Corn oil
–
Corn oil is oil extracted from the germ of corn. Its main use is in cooking, where its high smoke point makes refined corn oil a valuable frying oil and it is also a key ingredient in some margarines. Corn oil is less expensive than most other types of vegetable oils. One bushel of corn contains 1.55 pounds of corn oil, corn agronomists have developed high-oil varieties, however, these varieties tend to show lower field yields, so they are not universally accepted by growers. Corn oil is also a used for biodiesel. Other industrial uses for corn oil include soap, salve, paint, rustproofing for metal surfaces, inks, textiles, nitroglycerin and it is sometimes used as a carrier for drug molecules in pharmaceutical preparations. Almost all corn oil is expeller-pressed, then solvent-extracted using hexane or 2-methylpentane, the solvent is evaporated from the corn oil, recovered, and re-used. After extraction, the oil is then refined by degumming and/or alkali treatment. Alkali treatment also neutralizes free fatty acids and removes color, final steps in refining include winterization, and deodorization by steam distillation of the oil at 232–260 °C under a high vacuum. Some specialty oil producers manufacture unrefined, 100%-expeller-pressed corn oil and this is a more expensive product since it has a much lower yield than the combination expeller and solvent process, as well as a smaller market share. Of the saturated fatty acids, 80% are palmitic acid, 14% stearic acid, over 99% of the monounsaturated fatty acids are oleic acid 98% of the polyunsaturated fatty acids are the omega-6 linoleic acid with the 2% remainder being the omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid. Some medical research suggests that levels of omega-6 fatty acids, relative to omega-3 fatty acids, may increase the probability of a number of diseases. Modern Western diets typically have ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 in excess of 10 to 1, some as high as 30 to 1, the optimal ratio is thought to be 4 to 1 or lower. A high intake of fatty acids may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer. Similar effects were observed on prostate cancer, other analysis suggested an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk. Corn wet-milling Dupont J, PJ White, MP Carpenter, EJ Schaefer, SN Meydani, CE Elson, M Woods, food uses and health effects of corn oil. Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils The Maize Page
Corn oil
–
Corn oil, in a 5-liter plastic bottle
Corn oil
–
Corn oil, plastic jugs in cardboard boxes, 33 lbs. each
Corn oil
–
Varieties
26.
Peanut oil
–
Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a mild-tasting vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil is available with a strong flavor and aroma. It is often used in Chinese, South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, Peanut oil has a high smoke point relative to many other cooking oils, so is commonly used for frying foods. Its major component fatty acids are oleic acid, linoleic acid, the oil also contains some stearic acid, arachidic acid, behenic acid, lignoceric acid and other fatty acids. Antioxidants such as vitamin E are sometimes added to improve the life of the oil. Shortage of whale oil in the Confederacy made peanut oil an attractive alternative during the Civil War, the oil had increased use in the United States during World War II, because of war shortages of other oils. According to the USDA data upon which the table is based,100 g of peanut oil contains 17.7 g of saturated fat,48.3 g of monounsaturated fat. Most highly refined peanut oils remove the allergens and have been shown to be safe for the vast majority of peanut-allergic individuals. However, cold-pressed peanut oils may not remove the allergens and thus could be dangerous to people with peanut allergy. Since the degree of processing for any product is often unclear. If quality control is neglected, peanuts that contain the mold that produces highly toxic aflatoxin can end up contaminating the oil derived from them, Peanut oil, as with other vegetable oils, can be used to make soap by the process of saponification. The oil is safe for use as a massage oil, Peanut researcher George Washington Carver marketed a peanut massage oil. Some medicines and vitamins use arachis oil as a suspension agent, pics Peanut oil Peanut oil at the Peanut Institute website Peanut oil at WebMD
Peanut oil
–
A bottle of peanut oil, with
Vitamin E added as a preservative
Peanut oil
–
4 gallons of peanut oil
Peanut oil
–
"Peanut oil will make medicine"
27.
Butter
–
Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
Butter
–
Butter at the Borough Market,
London
Butter
–
Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a
butter knife.
Butter
–
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Butter
–
Liquid
clarified butter
28.
Lard
–
Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It is obtained from any part of the pig where there is a proportion of adipose tissue. It can be rendered by steaming it or boiling it in water and then separating the insoluble fat from the water and it is a semi-soft white fat with a high saturated fatty acid content and no transfats, and refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks. Lard is commonly used in cuisines around the world as a cooking fat or shortening. It is an ingredient in various dishes such as sausages, pates and fillings. Its use in contemporary cuisine has diminished with the increased popularity of vegetable oils. The culinary qualities of lard vary somewhat depending on the part of the pig from which the fat was taken, Lard can be obtained from any part of the pig where there is a high concentration of fatty tissue. The highest grade of lard, known as leaf lard, is obtained from the visceral fat deposit surrounding the kidneys. Leaf lard has little pork flavor, making it ideal for use in baked goods, the next-highest grade is obtained from fatback, the hard subcutaneous fat between the back skin and muscle of the pig. Lard may be rendered by either of two processes, wet or dry, in dry rendering, the fat is exposed to high heat in a pan or oven without the presence of water. The two processes yield somewhat differing products, wet-rendered lard has a more neutral flavor, a lighter color, and a high smoke point. Dry-rendered lard is somewhat more browned in color and flavor and has a lower smoke point, rendered lard produces an unpleasant smell when mixed with oxygen. Industrially-produced lard, including much of the lard sold in supermarkets, is rendered from a mixture of high-, Lard is often hydrogenated to improve its stability at room temperature. Hydrogenated lard sold to consumers typically contains fewer than 0.5 g of transfats per 13 g serving, Lard is also often treated with bleaching and deodorizing agents, emulsifiers, and antioxidants such as BHT. These treatments make it consistent and prevent spoilage. Consumers seeking a higher-quality source of lard typically seek out artisanal producers of rendered lard, a by-product of dry-rendering lard is deep-fried meat, skin and membrane tissue known as cracklings. Lard consists mainly of fats, which in the language of chemistry are known as triglycerides and these triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids and the distribution of fatty acids varies from oil to oil. In general lard is similar to tallow in its composition, pigs that have been fed different diets will have lard with a significantly different fatty acid content and iodine value
Lard
–
Wet-rendered lard, from pork fatback.
Lard
–
Raw fatback being diced to prepare
tourtière.
Lard
–
1916 advertisement for lard produced by
Swift & Company.
Lard
–
A slice of bread spread with lard was a typical staple in traditional rural cuisine of many countries.
29.
Herb
–
In general use, herbs are any plants used for food, flavoring, medicine, or fragrances for their savory or aromatic properties. Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices, Herbs refers to the leafy green or flowering parts of a plant, while spices are produced from other parts of the plant, including seeds, berries, bark, roots and fruits. In botanical English, the herb is also used as a synonym of herbaceous plant. Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary, medicinal, and in some cases, general usage of the term herb differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs. In medicinal or spiritual use any of the parts of the plant might be considered herbs, including leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, root bark, inner bark, resin and pericarp. The word herb is pronounced /ˈhɜːrb/ in the UK, but /ˈɜːrb/ is common among North American speakers, as far back as 5000 BCE, Sumerians used herbs in medicine. Ancient Egyptians used fennel, coriander and thyme around 1555 BCE, in ancient Greece, in 162 CE, a physician by the name of Galen was known for concocting complicated herbal remedies that contained up to 100 ingredients. Culinary herbs are distinguished from vegetables in that, like spices, they are used in small amounts, Herbs can be perennials such as thyme or lavender, biennials such as parsley, or annuals like basil. Perennial herbs can be such as rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis, or trees such as bay laurel, Laurus nobilis – this contrasts with botanical herbs. Some plants are used as herbs and spices, such as dill weed and dill seed or coriander leaves and seeds. Also, there are some such as those in the mint family that are used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Some plants contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body, there may be some effects when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary spicing, and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. For instance, some types of herbal extract, such as the extract of St. Johns-wort or of kava can be used for purposes to relieve depression. However, large amounts of these herbs may lead to toxic overload that may involve complications, some of a serious nature, Herbs have long been used as the basis of traditional Chinese herbal medicine, with usage dating as far back as the first century CE and far before. In India, the Ayurveda medicinal system is based on herbs, medicinal use of herbs in Western cultures has its roots in the Hippocratic elemental healing system, based on a quaternary elemental healing metaphor. Famous herbalist of the Western tradition include Avicenna, Galen, Paracelsus, Culpepper, the indigenous peoples of Australia developed herbal medicine based on plants that were readily available to them. The isolation of the people meant the remedies developed were for far less serious diseases. Herbs such as mint, wattle and eucalyptus were used for coughs, diarrhea, fever
Herb
–
Basil and
green onions, common culinary herbs
Herb
–
A bundle of
thyme
30.
Chili pepper
–
The chili pepper is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. In Australia, Britain, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa and in other Asian countries, the substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, chilies were brought to Asia by Portuguese navigators during the 16th century. Worldwide, some 3.8 million hectares of land produce 33 million tons of chili peppers, India is the worlds biggest producer, consumer and exporter of chili peppers. Guntur in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh produces 30% of all the chilies produced in India, Andhra Pradesh as a whole contributes 75% of Indias chili exports. Chili peppers have been a part of the diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed, upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Indigenous people shared them with travelers, diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494. It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century, today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines. There is a correlation between the chili pepper geographical dissemination and consumption in Asia and the presence of Portuguese traders, India. The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, Chili peppers journeyed from India, through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became the national spice in the form of paprika. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese missionaries in 1542, in 1995 archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times. According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century, Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus in his Historia Plantarum, around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis mentioned Piperve crudum in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds. Green and red peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano, New Mexico, serrano, peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings, bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them, the substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. Capsaicin is also the component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal weapon
Chili pepper
–
Green
bird's eye, yellow
madame Jeanette, and red
cayenne peppers
Chili pepper
–
Small white variety of chili grown in
Udupi district, India
Chili pepper
–
Thai pepper, similar in variety to the
African birdseye, exhibits considerable strength for its size
Chili pepper
–
A display of hot peppers and a board explaining the
Scoville scale at a
Houston, Texas, grocery store
31.
Garlic
–
Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
Garlic
–
Garlic
Garlic
–
Flower head
Garlic
–
Italian garlic PDO (Aglio Bianco Polesano)
Garlic
–
Bulbils
32.
Sunflower seed
–
The sunflower seed is the fruit of the sunflower. The term sunflower seed is actually a misnomer when applied to the seed in its pericarp, botanically speaking, it is a cypsela. When dehulled, the remainder is called the sunflower kernel or heart. There are three types of commonly used sunflower seeds, linoleic, high oleic, and NuSun, each variety has its own unique levels of monounsaturated, saturated, and polyunsaturated fats. The information in this article refers mainly to the linoleic variety, for commercial purposes, sunflower seeds are usually classified by the pattern on their husks. If the husk is solid black, the seeds are called black oil sunflower seeds, the crops may be referred to as oilseed sunflower crops. These seeds are pressed to extract their oil. Striped sunflower seeds are used for food, as a result. In 2013, world production of seeds was 44.5 million tonnes, with Ukraine. Sunflower seeds are commonly eaten as a snack than as part of a meal. They can also be used as garnishes or ingredients in various recipes, the seeds may be sold as in-shell seeds or dehulled kernels. The seeds can also be sprouted and eaten in salads, when in-shell seeds are processed, they are first dried. Afterwards, they may also be roasted or dusted with salt or flour for preservation of flavor. Sunflower seeds sold by the bag are either plain or with a variety of flavorings added by the maker including barbecue, pickle, hot sauce, bacon, ranch. In the United States, they are eaten by baseball players as an alternative to chewing tobacco. Mechanically dehulled kernels may be sold raw or roasted and are added to bread. There is also sunflower butter, similar to butter, but using sunflower seeds instead of peanuts. Apart from human consumption, sunflower seeds are used as food for pets and wild birds in boxes
Sunflower seed
–
Left: dehulled kernel. Right: whole seed with hull
Sunflower seed
33.
FDA
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
FDA
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
FDA
–
Food and Drug Administration
FDA
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
FDA
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
34.
Polyunsaturated
–
Polyunsaturated fats are lipids in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens. Unsaturated refers to the fact that the molecules contain less than the amount of hydrogen. These materials exist as cis or trans isomers depending on the geometry of the double bond, saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats and this means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information, the position of the carbon-carbon double bonds in carboxylic acid chains in fats is designated by Greek letters. The carbon atom closest to the group is the alpha carbon. In fatty acids the carbon atom of the group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain is called the omega carbon because omega is the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond three carbons away from the carbon, whereas omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond six carbons away from the methyl carbon. The illustration below shows the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, while it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fats that are generally of greatest interest, these materials do also have non-food applications. Drying oils, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form films, are polyunsaturated fats. The most common ones are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and these oils are used to make paints and varnishes. In preliminary research, omega-3 fatty acids in algal oil, fish oil, fish, ongoing research indicates that omega-6 fatty acids in sunflower oil and safflower oil may also reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Among n-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with cognitive. In addition DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been shown in preliminary studies to decrease the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The importance of the ratio of essential fatty acids as established by comparative studies shows an Omega-6
Polyunsaturated
–
Chemical structure of the polyunsaturated fat
linoleic acid.
35.
Meta-analyses
–
A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. The basic tenet behind meta-analyses is that there is a common truth behind all conceptually similar scientific studies, the aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived. Meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a review procedure. For instance, a meta-analysis may be conducted on several trials of a medical treatment. This encompassed a review of 145 reports on ESP experiments published from 1882 to 1939, although meta-analysis is widely used in epidemiology and evidence-based medicine today, a meta-analysis of a medical treatment was not published until 1955. In the 1970s, more sophisticated techniques were introduced in educational research, starting with the work of Gene V. Glass, Frank L. Schmidt. The term meta-analysis was coined by Gene V. Glass, who was the first modern statistician to formalize the use of the term meta-analysis and he states my major interest currently is in what we have come to call. the meta-analysis of research. The term is a bit grand, but it is precise, meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses. Although this led to him being widely recognized as the founder of the method. The statistical theory surrounding meta-analysis was greatly advanced by the work of Nambury S. Raju, Larry V. Hedges, Harris Cooper, Ingram Olkin, John E. Hunter, Jacob Cohen, chalmers, Robert Rosenthal, Frank L. Schmidt, and Douglas G. Bonett. A meta-analysis is an overview of the results from one or more systematic review. This, in turn, may increase the power to detect an effect. Inconsistency of results across studies can be quantified and analyzed, for instance, does inconsistency arise from sampling error, or are study results influenced by between-study heterogeneity. Some have argued that a weakness of the method is that sources of bias are not controlled by the method and this would mean that only methodologically sound studies should be included in a meta-analysis, a practice called best evidence synthesis. This is not easily solved, as one cannot know how many studies have gone unreported and this should be seriously considered when interpreting the outcomes of a meta-analysis. The distribution of sizes can be visualized with a funnel plot which is a scatter plot of standard error versus the effect size. It makes use of the fact that the studies have more scatter of the magnitude of effect while the larger studies have less scatter. If many negative studies were not published, the remaining positive studies give rise to a plot in which the base is skewed to one side
Meta-analyses
–
A funnel plot expected without the file drawer problem. The largest studies converge at the tip while smaller studies show more or less symmetrical scatter at the base
Meta-analyses
–
A funnel plot expected with the file drawer problem. The largest studies still cluster around the tip, but the bias against publishing negative studies has caused the smaller studies as a whole to have an unjustifiably favorable result to the hypothesis
36.
Cohort studies
–
A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study that sample a cohort, performing a cross-section at intervals through time. A cohort study is a study, but a panel study is not always a cohort study as individuals in a panel study do not always share a common characteristic. A cohort study is a quasi-experiment used in medicine, nursing, psychology, social science, actuarial science, business analytics and it is one type of clinical study design and should be compared with a cross-sectional study. Cohort studies are largely about the histories of segments of populations. A cohort is a group of people who share a characteristic or experience within a defined period. Thus a group of people who were born on a day or in a period, say 1948. Alternatively, subgroups within the cohort may be compared with each other and this minimizes the chance that the incidence of confounding variables will differ between the two groups. However, it is important to note that RCTs may not be suitable in all cases, Cohort studies can be retrospective or prospective. Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of the disease under investigation, the study groups follow a group of people who do not have the disease for a period of time and see who develops the disease. The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already have the disease, however, cohort studies are expensive to conduct, are sensitive to attrition and take a long follow-up time to generate useful data. Nevertheless, the results that are obtained from long-term cohort studies are of superior quality to those obtained from retrospective/cross-sectional studies. Prospective cohort studies are considered to yield the most reliable results in observational epidemiology and they enable a wide range of exposure-disease associations to be studied. Some cohort studies track groups of children from their birth, the value of a cohort study depends on the researchers capacity to stay in touch with all members of the cohort. Some studies have continued for decades, in a cohort study, the population under investigation consists of individuals who are at risk of developing a specific disease or health outcome. An example of a question that can be answered using a cohort study is. In this example, a significant increase in the incidence of lung cancer in the smoking group as compared to the non-smoking group is evidence in favor of the hypothesis. However, rare outcomes, such as cancer, are generally not studied with the use of a cohort study. Shorter term studies are used in medical research as a form of clinical trial
Cohort studies
–
Comparison of timelines of case-control and cohort studies
37.
Scientific control
–
A scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements, scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Controls eliminate alternate explanations of experimental results, especially experimental errors, the selection and use of proper controls to ensure that experimental results are valid can be very difficult. Other variables, which may not be obvious, may interfere with the experimental design. For instance, the artificial sweetener might be mixed with a dilutant, to control for the effect of the dilutant, another treatment is added which is the dilutant alone. Now the experiment is controlled for the dilutant and the experimenter can distinguish between sweetener, dilutant and non-treatment, controls are most often necessary where a confounding factor cannot easily be separated from the primary treatments. For example, it may be necessary to use a tractor to spread fertilizer where there is no practicable way to spread fertilizer. The simplest solution is to have a treatment where a tractor is driven over plots without spreading fertilizer, the simplest types of control are negative and positive controls, and both are found in many different types of experiments. Negative controls are groups where no phenomenon is expected and they ensure that there is no effect when there should be no effect. To continue with the example of drug testing, a control is a group that has not been administered the drug of interest. This group receives either no preparation at all or a sham preparation and we would say that the control group should show a negative or null effect. In other examples, outcomes might be measured as lengths, times, percentages, in the drug testing example, we could measure the percentage of patients cured. In this case, the treatment is inferred to have no effect when the treatment group, some improvement is expected in the placebo group due to the placebo effect, and this result sets the baseline which the treatment must improve upon. Even if the treatment group shows improvement, it needs to be compared to the placebo group, if the groups show the same effect, then the treatment was not responsible for the improvement. The treatment is effective if the treatment group shows more improvement than the placebo group. Positive controls are groups where a phenomenon is expected and that is, they ensure that there is an effect when there should be an effect, by using an experimental treatment that is already known to produce that effect. Positive controls are used to assess test validity. For example, to assess a new ability to detect a disease
Scientific control
–
Take identical growing plants and give fertilizer to half of them. If there are differences between the fertilized group and the unfertilized "control" group, these differences may be due to the fertilizer.
38.
Mayo Clinic
–
Mayo Clinic is a nonprofit medical practice and medical research group based in Rochester, Minnesota. It employs more than 4,500 physicians and scientists and 57,100 allied health staff, the practice specializes in treating difficult cases through tertiary care. It spends over $660 million a year on research, William Worrall Mayo settled his family in Rochester in 1864 and opened a medical practice that evolved under his sons into Mayo Clinic. It has been on the list of 100 Best Companies to Work For published by Fortune magazine for thirteen consecutive years and it continued to achieve this ranking through 2015. In addition to their hospital in Rochester, the Mayo Clinic has major campuses in Arizona. The Mayo Clinic Health System also operates affiliated facilities throughout Minnesota, Wisconsin, in 1863, William Worrall Mayo came to Rochester, Minnesota as part of his appointment as an examining surgeon for the military draft board during the American Civil War. The city was to his liking, and his wife and children joined him in early 1864, William Worrall Mayo opened his medical practice after the war, and served in several leadership roles in the community. Mayos sons, William James Mayo and Charles Horace Mayo grew up in Rochester, William graduated in 1883 and joined his fathers practice, with Charles joining after he completed his training in 1888. On August 21,1883, a tornado struck Rochester, causing at least 37 deaths in the area, one-third of the town was destroyed, but the Mayo family escaped serious harm. Mother Alfred Moes and the Sisters of Saint Francis were called in to act as nurses despite having been trained as teachers, on September 30,1889, Saint Marys Hospital was opened by the Sisters. Mayo,70 years old, was one of the physicians at the hospital. His two sons began seeing patients and performing surgeries at the hospital when they returned from school in the 1880s. In 1892, W. W. Mayo asked Augustus Stinchfield, after Stinchfield agreed, W. W. Mayo retired at the age of 73 and the practice continued to grow. The founders of Mayo Clinic are the Mayo brothers Will and Charlie, Stinchfield, Graham, Henry Plummer, Millet, Judd and these early founders and partners shared in the profits of the private group practice, while other staff hired by the partners were salaried. W. W. Mayo died in 1911 and in 1919 the remaining founders, with the exception of Graham, created the Mayo Properties Association, the founders gave the Clinic properties and furnishings to this newly formed association. The integrated practice model developed primarily by Plummer, created a foundation for what would grow into the Mayo Clinic, as the private practice grew, it required additional space. In 1914, the planned, designed and built a new clinic building. This was groundbreaking work, and the first building designed to facilitate the integrated group medical practice. The air exchange rate for the building was three minutes, one intriguing innovation was the Rookwood fountain in the main lobby that was designed to clean and humidify air from the outside
Mayo Clinic
–
William Worrall Mayo, the founding father of what would become the Mayo Clinic.
Mayo Clinic
–
The Plummer Building in
Rochester, Minnesota.
Mayo Clinic
–
St. Mary's Hospital in 1910
Mayo Clinic
–
Gonda building from cafeteria.
39.
Cottonseed oil
–
Cottonseed oil is a cooking oil extracted from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil. Cotton seed has a structure to other oilseeds such as sunflower seed, having an oil-bearing kernel surrounded by a hard outer hull, in processing. Cottonseed oil is used for oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing. Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids, when it is fully hydrogenated, its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids. According to the oil industry, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results. Gossypol is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order Malvaceae and this naturally occurring coloured compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural insect resistance, the three key steps of refining, bleaching, and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. Ferric chloride is used to decolorize cotton seed oil. Once processed, cottonseed oil has a taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color. It has a high smoke point as a frying medium. Density ranges from 0.917 g/cm3 to 0.933 g/cm3, the by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century. While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid 19th centuries, although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers. The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply, consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting. Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils, but separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years. This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee invented a huller, with this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard. But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged, cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards. Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, a congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as ‘‘lard compound. ”Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil, both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value
Cottonseed oil
–
Cotton seeds
Cottonseed oil
–
Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Co. seed house,
Jackson, Mississippi, USA
40.
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute
–
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute is the third largest Institute of the National Institutes of Health, located in Bethesda, Maryland, United States. It is tasked with allocating about $3, nHLBIs Director is Gary H. Gibbons. Research is related to the causes, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of heart, blood vessel, lung, and blood diseases and it also supports research on clinical use of blood and all aspects of the management of blood resources. For health professionals and the public, the NHLBI conducts educational activities, including development and dissemination of materials in the above areas, the NHLBI coordinates relevant activities in the above areas, including the related causes of stroke, with other research institutes and federal health programs. There are 60 investigators, each of whom runs their own research program and they are supported by a group of core services that implement state-of-the-art techniques available to all NHLBI investigators. The NHLBI was home to Marshall Nirenberg, Nobel laureate for his part in the discovery of the genetic code, the DIR also has a large training component, with opportunities for undergraduate, graduate, and medical students as well as post-doctoral training. The NHLBI sponsors National Wear Red Day and the Heart Truth campaign, a national awareness campaign for women about heart disease
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014)
41.
Cashew oil
–
The cashew tree is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew nut and the cashew apple. It can grow as high as 14 m, but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 m, has proved profitable, with earlier maturity. The cashew nut, often called a cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on its own, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter, the shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications from lubricants to paints. The cashew apple is a reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet. The species is native to northeastern Brazil. Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam, Nigeria, India and its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree caju, which itself is derived from the Tupian word acajú, literally meaning nut that produces itself. The generic name Anacardium, originally from the Greek, refers to the location of the seed outside the core or heart of the fruit. A mid-seventeenth century ethnographic painting by Albert Eckhout, who accompanied Dutch governor-general Johan Maurits, the cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 m tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 cm long and 2–15 cm broad. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm long, each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 mm long. The largest cashew tree in the covers a area around 7,500 m2, it is located in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte. The fruit of the tree is an accessory fruit. What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel, called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow and/or red structure about 5–11 cm long. It is edible, and has a sweet smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile. The true fruit of the tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple, within the true fruit is a single seed, which is often considered a nut, in the culinary sense
Cashew oil
–
Cashew
Cashew oil
–
'Anacardium occidentale', from Koehler's 'Medicinal-Plants' (1887)
Cashew oil
–
Flower of cashew tree
Cashew oil
–
Cashew tree
42.
High-density lipoprotein
–
High-density lipoproteins are one of the five major groups of lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of proteins which transport all fat molecules around the body within the water outside cells. They are typically composed of 80-100 proteins per particle and transporting up to hundreds of fat molecules per particle, unlike the larger lipoprotein particles which deliver fat molecules to cells, HDL particles remove fat molecules from cells which need to export fat molecules. The fats carried include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides, amounts of each are quite variable, increasing concentrations of HDL particles are strongly associated with decreasing accumulation of atherosclerosis within the walls of arteries. This is important because atherosclerosis eventually results in sudden plaque ruptures, cardiovascular disease, stroke, however, studies have shown that HDL-lacking mice still have the ability to transport cholesterol to bile, suggesting that there are alternative mechanisms for cholesterol removal. In healthy individuals, about 30% of blood cholesterol, along with fats, is carried by HDL. This is often contrasted with the amount of cholesterol estimated to be carried within low-density lipoprotein particles, LDL and those with higher levels of HDL-C tend to have fewer problems with cardiovascular diseases, while those with low HDL-C cholesterol levels have increased rates for heart disease. Higher native HDL levels are correlated with cardiovascular health, however. The remainder of the serum cholesterol after subtracting the HDL is the non-HDL cholesterol, the concentration of these other components, which may cause atheroma, is known as the non-HDL-C. This is now preferred to LDL-C as a marker as it has been shown to be a better predictor. HDL is the smallest of the lipoprotein particles and it is the densest because it contains the highest proportion of protein to lipids. Its most abundant apolipoproteins are apo A-I and apo A-II, a rare genetic variant, ApoA-1 Milano, has been documented to be far more effective in both protecting against and regressing arterial disease, atherosclerosis. HDL transports cholesterol mostly to the liver or steroidogenic organs such as adrenals, ovary, HDL is removed by HDL receptors such as scavenger receptor BI, which mediate the selective uptake of cholesterol from HDL. In humans, probably the most relevant pathway is the indirect one and this protein exchanges triglycerides of VLDL against cholesteryl esters of HDL. As the result, VLDLs are processed to LDL, which are removed from the circulation by the LDL receptor pathway. The triglycerides are not stable in HDL, but are degraded by hepatic lipase so that, finally, small HDL particles are left, the cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones and this pathway has been termed reverse cholesterol transport and is considered as the classical protective function of HDL toward atherosclerosis. However, HDL carries many lipid and protein species, several of which have low concentrations but are biologically very active
High-density lipoprotein
–
Contents
43.
Partially Hydrogenated Oils
–
Hydrogenation – to treat with hydrogen – is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of pairs of atoms to a molecule. Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable, non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at high temperatures. Hydrogenation reduces double and triple bonds in hydrocarbons and it has three components, the unsaturated substrate, the hydrogen and, invariably, a catalyst. The reduction reaction is carried out at different temperatures and pressures depending upon the substrate, the same catalysts and conditions that are used for hydrogenation reactions can also lead to isomerization of the alkenes from cis to trans. This process is of great interest because hydrogenation technology generates most of the fat in foods. A reaction where bonds are broken while hydrogen is added is called hydrogenolysis, some hydrogenations of polar bonds are accompanied by hydrogenolysis. For hydrogenation, the source of hydrogen is H2 gas itself. The hydrogenation process often uses greater than 1 atmosphere of H2, usually conveyed from the cylinders, gaseous hydrogen is produced industrially from hydrocarbons by the process known as steam reforming. For many applications, hydrogen is transferred from donor molecules such as acid, isopropanol. These hydrogen donors undergo dehydrogenation to, respectively, carbon dioxide, acetone and these processes are called transfer hydrogenations. Typical substrates are listed in the table With rare exceptions, H2 is unreactive toward organic compounds in the absence of metal catalysts, the unsaturated substrate is chemisorbed onto the catalyst, with most sites covered by the substrate. In heterogeneous catalysts, hydrogen forms surface hydrides from which hydrogens can be transferred to the chemisorbed substrate, platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium form highly active catalysts, which operate at lower temperatures and lower pressures of H2. Non-precious metal catalysts, especially based on nickel have also been developed as economical alternatives. The trade-off is activity vs. cost of the catalyst and cost of the apparatus required for use of high pressures, notice that the Raney-nickel catalysed hydrogenations require high pressures, Catalysts are usually classified into two broad classes, homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts. Homogeneous catalysts dissolve in the solvent that contains the unsaturated substrate, heterogeneous catalysts are solids that are suspended in the same solvent with the substrate or are treated with gaseous substrate. Some well known homogeneous catalysts are indicated below and these are coordination complexes that activate both the unsaturated substrate and the H2
Partially Hydrogenated Oils
–
Catalysed hydrogenation
44.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Harvey W. Wiley, chief advocate of the Food and Drug Act
45.
American Heart Association
–
Originally formed in New York City in 1924 as the Association for the Prevention and Relief of Heart Disease, it is currently headquartered in Dallas, Texas. The American Heart Association is a voluntary health agency. They are known for publishing standards on basic life support and advanced life support. They are known also for operating a number of visible public service campaigns starting in the 1970s. In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry publication, elliott Antman, M. D. is president of the American Heart Association for its 2014–15 fiscal year. The American Heart Association publishes a standard for providing basic and advanced life support, the AHA offers the most widely accepted certification for basic life support. The AHA is now also a provider of training for first aid, the AHA also operates an affiliated organization, the American Stroke Association, which focuses on care, research and prevention of strokes. The American Heart Association grew out of a set of smaller precursor groups, the primary precursor was the Association for the Prevention and Relief of Heart Disease, formed in New York City in 1915, to study whether patients with heart disease could safely return to work. Several similar organizations formed or evolved in Boston, Philadelphia, the AHA remained small until the 1940s when it was selected for support by Procter & Gamble, via their PR firm, from a list of applicant charities. Procter & Gamble gave $1.5 million from its show, Truth or Consequences. These recommendations continued to more precise from 1957 to 1980. In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, a publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable. On October 28,2009 The American Heart Association and the Ad Council launched a hands-only CPR public service announcement, on November 30,2009, The American Heart Association announced a new cardiac arrest awareness campaign called Be the Beat. The campaigns aim is to teach 12- to 15-year-olds fun ways to learn the basics of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, in 2010 the AHA launched the Go Red for Women campaign. Historically men have been the subjects of heart disease and stroke research. Go Red for Women specifically targets women with information about risks, all revenues from the local and national campaigns goes to support awareness, research, education and community programs to benefit women. In May 2010, the AHA endorsed the Nintendo Wii Console, the AHA Heart Icon is featured on the box of the console as well as on the Wii Fit Plus and Wii Sports Resort titles. It also carried out a campaign in 2012 to educate people on how to carry out hands-only CPR
American Heart Association
–
A Health Promotion coordinator at Fleet Activities Sasebo, from Augusta, Ga., checks a sailor's blood pressure during a "Go Red for Women" heart disease awareness campaign in 2009.
American Heart Association
–
American Heart Association
American Heart Association
–
Jump Rope for Heart, pictured in 2014. Volunteers with the 6th Squadron, 8th Cavalry Regiment assisted the students in celebrating the end of the school's fundraising event, "Jump Rope for Heart", to raise funds for the American Heart Association.
46.
Healthy diet
–
A healthy diet is one that helps to maintain or improve overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition, fluid, adequate essential amino acids from protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, the requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods. A healthy diet supports energy needs and provides for human nutrition without exposure to toxicity or excessive weight gain from consuming excessive amounts. Where lack of calories is not an issue, a balanced diet is also thought to be important for lowering health risks, such as obesity, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension. Various nutrition guides are published by medical and governmental institutions to educate the public on what they should be eating to promote health, Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health. The idea of dietary therapy is quite old and thus has both modern forms and prescientific forms. For additional clarification, a five-word modifier helps, go easy on junk foods, although you may feel as though advice about nutrition is constantly changing, the basic ideas behind my four precepts have not changed in half a century. And they leave plenty of room for enjoying the pleasures of food, david L. Katz, who reviewed the most prevalent popular diets in 2014, noted, The weight of evidence strongly supports a theme of healthful eating while allowing for variations on that theme. Knowledge in this case is not, as of yet, power, limit intake of fats, and prefer unsaturated fats to saturated fats and trans fats. Increase consumption of plant foods, particularly fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, a 2003 report recommends less than 10% of calorie intake from simple sugars. Limit salt / sodium consumption from all sources and ensure that salt is iodized, other recommendations include, Essential micronutrients such as vitamins and certain minerals. Avoiding directly poisonous and carcinogenic substances, avoiding foods contaminated by human pathogens. WHO recommends an intake of less than 5 grams of salt per day for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, the Dietary Guidelines for American by the United States Department of Agriculture recommends three healthy patterns of diet, summarized in table below, for a 2000 kcal diet. S. Food group amounts per day, unless noted per week and this healthy diet is full of a wide range of various non-starchy vegetables and fruits, that provide different colors including red, green, yellow, white, purple, and orange. They note that tomato cooked with oil, allium vegetables like garlic and this healthy diet is low in energy density, which may protect against weight gain and associated diseases. Finally, limiting consumption of drinks, limiting energy rich foods, including “fast foods” and red meat. Overall, researchers and medical policy conclude that this diet can reduce the risk of chronic disease. In children less than 25 gms of added sugar is recommended per day, other recommendations include no extra sugars in those under 2 years old and less than one soft drink per week
Healthy diet
–
Leafy green,
allium, and
cruciferous vegetables are key components of a healthy diet
Healthy diet
–
Common colorful
culinary fruits.
Apples,
pears,
strawberries,
oranges,
bananas,
grapes,
canary melons,
watermelon,
cantaloupe,
pineapple and
mango.
47.
Deep frying
–
Deep frying is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat, most commonly oil, rather than the shallow oil used in conventional frying, done in a frying pan. Normally, a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this, industrially, Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot. Deep frying is classified as hot-fat cooking method, typically, deep frying cooks foods quickly, all sides of a food are cooked simultaneously as oil has a high rate of heat conduction. The term deep frying and many modern deep-fried foods were not invented until the 19th century, early records and cookbooks suggest that the practice began in a few European and Arabian countries before other countries adopted the practice. Deep frying is popular worldwide, with deep-fried foods accounting for a portion of global caloric consumption. Although the nouns deep-fried, deep-frying, and the verb deep-fry were not documented until 1916,1932, and 1933, one of the earliest known practices of deep frying came from the Egyptians in the 5th millennium BCE. Later developments included the Greeks deep frying food in oil in the 5th century BCE. In the 1st century CE, a Roman cookbook, Apicius, appears to list the ancient Romans first use of deep frying to prepare Pullum Frontonianum, the practice of deep frying spread to other parts of Europe and Arabia in the following centuries. Deep-fried foods such as funnel cakes arrived in northern Europe by the 13th century, falafel arrived in the Middle East from population migrations from Egypt as soon as the 14th century. The deep frying of food in Japan was likely introduced by Portuguese the 16th century, evidence of potato frying can be found as early as the late 17th century in Europe. Modern deep frying began in the 19th century with the popularity of cast iron. French fries, invented in the late 18th century, became popular in the early 19th century western Europe, doughnuts were invented in the mid-19th century, with foods such as onion rings, deep-fried turkey, and corn dogs all being invented in the early 20th century. In recent years, the growth of fast food has expanded the reach of deep-fried foods, Deep frying food is defined as a process where food is completely submerged in hot oil at temperatures typically between 350 °F and 375 °F. One common method for preparing food for deep frying involves adding multiple layers of batter around the food, such as cornmeal, flour, or tempura, breadcrumbs may also be used. After the food is submerged in oil, the surface of it begins to dehydrate and it undergoes Maillard reactions which break down sugars and proteins, once the surface is dehydrated, it forms a crust which prevents further oil absorption. The heat conducts throughout the food causing proteins to denature, starches to undergo starch gelatinization, while most foods need batter coatings for protection, it is not as necessary for cooked noodles and potatoes because their high starch content enables them to hold more moisture and resist shrinking. Meats may be cooked before deep frying to ensure that they are done inside while keeping juiciness, when performed properly, deep frying does not make food excessively greasy, because the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, steaming it, as long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long, oil penetration will be confined to the outer surface
Deep frying
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Czech bramboráček bread being deep fried
Deep frying
–
A close-up view of
kaassoufflés cooking in a deep fryer
Deep frying
–
Peixinhos da horta, the Portuguese ancestor of Japanese
tempura
Deep frying
–
Smultring being deep-fried
48.
Oxidation
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
Oxidation
–
Rusting iron
Oxidation
–
Sodium and
fluorine bonding ionically to form
sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer
electron to give it a stable
electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom
exothermically. The oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each other. The sodium is oxidized, and the fluorine is reduced.
Oxidation
–
A
bonfire
Oxidation
–
Oxides, such as
iron(III) oxide or
rust, which consists of hydrated
iron(III) oxides Fe 2 O 3 · n H 2 O and
iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH) 3), form when oxygen combines with other elements
49.
Avocado oil
–
Avocado oil is an edible oil pressed from the fruit of the Persea americana. As a food oil, it is used as an ingredient in other dishes and it is also used for lubrication and in cosmetics, where it is valued for its supposed regenerative and moisturizing properties. It has a high smoke point, both unrefined and especially when refined. The smoke point of the form is 480 °F and the refined form can reach 520 °F. The exact smoke point depends heavily on the quality of refinement, Avocado oil functions well as a carrier oil for other flavors. It is high in monounsaturated fats and vitamin E. Avocado oil also enhances the absorption of carotenoids, Avocado oil was originally, and still is, extracted for cosmetic use because of its very high skin penetration and rapid absorption. Following drying of the flesh to remove as much water as possible. After extraction, the oil for application in skin care products is usually refined, bleached, like extra virgin olive oil, cold-pressed avocado oil is unrefined and so retains the flavor and color characteristics of the fruit flesh. Avocado oil is one of few edible oils not derived from seeds, extra virgin avocado oil from the Hass cultivar has a characteristic flavor, is high in monounsaturated fatty acids, and has a high smoke point, making it a good oil for frying. ‘Hass cold-pressed avocado oil is a brilliant emerald green when extracted, cold-pressed ‘Hass avocado oil has been described as having an avocado flavor, with grassy and butter/mushroom-like flavors. Other varieties may produce oils of different flavor profile as has been seen with ‘Fuerte. As a culinary oil, avocado oil compares well with olive oil and it has a similar monounsaturated fat profile which helps to protect the oil from breakdown during heating. Avocado oil is naturally low acidic, helping to increase smoke point, Avocado oil is relatively new to the culinary world and is often mislabeled in regard to smoke point. It is important to note that like all oils, the more refined, the following table provides information about the composition of avocado oil and how it compares with other vegetable oils
Avocado oil
–
Avocado oil.
50.
Mustard oil
–
The pungency of mustard oil is due to the presence of allyl isothiocyanate, an activator of the TRPA1 channel. This oil has a pungent taste, characteristic of all plants in the mustard family. It is often used for cooking in North India, Eastern India, Nepal, Bangladesh, in Bengal, Orissa, Assam and Nepal, it is the traditionally preferred oil for cooking. The oil makes up about 30% of the mustard seeds and it can be produced from black mustard, brown Indian mustard, and white mustard. The characteristic pungent flavour of mustard oil is due to allyl isothiocyanate, Mustard oil has about 60% monounsaturated fatty acids, it has about 21% polyunsaturated fats, and it has about 12% saturated fats. Mustard oil has high levels of both alpha-linolenic acid and erucic acid, based on studies done on laboratory animals in the early 1970s, erucic acid appears to have toxic effects on the heart at high enough doses. Mustard oil is not allowed to be imported or sold in the U. S. for use in cooking, two studies on health effects of mustard oil have been conducted in India, which had conflicting results. The use of oils in traditional societies for infant massage has been identified by one study as risking damaging skin integrity and permeability. Under these conditions, a reaction between the enzyme myrosinase and a glucosinolate known as sinigrin from the seeds of black mustard or brown Indian mustard produces allyl isothiocyanate. By distillation one can produce a very sharp-tasting essential oil, sometimes called volatile oil of mustard, the pungency of allyl isothiocyanate is due to the activation of the TRPA1 ion channel in sensory neurons. White mustard does not yield allyl isothiocyanate, but a different, allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a defense against herbivores. Since it is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the form of a glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme. Once the herbivore chews the plant, the allyl isothiocyanate is produced. Allyl isothiocyanate is also responsible for the pungent taste of horseradish and it can be produced synthetically, sometimes known as synthetic mustard oil. Because of the allyl isothiocyanate, this type of mustard oil is toxic and irritates the skin. In very small amounts, it is used by the food industry for flavoring. In northern Italy, for instance, it is used in the fruit condiment called mostarda and it is also used to repel cats and dogs. It will also denature alcohol, making it unfit for human consumption, the CAS number of this type of mustard oil is 8007-40-7, and the CAS number of pure allyl isothiocyanate is 57-06-7
Mustard oil
–
Mustard oil
Mustard oil
–
Ox-powered mill grinding mustard seed for oil
. PMID 25584098. doi:10.14740/jocmr2030w.
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