1.
Vegetable oil
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A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. For this reason, vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called vegetable fats, in contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable waxes lack glycerin in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel. Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, the oils serve a number of purposes in this role, Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture. Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less, flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. Flavor base – oils can also carry flavors of other ingredients, secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective must have a flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, the hydrogenation process involves sparging the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, the elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation, as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to change its physical characteristics, as the degree of saturation increases, the oils viscosity and melting point increase. The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, a margarine made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to a risk of mortality from coronary heart disease. In the US, the Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, products not labeled vegetable oil margarine do not have that restriction. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products, many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products
2.
Fruit anatomy
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Fruit anatomy is the internal structure of fruits. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers, in fleshy fruits, the outer layer is the pericarp, which is the tissue that develops from the ovary wall of the flower and surrounds the seeds. But in some seemingly pericarp fruits, the portion is not derived from the ovary. For example, in the fruit of the tree the edible portion is an aril. The outer covering of a seed is tough because the parent plant needs to protect the plant growing, some plants commonly called vegetables, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, and squash, are actually fruits. Fruits are found in three main categories, Simple fruits are formed from a single ovary and may contain one or many seeds. They can be fleshy or dry. Berries and drupes are examples of simple fleshy fruits, pomes are both accessory fruits and simple fruits. Aggregate fruits are formed from a compound flower and contain many ovaries. Multiple fruits are formed from the ovaries of multiple flowers. An example of a fruit is pineapple. In berries and drupes, the forms the edible tissue around the seeds. In other fruits such as Citrus stone fruits only some layers of the pericarp are eaten, in accessory fruits, other tissues develop into the edible portion of the fruit instead, for example the receptacle of the flower in strawberries. In a citrus fruit, the epicarp and mesocarp make up the peel, epicarp is a botanical term for the outermost layer of the pericarp. The epicarp forms the outer skin of the fruit, if there is one. The epicarp is sometimes called the exocarp, or, especially in Citrus, in citrus fruits, the flavedo constitutes the peripheral surface of the pericarp. When ripe, the cells contain carotenoids inside chromoplasts, which, in a previous developmental stage. This hormonally controlled progression in development is responsible for the change of color from green to yellow upon ripening
3.
Elaeis
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Elaeis is a genus of palms containing two species, called oil palms. They are used in agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African oil palm Elaeis guineensis is the source of palm oil, it is native to west and southwest Africa. The American oil palm Elaeis oleifera is native to tropical Central and South America, mature palms are single-stemmed, and can grow well over 20 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, and reach between 3–5 m long, the flowers are produced in dense clusters, each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals. The palm fruit is reddish, about the size of a large plum, each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy outer layer, with a single seed, also rich in oil. The two species, E. guineensis and E. oleifera can produce fertile hybrids, the genome of E. guineensis has been sequenced, which has important implications for breeding improved strains of the crop plants. Since palm oil contains more saturated fats than oils made from canola, corn, linseed, soybeans, safflower and it contains no trans fat, and its use in food has increased as food-labelling laws have changed to specify trans fat content. Oil from Elaeis guineensis is also used as biofuel, human use of oil palms may date back about 5,000 years in coastal west Africa. Palm oil was discovered in the late 19th century by archaeologists in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3000 BCE. It is thought that Arab traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Elaeis guineensis is now extensively cultivated in tropical countries outside Africa, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia which together produce most of the world supply. Especially in Indonesia, there is growing pressure for palm oil producers to prove that they are not harming rare animals in the cultivation process. Attalea maripa, another oil-producing palm Journal of Oil Palm Research Energy and the environment List of Arecaceae genera Social and environmental impact of palm oil
4.
Elaeis guineensis
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Elaeis guineensis is a species of palm commonly called African oil palm or macaw-fat. It is the source of palm oil. The species is now naturalised in Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Sumatra, Central America. The closely related American oil palm Elaeis oleifera and a more distantly related palm, Attalea maripa, are also used to produce palm oil. Human use of oil palms may date as far back as 5,000 years in West Africa, in the late 1800s and it is thought that Arab traders brought the oil palm to Egypt. The first western person to describe it and bring back seeds was the French naturalist Michel Adanson, mature palms are single-stemmed and grow to 20 m tall. The leaves are pinnate and reach between 3-5 m long, a young palm produces about 30 leaves a year. Established palms over 10 years produce about 20 leaves a year, the flowers are produced in dense clusters, each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals. The palm fruit takes five to six months to mature from pollination to maturity and it is reddish, about the size of a large plum, and grows in large bunches. Each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy outer layer, with a single seed, when ripe, each bunch of fruit weighs between 5–30 kg depending on the age of the palm tree. Kernel meal are processed for use as livestock feed, all modern, commercial planting material consists of tenera palms or DxP hybrids, which are obtained by crossing thickshelled dura with shell-less pisifera. Although common commercial germinated seed is as thick-shelled as the dura mother palm, an alternative to germinated seed, once constraints to mass production are overcome, are tissue-cultured or clonal palms, which provide true copies of high-yielding DxP palms. An oil palm nursery must have a supply of clean water. Approximately 35 ha can grow enough seedlings over a period to plant a 5. Prenursery seedlings must be watered daily, whenever rainfall is less than 10 mm per day, irrigation is required, and the system must be capable of uniformly applying 6.5 mm water per day. Prenursery seedlings in the stage of development are usually transplanted to the main nursery after their gradual adjustment to full sunlight. During culling, seedlings that have grassy, crinkled, twisted, weeds growing in the polybags must be carefully pulled out. Numerous insects and vertebrates are pests in oil palm nurseries and must be identified before control measures are implemented
5.
Attalea maripa
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Attalea maripa, commonly called maripa palm is a palm native to tropical South America and Trinidad and Tobago. It grows up 35 m tall and can have leaves or fronds 10–12 m long and this plant has a yellow edible fruit which is oblong ovoid and cream. An edible oil can be extracted from the pulp of the fruit, Attalea maripa is a large palm that grows from 3. 5–20 m tall. Stems range from 20–33 cm in diameter, occasionally reaching up to 100 cm, trees have 10 to 22 leaves with long petioles. Fruit are large and brown or yellow, 5–6.5 cm with 2 or 3 seeds which are 4–6 cm long and 2. 5–3 cm in diameter They are borne in infructescences which can contain several hundred to over 2000 fruit. The species was first described by French botanist Jean Baptiste Christophore Fusée Aublet in 1775 in his Histoire des plantes de la Guiane Francoise as Palma maripa, german botanist Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius transferred it to the genus Attalea in 1844. Hermann Wendland moved it to the genus Scheelea in 1878, while Carl Georg Oscar Drude moved it to Maximiliana, otto Kuntze moved it to the genus Englerophoenix in 1891. Orator F. Cook placed it in its own genus in 1940, recent work has favoured maintaining all Attaleinae in a single genus, Attalea. Attalea maripa ranges from Trinidad and Tobago in the north to Bolivia in the south and it is present in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. It is found in forests and disturbed areas, on soils that are not usually flooded. The fruit of A. maripa are consumed by a variety of mammals, on Maracá Island, Roraima, in the Brazilian Amazon, fruit were consumed by tapirs, collared peccaries, deer and primates. Rodents, including agoutis, fed upon the fruit and, as the fruit availability declined and they also cached seeds for later consumption. Most species consume the pulp and spit out intact seeds within a distance of the parent tree. Tapirs swallow the fruit and defaecate intact seeds further away from parent trees. Most of the seeds that were not removed from the vicinity of the parent trees were killed by larvae of the Bruchid beetle Pachymerus cardo. Beetle larvae killed 77% of seeds that were not dispersed away from the parent trees, in Trinidad, A. maripa is a characteristic species in the savannas that develop when forests are converted to grasslands through repeated fires. British forester J. S. Beard termed these savannas Cocorite Savannas, carbonised Attalea maripa seeds have been found in archaeological sites in Colombia dating back to 9000 BP. The Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador use the mesocarps for food and they use the petiole and leaf rachis to make blowgun darts and sleeping mats, the petioles for torches, the pinnae for kindling and the stems for firewood
6.
Beta-carotene
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β-Carotene is an organic, strongly colored red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits. It is a member of the carotenes, which are terpenoids, synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units, among the carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. β-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, β-Carotene is the most common form of carotene in plants. When used as a coloring, it has the E number E160a. The structure was deduced by Karrer et al. in 1930, in nature, β-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A via the action of beta-carotene 15, 15-monooxygenase. Isolation of β-carotene from fruits abundant in carotenoids is commonly done using column chromatography and it can also be extracted from the beta-carotene rich algae, Dunaliella salina. The separation of β-carotene from the mixture of other carotenoids is based on the polarity of a compound, β-Carotene is a non-polar compound, so it is separated with a non-polar solvent such as hexane. Being highly conjugated, it is colored, and as a hydrocarbon lacking functional groups. Plant carotenoids are the primary source of provitamin A worldwide. Carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the intestine and dependent on class B scavenger receptor membrane protein. One molecule of β-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme β, β-carotene 15, absorption efficiency is estimated to be between 9 and 22%. The absorption and conversion of carotenoids may depend on the form of β-carotene, the intake of fats and oils at the time. Symmetric cleavage with the enzyme β, β-carotene-15, 15-dioxygenase requires the antioxidant α-tocopherol and this symmetric cleavage gives two equivalent retinal molecules and each retinal molecule further reacts to give retinol and retinoic acid. β-Carotene is also cleaved into two products, the product is β-apocarotenal. Asymmetric cleavage reduces the level of retinoic acid significantly, RE was developed 1967 by the United Nations/World Health Organization Food and Agriculture Organization. Another older unit of vitamin A activity is the international unit, β-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. The color of β-carotene is masked by chlorophyll in green vegetables such as spinach, kale, sweet potato leaves. Vietnamese gac and crude oil have the highest content of β-carotene of any known plant sources,10 times higher than carrots
7.
Palm kernel oil
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Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis. It should not be confused with the two edible oils derived from palm fruits, palm oil, extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit. Palm kernel oil, palm oil, and coconut oil are three of the few highly saturated vegetable fats, these give the name to the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid that they contain. Palm kernel oil, which is semi-solid at room temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and it is commonly used in commercial cooking because of its relatively low cost, and because it remains stable at high cooking temperatures and can be stored longer than other vegetable oils. Oil from the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis has long recognized in West African countries. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use in Europe, sekhar was appointed founder and chairman. Porims scientists work in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition, porim was renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000. Palm kernel oil, similarly to coconut oil, is high in saturated fats and is more saturated than palm oil, Palm kernel oil is high in lauric acid which has been shown to raise blood cholesterol levels, both as LDL-C and HDL-C. Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty acids, Palm kernel oil is commonly used in commercial cooking because it is lower in cost than other oils and remains stable at high cooking temperatures. The oil can also be stored longer than other vegetable oils, the split-off fatty acids are a mixture ranging from C4 to C18, depending on the type of oil/fat. Resembling coconut oil, palm oil is packed with myristic and lauric fatty acids and therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing powders. Lauric acid is important in making, a good soap must contain at least 15 per cent laurate for quick lathering. Derivatives of palmitic acid were used in combination with naphtha during World War II to produce napalm
8.
Palm kernel
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The palm kernel is the edible seed of the oil palm fruit. The fruit yields two distinct oils, palm oil derived from the parts of the fruit, and palm kernel oil derived from the kernel. Palm kernel cake is most commonly produced by economical screw press, less frequently via a more expensive solvent processes, palm kernel cake is a high-fibre, medium-grade protein feed best suited to ruminants. Among other similar fodders, palm kernel cake is ranked a little higher than copra cake and cocoa pod husk, composed of 16% fiber, palm kernel cake also has a high phosphorus-to-calcium ratio and contains such essential elements such as magnesium, iron and zinc. The typical ration formulated for the feeding of dairy cattle consists of palm kernel cake, molasses, grass/hay, limestone, mineral premix and salt, palm kernel oil Tropical agriculture Environmental issues with agriculture Social and environmental impact of palm oil
9.
Coconut oil
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Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
10.
Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
11.
Carotenoid
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Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms, the only animals known to produce carotenoids are aphids and spider mites, which acquired the ability and genes from fungi. Carotenoids from the diet are stored in the fatty tissues of animals, there are over 600 known carotenoids, they are split into two classes, xanthophylls and carotenes. All are derivatives of tetraterpenes, meaning that they are produced from 8 isoprene molecules, in general, carotenoids absorb wavelengths ranging from 400-550 nanometers. This causes the compounds to be colored yellow, orange. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species, carotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae, they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis, and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage. Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings have vitamin A activity, CRT is the gene cluster responsible for the biosynthesis of carotenoids. Carotenoids belong to the category of tetraterpenoids, structurally, carotenoids take the form of a polyene hydrocarbon chain which is sometimes terminated by rings, and may or may not have additional oxygen atoms attached. Carotenoids with molecules containing oxygen, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, are known as xanthophylls, the unoxygenated carotenoids such as α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene, are known as carotenes. Carotenes typically contain only carbon and hydrogen, and are in the subclass of unsaturated hydrocarbons, probably the most well-known carotenoid is the one that gives this second group its name, carotene, found in carrots and are responsible for their bright orange color. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100 gram serving, vietnamese Gac fruit contains the highest known concentration of the carotenoid lycopene. Their color, ranging from yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly linked to their structure. Xanthophylls are often yellow, hence their class name, the double carbon-carbon bonds interact with each other in a process called conjugation, which allows electrons in the molecule to move freely across these areas of the molecule. As the number of conjugated double bonds increases, electrons associated with conjugated systems have more room to move and this causes the range of energies of light absorbed by the molecule to decrease. As more frequencies of light are absorbed from the end of the visible spectrum. Carotenoids are usually due to the presence of long unsaturated aliphatic chains as in some fatty acids. The physiological absorption of these fat-soluble vitamins in humans and other organisms depends directly on the presence of fats, carotenoids are a common and often ornamental feature in animals. For example, the color of flamingos and salmon
12.
Saturated fat
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A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
13.
Commodity
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In economics, a commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs. Economic commodities comprise goods and services, the word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, amenity, convenience. Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning suitability, convenience, the Latin word commodus meant variously appropriate, proper measure, time, or condition, and advantage, benefit. The term commodity is specifically used for a good or service when the demand for it has no qualitative differentiation across a market. In other words, a commodity good or service has full or partial but substantial fungibility, that is, the market treats its instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. As the saying goes, From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, petroleum and copper are other examples of such commodities, their supply and demand being a part of one universal market. Items such as systems, on the other hand, have many aspects of product differentiation, such as the brand, the user interface. The demand for one type of stereo may be larger than demand for another. In contrast, one of the characteristics of a commodity good is that its price is determined as a function of its market as a whole, well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets. Generally, these are basic resources and agricultural products such as ore, sugar. Soft commodities are goods that are grown, while hard commodities are ones that are extracted through mining, there is another important class of energy commodities which includes electricity, gas, coal and oil. Electricity has the characteristic that it is usually uneconomical to store, hence. Commoditization occurs as a goods or services market loses differentiation across its supply base, as such, goods that formerly carried premium margins for market participants have become commodities, such as generic pharmaceuticals and DRAM chips. Following this trend, nanomaterials are emerging from carrying premium profit margins for market participants to a status of commodification, there is a spectrum of commoditization, rather than a binary distinction of commodity versus differentiable product. Many products degree of commoditization depends on the mentality and means. For example, milk, eggs, and notebook paper are not differentiated by many customers, for them, other customers take into consideration other factors besides price, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare. This is a list of companies trading globally in commodities, descending by size as of October 28,2011, on a commodity exchange, it is the underlying standard stated in the contract that defines the commodity, not any quality inherent in a specific producers product. Commodities exchanges include, Bourse Africa Bursa Malaysia Derivatives Chicago Board of Trade Chicago Mercantile Exchange Dalian Commodity Exchange Euronext and these markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find an equilibrium price and quantity
14.
Monoculture
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Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop, plant, or livestock species, variety, or breed in a field or farming system at a time. Polyculture, where more than one crop is grown in the space at the same time, is the alternative to monoculture. Monoculture is widely used in both farming and organic farming and has allowed increased efficiency in planting and harvest. The practice has been criticized for its effects and for putting the food supply chain at risk. Diversity can be added both in time, as with a rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture. Oligoculture has been suggested to describe a crop rotation of just a few crops, the term monoculture is frequently applied for other uses to describe any group dominated by a single variety, e. g. The term is used in agriculture and describes the practice of planting the same cultivar over an extended area, each cultivar has the same standardized planting, maintenance and harvesting requirements resulting in greater yields and lower costs. It also is beneficial because a crop can be tailor-planted for a location that has special problems – like soil salt or drought or a growing season. When a crop is matched to its environment, a monoculture can produce higher yields than a polyculture. In the last 40 years, modern practices such as monoculture planting, however, planting the same crop in the same place each year depletes the nutrients from the earth that the plant relies on and leaves soil weak and unable to support healthy plant growth. Because soil structure and quality is so poor, farmers are forced to use chemical fertilizers to encourage plant growth and these fertilizers, in turn, disrupt the natural makeup of the soil and contribute further to nutrient depletion. Monocropping also creates the spread of pests and diseases, which have to be treated with yet more chemicals, the effects of monocropping on the environment are severe when pesticides and fertilizers make their way into ground water or become airborne, creating pollution. In forestry, monoculture refers to the planting of one species of tree, monoculture plantings provide great yields and more efficient harvesting than natural stands of trees. Single-species stands of trees are often the natural way trees grow, the mechanical harvesting of trees can compact soils, which can adversely affect understory growth. Single-species planting of trees also are more vulnerable when infected with a pathogen, or are attacked by insects, examples of monoculture include lawns and most field cs wheat or corn. The term is used where a single breed of farm animal is raised in large-scale concentrated animal feeding operations. Crops used in agriculture are usually single strains that have bred for high yield. Since all plants in a monoculture are genetically similar, if a disease strikes to which they have no resistance, polyculture, which is the mixing of different crops, reduces the likelihood that one or more of the crops will be resistant to any particular pathogen
15.
Orangutan
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The orangutans are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes. Native to Indonesia and Malaysia, orangutans are found in only the rainforests of Borneo. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were considered to be one species, since 1996, they have been divided into two species, the Bornean orangutan and the Sumatran orangutan. In addition, the Bornean species is divided three subspecies. Based on genome sequencing, the two extant orangutan species evidently diverged around 400,000 years ago, the ancestors of the Ponginae subfamily split from the main ape line in Africa 16 to 19 million years ago and spread into Asia. Orangutans are the most arboreal of the apes and spend most of their time in trees. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typical of chimpanzees, males and females differ in size and appearance. Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females, younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the apes, with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring, who stay together for the first two years. Fruit is the most important component of a diet, however. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity, orangutans are among the most intelligent primates, they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations, field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birutė Galdikas. Both orangutan species are considered to be critically endangered, human activities have caused severe declines in the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild populations include poaching, habitat destruction. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild, the name orangutan is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words orang meaning person and hutan meaning forest, thus person of the forest. Orang Hutan was originally not used to refer to apes, the Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape are maias and mawas, but it is unclear if those words refer to just orangutans, or to all apes in general. The word appeared in several German-language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century, the likely origin of the word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay
16.
Sumatran orangutan
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The Sumatran orangutan is one of the two species of orangutans. Found only on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan and its common name is based on two separate local words, orang and hutan, and translates as man of the forest. Male Sumatran orangutans grow to about 1.4 m tall and 90 kg, females are smaller, averaging 90 cm and 45 kg. Compared to the Bornean species, Sumatran orangutans are thinner and have longer faces, compared with the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan tends to be more frugivorous and especially insectivorous. Preferred fruits include figs and jackfruits and it will also eat bird eggs and small vertebrates. Sumatran orangutans spend far less time feeding on the bark of trees. Wild Sumatran orangutans in the Suaq Balimbing swamp have been observed using tools, an orangutan will break off a tree branch that is about a foot long, snap off the twigs and fray one end. With its teeth, the orangutan will use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites and they will also use the stick to poke a bees nest wall, move it around and catch the honey. In addition, orangutans use tools to eat fruit, when the fruit of the Neesia tree ripens, its hard, ridged husk softens until it falls open. Inside are seeds that the orangutans enjoy eating, but they are surrounded by fiberglass-like hairs that are painful if eaten, tools are created differently for different uses. Sticks are often made longer or shorter depending on whether they will be used for insects or fruits, if a particular tool proves useful, the orangutan will often save it. Over time they will collect entire toolboxes, a Neesia-eating orangutan will select a five-inch stick, strip off its bark, and then carefully collect the hairs with it. Once the fruit is safe, the ape will eat the seeds using the stick or its fingers, although similar swamps can be found in Borneo, wild Bornean orangutans have not been seen using these types of tools. NHNZ filmed the Sumatran orangutan for its show Wild Asia, In the Realm of the Red Ape, it showed one of them using a simple tool, there is also a sequence of an animal using a large leaf as an umbrella in a tropical rainstorm. As well as being used as tools, tree branches are a means of transportation for the Sumatran orangutan, the orangutans are the heaviest mammals to travel by tree. This makes them susceptible to the changes in arboreal compliance. To deal with this their locomotion is characterized by the movement, long contact times. The Sumatran orangutan is more arboreal than its Bornean cousin
17.
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil
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The seat of the association is in Zurich, Switzerland, while the secretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur with a satellite office in Jakarta. RSPO claims more than 3,082 member organizations, RSPO is inspired by the idea of the roundtable in which all members have equal rights. There are different types of membership with different membership fees, Ordinary Member, Ordinary Member, Affiliate Member, Affiliate Members and Supply Chain Associates do not have voting rights in the General Assembly but Ordinary Members, and Ordinary Members who qualify as small growers do. The organization holds a meeting to bring together the various stakeholders to negotiate. The RSPO has been criticised by various sectors, especially the environmental NGOs, the fact that RSPO members are allowed to clear cut pristine forest areas, when there are large areas of Imperata grasslands available in Indonesia raises doubts about commitment to sustainability. A2013 study uncovered flagrant disregard for human rights at some of the plantations the RSPO certifies as sustainable. Non-governmental organisations interested in the issue of oil production and the destruction of rainforest are divided about the RSPO. FOEI are extremely critical of the RSPO, moreover, it provides certification without having to actually address some of the most very basic, structural issues that gave rise to the adverse impacts of oil palm cultivation. Greenpeace is both a supporter and a critic of the RSPO, what were seeing here is the worlds largest buyer of palm oil using its financial muscle to sanction suppliers who are destroying rainforests and clearing peat lands. This has set a new standard for others to follow, but Greenpeace UKs website states, Industry efforts to bring this deforestation under control have come through the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil. Together, these companies represent 40 per cent of palm oil trade. But since then forest destruction has continued, many RSPO members are taking no steps to avoid the worst practices associated with the industry, such as large-scale forest clearance and taking land from local people without their consent. On top of this, the RSPO actually risks creating the illusion of sustainable palm oil, Unilever and Greenpeace also announced that they would work together to lobby for a moratorium on deforestation for palm oil. Unilever is currently purchasing GreenPalm certificates and aims to buy all of their palm oil from certified sustainable sources by 2015. Although Unilever uses more than a million tonnes of oil per year. PT SMART, the palm oil supplier that was working with Unilever, the cancelled contract apparently affected only three percent of their total production. PT SMART is a member of the RSPO, the RAN has a position of qualified support for the RSPO system. They say Malaysia has cars and big cities because of oil palm, but it is not oil palm, it is from other things, like our oil and our logging
18.
Government of Malaysia
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The Government of Malaysia refers to the Federal Government or national government authority based in the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and the federal executive based in Putrajaya. Malaysia is a federation of 13 states operating within a constitutional monarchy under the Westminster parliamentary system and is categorised as a representative democracy, the federal government of Malaysia adheres to and is created by the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the supreme law of the land. The federal government adopts the principle of separation of powers under Article 127 of the Federal Constitution, the state governments in Malaysia also have their respective executive and legislative bodies. The judicial system in Malaysia is a court system operating uniformly throughout the country. The federal or central government is the authority in Malaysia having its base in Putrajaya. It is headed by the Prime Minister of Malaysia who is known as the head of government. The bicameral parliament consists of the house, the House of Representatives or Dewan Rakyat and the upper house. All seventy Senate members sit for three-year terms, twenty-six are elected by the thirteen state assemblies, the 222 members of the Dewan Rakyat are elected from single-member districts by universal adult suffrage. The parliament follows a multi-party system and the body is elected through a first-past-the-post system. Parliament has a mandate of five years by law. The king may dissolve parliament at any time and usually does so upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of Parliament and is responsible to that body. The Executive branch of the government consists of the Prime Minister as the head of the government, followed by the various ministers of the Cabinet. The highest court in the system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal. The subordinate courts in each of these jurisdictions include Sessions Courts, Magistrates Courts, Malaysia also has a Special Court to hear cases brought by or against all Royalty. The Prime Minister of Malaysia is the elected head of government of Malaysia. He heads the Cabinet, whose members are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong advice of the prime minister, the Prime Minister and his Cabinet shall be collectively responsible to Parliament. The Prime Ministers Department is the body and ministry in which the Prime Minister exercises its functions, each state governments in Malaysia is created by the respective state constitutions. Each state has a state legislative chamber whose members are elected from single-member constituencies
19.
Deutsche Welle
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Deutsche Welle or DW is Germanys public international broadcaster. The service is available in 30 languages, DWs satellite television service consists of channels in English, German, Spanish, and Arabic. DW also offers regularly updated articles on its news website and runs its own center for international media development. The broadcasters stated goals are to convey Germany as a liberal, democratic state based on the rule of law, to produce reliable news coverage, Deutsche Welle has been broadcasting since 1953. It is headquartered in Bonn, where its programmes are produced. Television broadcasts are produced almost entirely in Berlin, the responsibility for DWs news website is shared between the two locations. Around 3,000 people work for Deutsche Welle in over 60 countries, according to DW, its output reaches 100 million people worldwide every week. The broadcasters director general is Peter Limbourg, Deutsche Welles first shortwave broadcast took place on 3 May 1953 with an address by the then West German President, Theodor Heuss. On 11 June 1953, the broadcasters in the ARD signed an agreement to share responsibility for Deutsche Welle. At first, it was controlled by Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, in 1955, when this split into the separate Norddeutscher Rundfunk and Westdeutscher Rundfunk, which assumed responsibility for Deutsche Welle programming. In 1960, Deutsche Welle became an independent public body after a court ruled that broadcasting from Germany was part of the federal governments foreign-affairs function, on 7 June 1962 DW joined ARD as a national broadcasting station. With German reunification in 1990, Radio Berlin International of East Germany ceased to exist, some of the staff of RBI joined Deutsche Welle and it inherited some broadcasting apparatus, including the transmitting facilities at Nauen, as well as RBIs frequencies. DW began as RIAS-TV, a television station launched by the West Berlin broadcaster RIAS in August 1988, the fall of the Berlin Wall the following year and German reunification in 1990 meant that RIAS-TV was to be closed down. In 1995, it began 24-hour operation, at that time, DW introduced a new news studio and a new logo. In addition to radio and television programming, DW sponsored some published material, for example, the South-Asia Department published German Heritage, A Series Written for the South Asia Programme in 1967 and in 1984 published African Writers on the Air. Both publications were transcripts of DW programming, in September 1994, Deutsche Welle was the first public broadcaster in Germany with a World Wide Web presence, initially www-dw. gmd. de, hosted by the GMD Information Technology Research Center. Around 1998, it evolved into a website under the URL dwelle. de, in 2001, the URL later changed to www. dw-world. de. Deutsche Welle purchased the dw. com URL, which belonged to DiamondWare, in 2013, DW had attempted to claim ownership of the address in 2000
20.
Milk substitute
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A milk substitute is a liquid meant to replace the milk from a mammal. It is a liquid that contains similar amounts of proteins, fats. A milk substitute can replace dairy milk in tea, coffee and this overlaps with, but is distinct from, plant milk, which is used by those who want to avoid animal products for health or ethical reasons, including vegans, or because of taste preference. Some milk substitutes are marketed to consumers as healthier than cows milk, because they may be lower in saturated fat and, if they are free of animal products. When milk substitutes are lacking in vitamins or dietary minerals present in dairy milk, therefore, any milk substitute is usually required to meet such standards. Dairy milk is required by the government to contain a certain amount of vitamins A and D. Unlike dairy milk, fortification of vitamins in milk substitutes are not required by federal law. Substitution products for milk were created due to consumer demand, soy milk is possibly one of the most popular non-dairy milk products on the shelf. It is made from soybeans and it contains about the amount of protein as dairy milk. Almond milk is produced from almonds by grinding both almonds and water then straining the pulp from the liquid and this procedure can be done at home. Almond milk doesnt contain high amounts of saturated fat or calories, rice milk is mostly used for baking because of its especially sweet taste, but in case of a nut or soy allergy a grain milk processed from rice may be preferable. When fortified, this milk can be a source of calcium, vitamin B12, hemp milk is made by grinding hemp seeds and water, which are then strained to yield a nutty creamy flavored milk. Hemp milk is rich in protein and amino acids. Coconut milk is made by mixing water with the freshly grated white inside pulp of a ripe coconut and it is also a source of calcium and vitamin D. Yeast-derived milk products. A fermentation process is used to create whey and casein proteins—identical to those found in milk—using yeast and this is then combined with plant-based sugars, fats, and minerals to reproduce the milk, which can then be used like regular milk, including cheesemaking. Since the sugar used to produce the product is not animal-based it is often lactose free, Whey protein is commonly taken to supplement resistance exercise and help build lean tissue mass. Whey protein supplementation along with resistance exercise can help improve muscle protein synthesis, Whey protein is a complete protein and contains all 9 essential amino acids and is low in lactose content. Seniors, diabetics, athletes, bodybuilders, people who are on restricted diets can all benefit from the increasing whey intake, Health benefits from taking whey includes weight loss, lower cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease
21.
Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
22.
Abydos, Egypt
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Abydos /əˈbaɪdɒs/ is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about 11 kilometres west of the Nile at latitude 26°10 N, in the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called Abdju. The English name Abydos comes from the Greek Ἄβυδος, a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the city of Abydos on the Hellespont. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in times it became desirable to be buried in the area. Today, Abydos is notable for the temple of Seti I. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti Is father, the Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost. Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple, the temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. The pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty and it was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well, funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great forts, were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty, the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, Pepi I constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult, during the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentius name became an epithet of Osiris, King Mentuhotep II was the first one building a royal chapel. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III, associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple and a small town known as Wah-Sut, that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to that cenotaph were buried kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, the building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area, thutmose III built a far larger temple, about 130 ft ×200 ft. He also made a way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond
23.
Cooking oil
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Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as oil, palm oil. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic, a guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean, peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, the consumption of trans fats increases ones risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of bad LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of good HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils, several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration, the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, heating an oil changes its characteristics. Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, in a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil. Rancidity tests have shown that the life of walnut oil is about 3 months. Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point, experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples, smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, the cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or having on hand the proper fire extinguisher
24.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
25.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
26.
Lever Brothers
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Lever Brothers was a British manufacturing company founded in 1885 by brothers William Hesketh Lever and James Darcy Lever. They invested in and successfully promoted a new soap-making process invented by chemist William Hough Watson, in 1930, Lever Brothers merged with Margarine Unie to form Unilever. Starting with a grocery business begun by his father, William Lever. The brothers teamed up with a Bolton chemist, William Hough Watson, Watson invented the process which resulted in a new soap, using glycerin and vegetable oils such as palm oil, rather than tallow. The resulting soap was a good, free-lathering soap, at first named Honey Soap then later named Sunlight Soap, production reached 450 tons per week by 1888. Larger premises were built on marshes at Bromborough Pool on the Wirral Peninsula at what became Port Sunlight, though the company was named Lever Brothers, William Levers brother and co-director James never took a major part in running the business. He fell ill in 1895, probably as a result of diabetes, Lever Brothers was one of several British companies that took an interest in the welfare of its employees. By 1900 Lifebuoy, Lux and Vim brands had been added and subsidiaries had set up in the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Germany. By 1911 the company had its own oil palm plantations in Belgian Congo, Lever Brothers Ltd also acquired other soap companies including A&F Pears, Gossages of Widnes, Watsons of Leeds, Crosfields of Warrington, Hazlehurst & Sons of Runcorn and Hudsons of Liverpool. The town Leverville was founded in the Bandundu district, named after William Lever, Lever Brothers rode the cresting late-Victorian consumer revolution to build a vast worldwide industrial empire. Four years after William Levers death in 1925, his enterprises were amalgamated as Unilever, by 1930, it employed 250,000 people and in terms of market value, was the largest company in Britain. The company grew and operated until 1930, when it merged with a Dutch margarine company, Margarine Unie, to form Unilever, as part of the agreement, Lever Brothers changed its name to Unilever plc, and forms the British half of the dual-listed company. Although the two companies have separate shareholders and stock exchange listings, they have a board of directors. The Lever Brothers name was kept for a time as an imprint, as well as the name of the US subsidiary, Lever Brothers Company, Lever Brothers was sold to a US capital firm Pensler Capital Corporation and renamed Korex in 2008. Korex Don Valley assumed operations of the Lever Brothers Toronto plant and it has since closed and gone bankrupt. The Toronto plant is now being redeveloped into an office and industrial district by First Gulf Corporation, among its presidents was Charles Luckman who in the 1950s championed the construction of the Lever House in New York City. Breeze detergent Lever & Kitchen Lever Brothers Factory originally located in Balmain, New South Wales, Australia Port Sunlight
27.
Unilever
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Unilever is a Dutch-British transnational consumer goods company co-headquartered in Rotterdam, Netherlands and London, United Kingdom. Its products include food, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products and it is the worlds largest consumer goods company measured by 2012 revenue. Unilever is the worlds largest producer of food spreads, such as margarine, Unilever is one of the oldest multinational companies, its products are available in around 190 countries. It is a company consisting of Unilever N. V. based in Rotterdam. The two companies operate as a business, with a common board of directors. Unilever is organised into four main divisions – Foods, Refreshment, Home Care and it has research and development facilities in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, China, India and the United States. Unilever was founded in 1930 by the merger of the Dutch margarine producer Margarine Unie, during the second half of the 20th century the company increasingly diversified from being a maker of products made of oils and fats, and expanded its operations worldwide. It has made numerous acquisitions, including Lipton, Brooke Bond, Chesebrough-Ponds, Best Foods, Ben & Jerrys, Alberto-Culver. Unilever divested its speciality chemicals businesses to ICI in 1997, in 2015, under leadership of Paul Polman, the company gradually shifted its focus towards health and beauty brands and away from food brands showing slow growth. Unilever N. V. has a listing on Euronext Amsterdam and is a constituent of the AEX index. Unilever plc has a listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. The company is also a lux of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, in 1872, Anton Jurgens, founded the first margarine factory in the world in Oss, Netherlands. Then, in 1888, Samuel van den Bergh, also from Oss and these two companies merged in 1927 to form Margarine Unie. The initial harvesting of palm oil was from British West Africa, in 1911, the company received a concession for 750,000 hectares of forest in Belgian Congo, mostly south of Bandundu, where a system of forced labour operated. In 1922 Lever Brothers acquired Mac Fisheries, owner of T, the merger made sound commercial sense, as palm oil was a major raw material for both margarines and soaps, and could be imported more efficiently in larger quantities. In the 1930s business grew and new ventures were launched in Africa, the Nazi occupation of Europe during the Second World War meant that Unilever was unable to reinvest its capital into Europe, so it instead acquired new businesses in the UK and the US. In 1943 it acquired T. J. Lipton, a majority stake in Frosted Foods and Batchelors Peas, after 1945 Unilevers once successful US businesses began to decline. As a result, Unilever began to operate a hands off policy towards the subsidiaries, sunsilk was first launched in the UK in 1954
28.
Sunlight (cleaning product)
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Sunlight is a brand of household soap introduced by the British company Lever Brothers in 1884. It was the worlds first packaged, branded laundry soap, designed for washing clothes and general household use, the success of the product led to the name for the companys village for its workers, Port Sunlight. The soap formula was invented by a Bolton chemist named William Hough Watson, Watsons process created a new soap, using glycerin and vegetable oils such as palm oil rather than tallow. William Lever and his brother James Darcy Lever invested in Watsons soap invention and its success came from offering bars of cut, wrapped. Prior to this, commercially made soap was bought in long bars, Sunlight was eventually supplanted by modern products made from synthetically produced detergents rather than naturally derived soaps. In 1971, the company rebranded its Sunlight washing-up liquid in the UK, the new packaging for Sunlight Lemon Liquid had a large picture of a lemon, and only featured the words washing up liquid in small letters. There were complaints that children might mistake the product for lemon squash, the matter was discussed in the House of Lords. The company responded by changing its packaging, in several markets Sunlight soap has survived as a personal wash product rather than a laundry detergent. Sunlight is still used in markets as a brand by Unilever. In Sri Lanka, Sunlight laundry soap has a share of more than 75%. In South Africa, the brand is used for soap, dishwashing liquid, washing powder. The brand was used in the Philippines during the 1990s as detergents. It was discontinued until it was revived in 2015 as a liquid dish-washing detergent traded alongside the Surf line, however, production for Ireland and the UK ceased in 2009 due to low demand, it is available only as an import. In Norway it was taken over by Lilleborg in 1930, in 2003 exclusive licensing rights to the Sunlight brand of dish-washing detergents in Canada, Puerto Rico and the USA were sold to Lehman Brothers bankers, who set up Phoenix Brands for the purpose. The Sunlight brand is now used by JohnsonDiversey in Canada and the USA, in Canada, it remains a leading brand of dish soap. In early 2010 Sun Products acquired the U. S. in Australia, it is a brand of Symex, who manufacture, distribute and export Sunlight bar soap and Sunlight dishwashing liquid. In Turkey in the summer of 2010, washing-up liquids produced under the brand Cif started to be marketed with the new compound brand Sunlight Cif, ivory soap Sunlight brand on official Unilever website SunlightSoap. co. uk
29.
Palmolive (brand)
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Palmolive is the trademark of a line of products produced by Colgate-Palmolive Company. It was introduced in 1898 and is sold in various countries and it includes shampoo, conditioner, soap, body wash and hand-wash liquid. In North America, the line of products include a dishwashing liquid. Palmolive is the brand of the company, after Colgate toothpaste. Established in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1898, the B. J. Johnson Company started making a soap entirely of palm oil and olive oil, around the start of the 20th century, Palmolive was the worlds best-selling soap. In 1953, the became known as the Colgate-Palmolive Company. From 1990 to 1995, a logo of Palmolive was adopted. From 1995 to 2016, another Palmolive logo was adopted and has replaced with a new scheme in 2016. Official US website Official UK/European website
30.
Cocoa bean
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The beans are the basis of chocolate, and of such Mesoamerican foods as mole and tejate. The word cocoa comes from the Spanish word cacao, which is derived from the Nahuatl word cacahuatl, the Nahuatl word, in turn, ultimately derives from the reconstructed Proto Mije-Sokean word *kakaw~*kakawa. It originated in Central America and parts of Mexico, more than 5,000 years ago, it was consumed by pre-Columbian cultures along the Yucatán, including the Mayans, and as far back as Olmeca civilization in spiritual ceremonies. It also grows in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America and its range may have been larger in the past, evidence of its wild range may be obscured by cultivation of the tree in these areas since long before the Spanish arrived. The cocoa bean was a currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest. Cacao trees grow in a geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom. Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No fewer than 60 portions each day reportedly may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid-17th century. They also introduced the tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was also introduced into the rest of Asia and into West Africa by Europeans, in the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by an African, Tetteh Quarshie. Due to heat buildup in the process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color. This skin is released easily after roasting by winnowing, white seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value. The three main varieties of plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 80-90% of the production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy, Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela, Trinitario is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties
31.
Fatty acid
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In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
32.
Ester
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In chemistry, esters are chemical compounds derived from an acid in which at least one –OH group is replaced by an –O–alkyl group. Usually, esters are derived from an acid and an alcohol. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the classes of lipids. Esters with low weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules, nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. The word ester was coined in 1848 by German chemist Leopold Gmelin, probably as a contraction of the German Essigäther, ester names are derived from the parent alcohol and the parent acid, where the latter may be organic or inorganic. Esters derived from more complex carboxylic acids are, on the hand, more frequently named using the systematic IUPAC name. For example, the ester hexyl octanoate, also known under the trivial name hexyl caprylate, has the formula CH36CO25CH3, the chemical formulas of organic esters usually take the form RCO2R′, where R and R′ are the hydrocarbon parts of the carboxylic acid and the alcohol, respectively. For example, butyl acetate, derived from butanol and acetic acid would be written CH3CO2C4H9, alternative presentations are common including BuOAc and CH3COOC4H9. Cyclic esters are called lactones, regardless of whether they are derived from an organic or an inorganic acid, one example of a lactone is γ-valerolactone. An uncommon class of organic esters are the orthoesters, which have the formula RC3, triethylorthoformate is derived, in terms of its name from orthoformic acid and ethanol. Esters can also be derived from an acid and an alcohol. For example, triphenyl phosphate is the derived from phosphoric acid. Organic carbonates are derived from acid, for example, ethylene carbonate is derived from carbonic acid. So far an alcohol and inorganic acid are linked via oxygen atoms, in corollary, boron features borinic esters, boronic esters, and borates. As oxygen is a group 16 chemical element, sulfur atoms can replace some oxygen atoms in carbon–oxygen–central inorganic atom covalent bonds of an ester, esters contain a carbonyl center, which gives rise to 120 ° C–C–O and O–C–O angles. Unlike amides, esters are structurally flexible functional groups because rotation about the C–O–C bonds has a low barrier and their flexibility and low polarity is manifested in their physical properties, they tend to be less rigid and more volatile than the corresponding amides. The pKa of the alpha-hydrogens on esters is around 25, the preference for the Z conformation is influenced by the nature of the substituents and solvent, if present
33.
Glycerol
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Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
34.
Palmitic acid
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Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is the most common saturated fatty acid found in animals, plants and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms. Palmitic acid can also be found in meats, cheeses, butter, palmitate is a term for the salts and esters of palmitic acid. The palmitate anion is the form of palmitic acid at physiologic pH. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm, the word napalm is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid. Palmitic acid was discovered by Edmond Frémy in 1840, in saponified palm oil, Palmitic acid is naturally produced by a wide range of other plants and organisms, typically at low levels. It is naturally present in butter, cheese, milk, and meat, as well as butter, soybean oil. The cetyl ester of palmitic acid occurs in spermaceti, excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids, as a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one found it to make up 21–30% of human depot fat, and it is a major. In biology, some proteins are modified by the addition of a group in a process known as palmitoylation. Palmitoylation is important for membrane localisation of many proteins, Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mold release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree, is treated with sodium hydroxide and this procedure affords glycerol and sodium palmitate. Because it is inexpensive and adds texture and mouth feel to processed foods, palmitic acid, sodium palmitate is permitted as a natural additive in organic products. The aluminium salt is used as an agent of napalm used in military actions. Hydrogenation of palmitic acid yields cetyl alcohol, which is used to produce detergents, the underlying method of drug delivery is similar to that used with decanoic acid to deliver long-acting depot medication, in particular, neuroleptics such as haloperidol decanoate. Retinyl palmitate is an antioxidant and a source of vitamin A added to low fat milk to replace the vitamin content lost through the removal of milk fat, palmitate is attached to the alcohol form of vitamin A, retinol, to make vitamin A stable in milk
35.
Oleic acid
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Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish, in chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18,1 cis-9. The term oleic means related to, or derived from, olive oil which is composed of oleic acid. The corresponding stereoisomer trans-9-Octadecenoic acid is called Elaidic acid and these isomers have distinct physical properties and biochemical properties. Elaidic acid, the most abundant trans fatty acid in diet, fatty acids do not often occur as such in biological systems. Instead fatty acids oleic acid occur as their esters, commonly triglycerides. Fatty acids can be obtained via the process of saponification, triglycerides of oleic acid compose the majority of olive oil, although there may be less than 2. 0% as free acid in virgin olive oil, with higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible. It is abundantly present in animal fats, constituting 37 to 56% of chicken. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in adipose tissue. Oleic acid is emitted by the corpses of a number of insects, including bees and Pogonomyrmex ants. If a live bee or ant is daubed with oleic acid, the oleic acid smell also may indicate danger to living insects, prompting them to avoid others who have succumbed to disease or places where predators lurk. The biosynthesis of oleic acid involves the action of the enzyme stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase acting on stearoyl-CoA, in effect, stearic acid is dehydrogenated to give the monounsaturated derivative oleic acid. Oleic acid undergoes the reactions of acids and alkenes. It is soluble in aqueous base to give soaps called oleates, iodine adds across the double bond. Hydrogenation of the double bond yields the saturated derivative stearic acid, oxidation at the double bond occurs slowly in air, and is known as rancidification in foodstuffs or drying in coatings. Reduction of the acid group yields oleyl alcohol. Ozonolysis of oleic acid is an important route to azelaic acid, the coproduct is nonanoic acid, H17C8CH=CHC7H14CO2H + 4O → H17C8CO2H + HO2CC7H14CO2H Esters of azelaic acid find applications in lubrication and plasticizers. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid, a naturally occurring isomer of oleic acid is petroselinic acid
36.
Tocotrienol
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Tocotrienols are members of the vitamin E family. They can be used as a food additive as well as a substitute for Vitamin E as defined by E-307, the vitamin E family are essential dietary components as the body can not synthesise sufficient itself. The body contains four tocotrienols and four tocopherols, the other two corresponding centers in the phytyl tail of the corresponding tocopherols do not exist due to tocotrienols unsaturation at these sites. Tocotrienols extracted from natural sources always consist of the dextrorotatory enantiomers only and these naturally occurring, dextrorotatory stereoisomers are generally abbreviated as the d- forms, for example, d-tocotrienol or d-alpha-tocotrienol. In theory, the unnatural l-tocotrienol forms of tocotrienols could exist as well, in practice, however, tocotrienols are only produced in the d-form i. e. from natural sources. High levels of up to 70% occur in palm oil and this vitamin E analogue typically only occurs at very low levels in the human body but different isomers function well as a physical antioxidant. Chemically, different analogues of vitamin E all show some activity as a chemical antioxidant, alpha-Tocopherol is the form of vitamin E that has the highest biological activity and is preferentially absorbed and accumulated in humans. Its acetate esters are hydrolyzed by enzymes and hence are highly bioavailable. Like tocopherols, individual tocotrienol isomers demonstrate different bioavailability and efficacy depending on the type of antioxidant performance being measured and this process inactivates the free radical by donating a single unpaired electron to the radical. Thus, one function of the soluble vitamin E analogues in the body is that they protect membrane structures in cells and organelles. Historically studies of tocotrienols account for less than 1% of all research into vitamin E. much of which has focused on alpha-tocopherol. The first-ever scientific compilation of research, Tocotrienols, Vitamin E Beyond Tocopherols, was published in 2008 by CRC and AOCS Press. The discovery of tocotrienols was first reported by Pennock and Whittle in 1964, during the 1990s, the anti-cancer properties of tocopherols and tocotrienols began to be delineated. The current commercial sources of tocotrienol are rice, palm, the ratios of tocopherol-to-tocotrienol extracted from rice, palm, and annatto sources are 50,50,25,75, and 0.1,99.9, respectively. α-tocopherol makes up roughly 25–50% of palm and rice vitamin E mixtures, respectively, annatto, on the other hand, naturally contains only δ- and γ-tocotrienols and is essentially tocopherol-free, hence not confined by α-tocopherol interference issues. Other natural tocotrienol sources include rice bran oil, coconut oil, cocoa butter, barley, sunflower, peanut, walnut, sesame, and olive oils, however contain only tocopherols. Some vitamin E supplements supply 50–200 mg/day of mixed tocotrienols, in a number of clinical trials, doses of tocotrienols as low as 42 mg/day have shown to reduce blood cholesterol levels by 5–35%. Tocotrienols are safe and human studies show no adverse effects with consumption of 240 mg/day for 48 months, molecular distillation occurs at lower temperatures and reduces the problem of thermal decomposition
37.
Myristic acid
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Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid, is a common saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH312COOH. A myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid, myristic acid is named after the nutmeg Myristica fragrans. Nutmeg butter has 75% trimyristin, the triglyceride of myristic acid, besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter fat and is a minor component of many other animal fats. It is also found in spermaceti, the fraction of oil from the sperm whale. It is also found in the rhizomes of the Iris, including Orris root, myristic acid is commonly added co-translationally to the penultimate, nitrogen-terminus, glycine in receptor-associated kinases to confer the membrane localisation of the enzyme. The myristic acid has a sufficiently high hydrophobicity to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the bilayer of the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell. In this way, myristic acid acts as an anchor in biomembranes. The ester isopropyl myristate is used in cosmetic and topical medicinal preparations where good absorption through the skin is desired, reduction of myristic acid yields myristyl aldehyde and myristyl alcohol
38.
Stearic acid
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Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain and has the IUPAC name octadecanoic acid. It is a solid and its chemical formula is C17H35CO2H. Its name comes from the Greek word στέαρ stéar, which means tallow, the salts and esters of stearic acid are called stearates. As its ester, stearic acid is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in nature following palmitic acid, the triglyceride derived from three molecules of stearic acid is called stearin. Stearic acid is obtained from fats and oils by the saponification of the triglycerides using hot water, the resulting mixture is then distilled. Commercial stearic acid is often a mixture of stearic and palmitic acids, fats and oils rich in stearic acid are more abundant in animal fat than in vegetable fat. The important exceptions are cocoa butter and shea butter, where the acid content is 28–45%. In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, the combination leads to uses as a surfactant and softening agent. Stearic acid undergoes the reactions of saturated carboxylic acids, a notable one being reduction to stearyl alcohol. This is used in a range of manufactures, from simple to complex electronic devices. Stearic acid is used in the production of detergents, soaps. Soaps are not made directly from stearic acid, but indirectly by saponification of triglycerides consisting of stearic acid esters, esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol, glycol stearate, and glycol distearate are used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products. They are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystallize under controlled conditions, detergents are obtained from amides and quaternary alkylammonium derivatives of stearic acid. In view of the texture of the sodium salt, which is the main component of soap. Lithium stearate is an important component of grease, the stearate salts of zinc, calcium, cadmium, and lead are used to soften PVC. Stearic acid is used along with oil for preparing softeners in textile sizing. They are heated and mixed with caustic potash or caustic soda, related salts are also commonly used as release agents, e. g. in the production of automobile tires. In this use, powdered stearic acid is mixed in water and this reacts with the calcium in the plaster to form a thin layer of calcium stearate, which functions as a release agent
39.
Linoleic acid
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Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. It is a liquid at room temperature. In physiological literature, it has a number of 18,2 cis. Linoleic acid is an acid with an 18-carbon chain and two cis double bonds, with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon from the methyl end. Linoleic acid belongs to one of the two families of essential fatty acids, which means that the body cannot synthesize it from other food components. The word linoleic derived from the Greek word linon, oleic means of, relating to, or derived from oil of olive or of or relating to oleic acid because saturating the omega-6 double bond produces oleic acid. LA is a fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid and thus some prostaglandins, leukotrienes. It is found in the lipids of cell membranes and it is abundant in many nuts, fatty seeds and their derived vegetable oils, comprising over half of poppy seed, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils. LA is converted by various lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, the CYP epoxygenases, metabolize LA to epoxide products viz. its 12, 13-epoxide, Vernolic acid and its 9, 10-epoxide, Coronaric acid. All of these LA products have bioactivity and are implicated in human physiology and pathology as indicated in the cited linkages, linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid that must be consumed for proper health. A diet only deficient in linoleate causes mild skin scaling, hair loss, along with oleic acid, linoleic acid is released by cockroaches upon death which has the effect of preventing other roaches from entering the area. This is similar to the found in ants and bees. The first step in the metabolism of LA is performed by Δ6desaturase, there is evidence suggesting that infants lack Δ6desaturase of their own, and must acquire it through breast milk. Studies show that breast-milk fed babies have higher concentrations of GLA than formula-fed babies, GLA is converted to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, which in turn is converted to arachidonic acid. The three types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, eicosanoids produced from AA tend to promote inflammation and promote growth during and after physical activity in healthy humans. For example, both AA-derived thrombaxane and leukotrieneB4 are proaggregatory and vasoconstrictive eicosanoids during inflammation, there are some suggested negative health effects related to this inflammation promoting function of linoleic acid as an omega-6 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is used in making quick-drying oils, which are useful in oil paints and these applications exploit the easy reaction of the linoleic acid with oxygen in air, which leads to crosslinking and formation of a stable film called linoxyn. Reduction of linoleic acid yields linoleyl alcohol, linoleic acid is a surfactant with a critical micelle concentration of 1.5 x 10−4 M @ pH7.5
40.
Lycopene
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Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus, like all carotenoids, lycopene is a polyunsaturated hydrocarbon, i. e. an unsubstituted alkene. Structurally, lycopene is a tetraterpene and assembled from eight isoprene units that are composed entirely of carbon, lycopenes eleven conjugated double bonds give its deep red color and its antioxidant activity. Owing to the color, lycopene is a useful food coloring and is approved for usage in the USA, Australia and New Zealand. Lycopene is not a nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes. Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units and it is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931, in its natural, all-trans form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of eleven conjugated double bonds. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of light, so it appears red. Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-trans lycopene, but a total of 72 geometric isomers of the molecule are sterically possible, when exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of these cis-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomers were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy, in the human bloodstream, various cis-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated. Lycopene, the pigment in tomato-containing sauces, turns plastic cookware orange and is insoluble in water and it can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, to remove this staining, the plastics can be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of household bleach. Carotenoids like lycopene are important pigments found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi and they are responsible for the bright colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many important carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, the unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and this is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate, to give the twenty-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a configuration to give the forty-carbon phytoene. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene, the two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls. Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry, the lycopene content of tomatoes depends on species and increases as the fruit ripens
41.
Processed food
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Convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is food that is commercially prepared to optimise ease of consumption. Such food is ready to eat without further preparation. It may also be portable, have a long shelf life. Although restaurant meals meet this definition, the term is applied to them. Convenience foods include ready-to-eat dry products, frozen foods such as TV dinners, shelf-stable foods, prepared mixes such as cake mix, bread, cheese, salted food and other prepared foods have been sold for thousands of years. Other kinds were developed with improvements in food technology, types of convenience foods can vary by country and geographic region. Some convenience foods have received criticism due to concerns about nutritional content, various methods are used to reduce the unhealthy aspects of commercially produced food and fight childhood obesity. Convenience food is prepared for ease of consumption. Convenience foods and restaurants are similar in that they save time and they differ in that restaurant food is ready to eat, whilst convenience food usually requires rudimentary preparation. Both typically cost more money and less time compared to home cooking from scratch, throughout history, people have bought food from bakeries, creameries, butcher shops and other commercial processors to save time and effort. The Aztec people of Central Mexico utilized several convenience foods that required only adding water for preparation, cornmeal that was ground and dried, referred to as pinolli, was used by travelers as a convenience food in this manner. Canned food was developed in the 19th century, primarily for military use, the expansion of canning depended significantly upon the development of a machine for producing large quantities of cans very cheaply. Before the 1850s, making a can for food required a skilled tinsmith, afterwards, one of the earliest industrial-scale processed foods was meatpacking. After the invention of a system of refrigerator cars in 1878, meat could be raised, slaughtered, experience in World War II contributed to the development of frozen foods and the frozen food industry. Modern convenience food saw its beginnings in the United States during the period began after World War II. Many of these products had their origins in military-developed foods designed for storage longevity, following the war, several commercial food companies had leftover manufacturing facilities, and some of these companies created new freeze-dried and canned foods for home use. Firms responded by offering healthier formulations and acquisition of brands with better reputations, additional convenience foods include frozen pizza, chips such as potato chips, pretzels, and cookies. These products are sold in portion-controlled, single-serving packaging designed for portability
42.
Mill (grinding)
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A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes, there are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand, working animal, wind or water, today they are usually powered by electricity. The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces, after the grinding the state of the solid is changed, the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape. Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce dry fills prior to transport or structural filling. To calculate the needed grinding work against the grain size changing three half-empirical models are used and these can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, a reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that 80% of the matter has a smaller grain size. The Bonds grinding coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature, to evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material and of the ground material is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition, pretended grinding degree Z a = d 1 a The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in this formula. In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition, see also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. A typical type of grinder is the ball mill. Ball mills normally operate with a ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their diameter and longer length. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other, ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing, one example being the Sepro tyre drive Grinding Mill. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m in diameter with a 22 MW motor, however, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance. A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles, but note that the term rod mill is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals, the rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter
43.
Fractionation
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Fractions are collected based on differences in a specific property of the individual components. A common trait in fractionations is the need to find an optimum between the amount of fractions collected and the purity in each fraction. Fractionation makes it possible to more than two components in a mixture in a single run. This property sets it apart from other separation techniques, fractionation is widely employed in many branches of science and technology. Mixtures of liquids and gases are separated by fractional distillation by difference in boiling point, fractionation of components also takes place in column chromatography by a difference in affinity between stationary phase and the mobile phase. In fractional crystallization and fractional freezing, chemical substances are fractionated based on difference in solubility at a given temperature, in cell fractionation, cell components are separated by difference in mass. The process of blood fractionation involves separation of blood into its main components, blood fractionation refers generally to the process of separation using a centrifuge, after which three major components can be visualized, plasma, buffy coat and erythrocytes. These separated components can be analyzed and often further separated, fractionation is also used for culinary purposes, as coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel oil are fractionated to produce oils of different viscosities, that may be used for different purposes. These oils typically use fractional crystallization for the process instead of distillation. Mango oil is an oil fraction obtained during the processing of mango butter, milk can also be fractionated to recover the milk protein concentrate or the milk basic proteins fraction
. PMID 25870713.
