1.
Vegetable oil (disambiguation)
–
Vegetable oil is a liquid derived from plants. These are triglyceride-based, and includes cooking oils like sunflower oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils for industrial purposes, macerated oils are oils to which other matter has been added, such as herbs. Typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil Hydrogenated fats and oils are triglyceride-based fats and oils which have been sparged at high temperature, the hydrogen bonds with the triglyceride, increasing the molecular weight. Oils are hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to raise the viscosity, List of vegetable oils List of essential oils
Vegetable oil (disambiguation)
–
Olive oil
2.
Types of plant oils
–
Plant oils or vegetable oils are oils derived from plant sources, as opposed to animal fats or petroleum. Macerated oils consist of an oil to which parts of plants are added. Essential oils are composed of aromatic compounds, extracted from plants by distillation. Vegetable fats and oils are what are most commonly called vegetable oils and these are triglyceride-based, and include cooking oils like canola oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils used for industrial purposes. Pressed vegetable oils are extracted from the plant containing the oil, the most common is the screw press, which consists of a large-diameter metal screw inside a metal housing. Oil seeds are fed into the housing, where the screws mash the seeds, the remaining solids, called seed cake, are either discarded or used for other purposes. Oil presses can be manual or powered. The second type of oil press is the ram press, where a piston is driven into a cylinder, crushing the seeds, ram presses are generally more efficient than screw presses. There has been recent interest in improving the design of mechanical oil presses, a press developed at MITs D-Lab, for example, is capable of exerting 800–1, 000psi to extract peanut oil. Industrial machines for extracting oil mechanically are call expellers, many expellers add heat and pressure, in order to increase the amount of oil extracted. If the temperature does not exceed 120 °F, the oil can be called cold-pressed, in modern vegetable oil production, oils are usually extracted chemically, using a solvent such as hexane. Chemical extraction is cheaper and more efficient than mechanical extraction, at a scale, leaving only 0. 5–0. 7% of the oil in the plant solids. Macerated or infused oils are oils to which other matter has been added, typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil. Essential oils are not oils but volatile aromatic compounds that are used in flavors, fragrances, essential oils are usually extracted by distillation. Maceration is also used as a means of extracting essential oils, triglyceride Vegetable fats and oils List of vegetable oils List of essential oils
Types of plant oils
–
Olive oil
3.
Olive oil
–
Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and it is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for oil lamps. It is associated with the Mediterranean diet for its health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine, the two are wheat and grapes. Olive trees have grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of oil, followed by Italy. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily. The composition of oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest. It consists mainly of acid, with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid. The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin, wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC, the wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor or in ancient Greece. It is not clear when and where trees were first domesticated, in Asia Minor, in the Levant. Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Palestine. Until 1500 BC, eastern areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC, the cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the islands economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and these belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh, dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth
Olive oil
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Extra-virgin olive oil
Olive oil
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Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in
Klazomenai,
Ionia (modern Turkey)
Olive oil
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Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)
Olive oil
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Olive crusher (trapetum) in Pompeii (79 AD)
4.
List of vegetable oils
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Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Such oils have been part of culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements, many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the other uses include wood finishing, oil painting. There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, the oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent, the solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material, oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils, finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid-liquid extraction. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops is widely used and traded. By use, as described above, oils from plants are used in cooking, for fuel, for cosmetics, for medical purposes, the vegetable oils are grouped below in common classes of use. These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide oil production. All are also used as fuel oils, coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm, common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids dominant. Corn oil, one of the oils sold as salad. Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially, olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil, popular in West African and Brazilian cuisine. Peanut oil, an oil with some applications as a salad dressing
List of vegetable oils
–
Olive oil
List of vegetable oils
–
Sunflowers, the seeds of which are the source of
sunflower oil.
List of vegetable oils
–
Hazelnuts from the
Common Hazel, used to make
Hazelnut oil.
List of vegetable oils
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The fruit of the
sea-buckthorn
5.
Maceration (food)
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In food preparation, maceration is softening or breaking into pieces using a liquid. Raw, dried or preserved fruit or vegetables are soaked in a liquid to soften the food and/or absorb the flavor of the liquid into the food. In the case of fruit, particularly soft fruit such as strawberries and raspberries, they are often just sprinkled with sugar then left to sit. This process makes the food more flavorful and easier to chew, maceration is often confused with marination, which is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. Some herbal preparations call for maceration, as it is one way to extract delicate or highly volatile herbal essences cold, sometimes a cooking oil is used as the liquid for maceration – especially olive or some other vegetable oil. Maceration is the means of producing a flavored alcoholic beverage, such as cordials. Maceration of byproducts from food processing plants sometimes involves the use of a pump to create a blended slurry of food waste. The macerated substance, which can be described as a slurry, is often used for animal feed, fertilizer
Maceration (food)
–
Maceration of dried fruit in rum and apple juice
6.
List of macerated oils
–
Macerated oils are vegetable oils to which other matter, such as herbs, has been added. Commercially available macerated oils include all these, and others, herbalists and aromatherapists use not only these pure macerated oils, but blends of these oils, as well, and may macerate virtually any known herb. Base oils commonly used for maceration include almond oil, sunflower oil, and olive oil as well as other food-grade triglyceride vegetable oils, Arnica, from the flowers or leaves of the Arnica montana. Often uses olive oil as a base when used medicinally, or almond oil when used as a massage oil, calendula Carrot Chickweed Comfrey Galangal Horse Chestnut Linden blossom Marigold Meadowsweet Mullein Sea weed St. Johns Wort
List of macerated oils
–
Myrrh
7.
Essential oil
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Not to be confused with Essential fatty acid An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted. An oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plants fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived, Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping and they are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar, rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example, methyl salicylate rather than oil of wintergreen, interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in an oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame. Claims for the efficacy of treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries. Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea oil, patchouli. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, as the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang which is purifed through a fractional distillation, the recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, the use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are not sold. Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed, due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry, before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate
Essential oil
–
Sandalwood oil
8.
List of essential oils
–
Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are used in food flavoring. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques, Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils, infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds, agar oil or oodh, distilled from Agarwood. Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of, Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica. Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice, asafoetida oil, used medicinally and to flavor food. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, basil oil is used in making perfumes, as well as in aromatherapy. Bay oil is used in perfumery, Aromatherapeutic for sprains, colds, flu, insomnia, bergamot oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes. Black Pepper oil is distilled from the berries of Piper nigrum, the warm, soothing effect makes it ideal for treating muscle aches, pains and strains and promoting healthy digestion. Buchu oil, made from the buchu shrub, considered toxic and no longer widely used. Birch oil is aromatheapeutic for gout, Rheumatism, Eczema, Ulcers, camphor oil is used for cold, cough, fever, rheumatism, and arthritis. Cannabis flower essential oil, used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy, also used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles. Calamodin oil or Calamansi Essential Oil comes from a tree in the Philippines extracted via cold press or steam distillation. Caraway oil, used a flavoring in foods, also used in mouthwashes, toothpastes, etc. as a flavoring agent. Cardamom seed oil, used in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications, extracted from seeds of subspecies of Zingiberaceae. Also used as a fragrance in soaps, perfumes, etc, carrot seed oil, used in aromatherapy. Cedar oil, primarily used in perfumes and fragrances, Chamomile oil, There are many varieties of chamomile but only two are used in aromatherapy, Roman and German
List of essential oils
–
The spice
star anise is distilled to make star anise oil
List of essential oils
–
Essential oil of
Eucalyptus
9.
Drying oil
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A drying oil is an oil that hardens to a tough, solid film after a period of exposure to air. The oil hardens through a reaction in which the components crosslink by the action of oxygen. Drying oils are a key component of oil paint and some varnishes, some commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil, and walnut oil. Their use has declined over the past several decades, as they have been replaced by alkyd resins, rags, cloth, and paper saturated with drying oils may combust spontaneously after a few hours as heat is released during the oxidation process. The drying, hardening, or, more properly, curing of oils is the result of autoxidation, the addition of oxygen to an organic compound and the subsequent crosslinking. This process begins with a molecule in the air inserting into carbon-hydrogen bonds adjacent to one of the double bonds within the unsaturated fatty acid. The resulting hydroperoxides are susceptible to crosslinking reactions, bonds form between neighboring fatty acid chains, resulting in a polymer network, often visible by formation of a skin-like film on samples. This polymerization results in stable films that, while somewhat elastic, diene-containing fatty acid derivatives, such as those derived from linoleic acid, are especially prone to this reaction because they generate pentadienyl radicals. Monounsaturated fatty acids, such as acid, are slower to undergo drying because the allylic radical intermediates are less stable. The early stages of the process can be monitored by weight changes in an oil film. The film becomes heavier as it absorbs oxygen, Linseed oil, for instance, increases in weight by 17 percent. As oxygen uptake ceases, the weight of the film declines as volatile compounds evaporate, as the oil ages, further transitions occur. A large number of the ester bonds in the oil molecules undergo hydrolysis. In the case of paints, some portion of free fatty acids react with metals in the pigment. Together, the various non-cross-linking substances associated with the polymer network constitute the mobile phases, unlike the molecules that are part of the network itself, they are capable of moving and diffusing within the film, and can be removed using heat or a solvent. The mobile phase may play a role in plasticizing paint films, carboxyl groups in the polymers of the stationary phase ionize, becoming negatively charged and form complexes with metal cations present in the pigment. The original network, with its nonpolar, covalent bonds, is replaced by an ionomeric structure, the structure of these ionomeric networks is not well understood. Most drying oils rapidly increase in viscosity after heating in the absence of air, if the oil is subjected to raised temperatures for a long time, it will become a rubbery oil-insoluble substance
Drying oil
–
Using linseed oil and pigment for painting
10.
Oil paint
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Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, Oil paints have been used in Europe since the 12th century for simple decoration, but were not widely adopted as an artistic medium until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. Thickness of coat has considerable bearing on time required for drying, the literature abounds with incorrect theories and information, in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders, the oldest known oil paintings date from 650 AD, found in 2008 in caves in Afghanistans Bamiyan Valley, using walnut and poppy seed oils. Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax. Greek writers such as Aetius Amidenus recorded recipes involving the use of oils for drying, such as walnut, poppy, hempseed, pine nut, castor, when thickened, the oils became resinous and could be used as varnish to seal and protect paintings from water. Additionally, when yellow pigment was added to oil, it could be spread over tin foil as an expensive alternative to gold leaf. Early Christian monks maintained these records and used the techniques in their own artworks, theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommended linseed oil but advocated against the use of olive oil due to its long drying time. Oil paint was used as it is today in house decoration, as a tough waterproof cover for exposed woodwork. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings, in the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early painters, however, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used. As public preference for naturalism increased, the quick-drying tempera paints became insufficient to achieve the very detailed and precise effects that oil could achieve. Van Eyck’s mixture may have consisted of piled glass, calcined bones, the new mixture had a honey-like consistency and better drying properties. This mixture was known as oglio cotto—cooked oil, leonardo da Vinci later improved these techniques by cooking the mixture at a very low temperature and adding 5 to 10% beeswax, which prevented darkening of the paint. Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto each may have altered this recipe for their own purposes, the use of any cooked oils or Litharge darkens an oil painting rapidly
Oil paint
–
View of Delft in oil paint, by
Johannes Vermeer.
Oil paint
–
Pigments for sale at a market stall in
Goa,
India.
11.
Cooking oil
–
Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as oil, palm oil. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic, a guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean, peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, the consumption of trans fats increases ones risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of bad LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of good HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils, several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration, the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, heating an oil changes its characteristics. Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, in a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil. Rancidity tests have shown that the life of walnut oil is about 3 months. Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point, experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples, smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, the cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or having on hand the proper fire extinguisher
Cooking oil
–
Olive oil
Cooking oil
–
Olive oil
Cooking oil
–
Sunflower seed oil
Cooking oil
–
Olive oil production in
Croatia
12.
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. When vegetable oil is used directly as a fuel, in modified or unmodified equipment. Conventional diesel engines can be modified to ensure that the viscosity of the vegetable oil is low enough to allow proper atomization of the fuel. This prevents incomplete combustion, which would damage the engine by causing a build-up of carbon, straight vegetable oil can also be blended with conventional diesel or processed into biodiesel or bioliquids for use under a wider range of conditions. Rudolf Diesel was the father of the engine which bears his name and his first attempts were to design an engine to run on coal dust, but later designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers having a source of readily available. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their automobiles, in the 1990s Bougainvillea conflict, islanders cut off from oil supplies due to a blockade used coconut oil to fuel their vehicles. Most diesel car engines are suitable for the use of vegetable oil, also commonly called pure plant oil. One common solution is to add a heat exchanger and a fuel tank for the petrodiesel or biodiesel blend. In colder climates it is necessary to heat the vegetable oil fuel lines and tank as it can become very viscous. Single tank conversions have been developed, largely in Germany, which have been used throughout Europe and these conversions are designed to provide reliable operation with rapeseed oil that meets the German rapeseed oil fuel standard DIN51605. Modifications to the cold start regime assist combustion on start up. Suitably modified indirect injection engines have proven to be operable with 100% PPO down to temperatures of −10 °C, direct injection engines generally have to be preheated with a block heater or diesel fired heater. The exception is the VW Tdi engine for which a number of German companies offer single tank conversions, for long term durability it has been found necessary to increase the oil change frequency and to pay increased attention to engine maintenance. Many cars powered by indirect injection engines supplied by in-line injection pumps, or mechanical Bosch injection pumps are capable of running on pure SVO/PPO in all, engine reliability would depend on the condition of the engine. Attention to maintenance of the engine, particularly of the injectors, cooling system. Ideally the engine would be converted, the relatively high kinematic viscosity of vegetable oils must be reduced to make them compatible with conventional compression-ignition engines and fuel systems. Cosolvent blending is a low-cost and easy-to-adapt technology that reduces viscosity by diluting the oil with a low-molecular-weight solvent
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Rudolf Diesel
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Biofuels
Vegetable oil fuel
–
Oil palms
13.
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil – or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters, Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel in any proportions, Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil. The National Biodiesel Board also has a definition of biodiesel as a mono-alkyl ester. Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the diesel fuel marketplace. The B6 to B20 blends are covered by the ASTM D7467 specification, Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form, but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and biodiesel meters are set to X total volume, Biodiesel can be used in pure form or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme high-pressure common rail engines have strict limits of B5 or B20. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the lines where petrodiesel has been used. As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made, therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend. Since the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, biodiesel use has been increasing in the United States, in the UK, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation obliges suppliers to include 5% renewable fuel in all transport fuel sold in the UK by 2010. For road diesel, this effectively means 5% biodiesel, in 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated its intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized. The Volkswagen Group has released a statement indicating that several of its vehicles are compatible with B5 and B100 made from rape seed oil, the use of the specified biodiesel type in its cars will not void any warranty. Mercedes Benz does not allow diesel fuels containing greater than 5% biodiesel due to concerns about production shortcomings, any damages caused by the use of such non-approved fuels will not be covered by the Mercedes-Benz Limited Warranty. Starting in 2004, the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia decided to update its bus system to allow the fleet of city buses to run entirely on a fish-oil based biodiesel. This caused the city some initial issues, but after several years of refining. In 2007, McDonalds of UK announced it would start producing biodiesel from the waste oil byproduct of its restaurants and this fuel would be used to run its fleet. The British Royal Train on 15 September 2007 completed its first ever run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied by Green Fuels Ltd
Biodiesel
–
Bus run by biodiesel.
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel sample
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel locomotive and its external fuel tank at
Mount Washington Cog Railway
Biodiesel
–
Biodiesel is also used in rental generators
14.
Fatty acid
–
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important dietary sources of fuel for animals because, many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose. Fatty acids that have double bonds are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids without double bonds are known as saturated and they differ in length as well. Fatty acid chains differ by length, often categorized as short to very long, short-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of five or fewer carbons. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6–12 carbons, long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 13 to 21 carbons. Very long chain fatty acids are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 22 or more carbons, unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms in the chain that are next to either side of the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. Cis A cis configuration means that the two atoms adjacent to the double bond stick out on the same side of the chain. The rigidity of the double bond freezes its conformation and, in the case of the cis isomer, causes the chain to bend, the more double bonds the chain has in the cis configuration, the less flexibility it has. When a chain has many cis bonds, it becomes quite curved in its most accessible conformations, for example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a kink in it, whereas linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. α-Linolenic acid, with three bonds, favors a hooked shape. Trans A trans configuration, by contrast, means that the adjacent two hydrogen atoms lie on opposite sides of the chain, as a result, they do not cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to straight saturated fatty acids. In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each bond has three n carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are cis bonds. Most fatty acids in the configuration are not found in nature and are the result of human processing. Fatty acids that are required by the body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates
Fatty acid
–
Three-dimensional representations of several fatty acids
Fatty acid
–
Comparison of the
trans isomer Elaidic acid (top) and the cis isomer
oleic acid (bottom).
15.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
16.
Monounsaturated fat
–
In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond, Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having an alkyl group at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other end. Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid when refrigerated, common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and oleic acid. Palmitoleic acid has 16 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 7 carbon atoms away from the methyl group and it can be lengthened to the 18-carbon cis-vaccenic acid. Oleic acid has 18 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 9 carbon atoms away from the acid group. The illustrations below show a molecule of acid in Lewis formula. Polyunsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease by providing more membrane fluidity than monounsaturated fats, the large scale KANWU study found that increasing monounsaturated fat and decreasing saturated fat intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low. However, some monounsaturated fatty acids may promote resistance, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be protective against insulin resistance. Studies have shown that substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased physical activity. More physical activity was associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet, from the study, it is shown that more monounsaturated fats lead to less anger and irritability. Foods containing monounsaturated fats reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, while possibly increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, however, their true ability to raise HDL is still in debate. Levels of oleic along with other monounsaturated fatty acids in red cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk, monounsaturated fats and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. In children, consumption of monounsaturated oils is associated with healthier serum lipid profiles, the Mediterranean Diet is one heavily influenced by monounsaturated fats. The diet in Crete is fairly high in total fat yet affords a protection from coronary heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts and high fat fruits such as olives. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat, the high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as much as 85% monounsaturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
17.
Polyunsaturated fat
–
Polyunsaturated fats are lipids in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, algae, leafy greens. Unsaturated refers to the fact that the molecules contain less than the amount of hydrogen. These materials exist as cis or trans isomers depending on the geometry of the double bond, saturated fats have hydrocarbon chains which can be most readily aligned. The hydrocarbon chains in trans fats align more readily than those in cis fats and this means that, in general, the melting points of fats increase from cis to trans unsaturated and then to saturated. See the section on chemical structure of fats for more information, the position of the carbon-carbon double bonds in carboxylic acid chains in fats is designated by Greek letters. The carbon atom closest to the group is the alpha carbon. In fatty acids the carbon atom of the group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain is called the omega carbon because omega is the last letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond three carbons away from the carbon, whereas omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond six carbons away from the methyl carbon. The illustration below shows the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, while it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fats that are generally of greatest interest, these materials do also have non-food applications. Drying oils, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form films, are polyunsaturated fats. The most common ones are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and these oils are used to make paints and varnishes. In preliminary research, omega-3 fatty acids in algal oil, fish oil, fish, ongoing research indicates that omega-6 fatty acids in sunflower oil and safflower oil may also reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Among n-3 fatty acids, neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with cognitive. In addition DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been shown in preliminary studies to decrease the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The importance of the ratio of essential fatty acids as established by comparative studies shows an Omega-6
Polyunsaturated fat
–
3D representation of
linoleic acid in a bent
conformation.
18.
Trans fat
–
Trans fat has been shown to consistently be associated, in an intake-dependent way, with increased risk of coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in Western nations. Fats contain long chains, which can either be unsaturated, i. e. have double bonds, or saturated. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations, Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat, most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any effect on HDL. In 2003 the World Health Organisation recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a persons diet. On 16 June 2015, the FDA finalized its determination that trans fats are not generally recognized as safe, in other countries, there are legal limits to trans fat content. Trans fats levels can be reduced or eliminated using saturated fats such as lard, palm oil or fully hydrogenated fats, other alternative formulations can also allow unsaturated fats to be used to replace saturated or partially hydrogenated fats. Hydrogenated oil is not a synonym for trans fat, complete hydrogenation removes all unsaturated fats, nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, during the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons. It took only two years until the fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial years production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes, in 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the US rights to the Normann patent, in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco. Further success came from the technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normanns hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, prior to 1910, dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleons reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk, it did not gain acceptance in the U. S. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the U. S. as a source of protein, what to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough available for consumers
Trans fat
–
Margarine, a common product that contains trans fatty acids
Trans fat
–
Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912
Trans fat
–
Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902
Trans fat
–
Salers Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contain naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities
19.
Triglyceride
–
A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides are the constituents of body fat in humans and other animals. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, there are many different types of triglyceride, with the main division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen – all available places where hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied and these have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some of the atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides are chemically tri esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Triglycerides are formed by combining glycerol with three fatty acid molecules, organic acids have a carboxyl group. Alcohols and organic acids join to form esters, the glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group, the chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16,18, or 20 carbon atoms. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids, as a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated, some are polyunsaturated, most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of this, they melt over a range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, the simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid, stearin derived from acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid. These compounds can be obtained as three forms or polymorphs, α, β, and β′ and these forms differ in terms of their melting points. If the first and third chain R and R″ are different, then the carbon atom is a chiral centre. The pancreatic lipase acts at the bond, hydrolysing the bond. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum, fatty acids, monoglycerides, and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down
Triglyceride
–
Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride. Left part:
glycerol, right part from top to bottom:
palmitic acid,
oleic acid,
alpha-linolenic acid. Chemical formula: C 55 H 98 O 6
20.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plant
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plant
–
Had'n
Plant
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plant
–
A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
21.
State of matter
–
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms that matter takes on. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life, solid, liquid, gas, some other states are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for now. For a complete list of all states of matter, see the list of states of matter. Historically, the distinction is based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles close together. Matter in the state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are close together but move freely. Matter in the state has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons. Plasma is the most common form of matter in the universe. The term phase is used as a synonym for state of matter. In a solid the particles are packed together. The forces between particles are strong so that the particles move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut. In crystalline solids, the particles are packed in a regularly ordered, there are various different crystal structures, and the same substance can have more than one structure. For example, iron has a cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states, therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter
State of matter
–
A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of
strontium titanate. Brighter atoms are
Sr and darker ones are
Ti.
State of matter
–
In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives it the ability to conduct electricity.
State of matter
–
SBS block copolymer in
TEM
State of matter
–
Liquid
helium in a superfluid phase creeps up on the walls of the cup in a
Rollin film, eventually dripping out from the cup.
22.
Temperature
–
A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold. It is measured by a thermometer, several scales and units exist for measuring temperature, the most common being Celsius, Fahrenheit, and, especially in science, Kelvin. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, the kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies, especially of fluids. Temperature is important in all fields of science including physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences, medicine. The Celsius scale is used for temperature measurements in most of the world. Because of the 100 degree interval, it is called a centigrade scale.15, the United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale, named in honor of the Scottish physicist who first defined it and it is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its zero point, 0K, is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature and its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of zero occurs at 0K = −273. 15°C. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment, Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. There is a variety of kinds of temperature scale and it may be convenient to classify them as empirically and theoretically based. Empirical temperature scales are historically older, while theoretically based scales arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature. Such scales are only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the point of mercury, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is impracticable. A material is of no use as a thermometer near one of its phase-change temperatures, in spite of these restrictions, most generally used practical thermometers are of the empirically based kind. Especially, it was used for calorimetry, which contributed greatly to the discovery of thermodynamics, nevertheless, empirical thermometry has serious drawbacks when judged as a basis for theoretical physics. Theoretically based temperature scales are based directly on theoretical arguments, especially those of thermodynamics, kinetic theory and they rely on theoretical properties of idealized devices and materials
Temperature
–
Annual mean temperature around the world
Temperature
–
Body temperature variation
Temperature
–
A typical Celsius thermometer measures a winter day temperature of -17 °C.
Temperature
–
Plots of pressure vs temperature for three different gas samples extrapolated to absolute zero.
23.
Wax
–
Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C, waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals, waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long alkyl chains. They may also include various groups such as fatty acids, primary and secondary long chain alcohols, unsaturated bonds, aromatics, amides, ketones. They frequently contain fatty acid esters as well, synthetic waxes are often long-chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups. Waxes are synthesized by plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of wax esters derived from a variety of carboxylic acids, in waxes of plant origin characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters. The composition depends not only on species, but also on location of the organism. The most commonly known animal wax is beeswax, but other insects secrete waxes, a major component of the beeswax used in constructing honeycombs is the ester myricyl palmitate which is an ester of triacontanol and palmitic acid. Its melting point is 62-65 °C, spermaceti occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the sperm whale. One of its constituents is cetyl palmitate, another ester of a fatty acid. Lanolin is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of sterols, plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their cuticles as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration. From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is carnauba wax, containing the ester myricyl cerotate, it has many applications, such as confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and surfboard wax. Other more specialized vegetable waxes include candelilla wax and ouricury wax, plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material. This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions, although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a homologous series of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum and they are refined by vacuum distillation. Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- alkanes, naphthenes, a typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2, such as Hentriacontane, C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties, millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually
Wax
–
Commercial
honeycomb foundation, made by pressing beeswax between patterned metal rollers.
Wax
–
Ceroline brand wax for floors and furniture, first half of 20th century. From the
Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
Wax
–
Wax candle.
Wax
–
A typical modern
wax sculpture of
Cecilia Cheung at
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong.
24.
Glycerin
–
Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
Glycerin
Glycerin
–
Glycerol
Glycerin
–
Glycerol suppositories used as laxatives
25.
Seed
–
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The embryo is developed from the zygote and the coat from the integuments of the ovule. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to both in hot and cold climates. The term seed also has a meaning that antedates the above—anything that can be sown, e. g. seed potatoes. In the case of sunflower and corn seeds, what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, many structures commonly referred to as seeds are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate, sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the stone fruits have a hardened fruit layer fused to. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of plants with an indehiscent seed. Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms from the gymnosperms, angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds, hence the name. Some fruits have layers of hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, however, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer. Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year-to-year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination, after fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components, The funicle or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, the nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops. The micropyle, a pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization. The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, the shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds
Seed
–
Brown
flax seeds
Seed
–
The inside of a
Ginkgo seed, showing a well-developed embryo, nutritive tissue (
megagametophyte), and a bit of the surrounding seed coat
Seed
–
Layers within an endospermic maize seed
Seed
–
A collection of various vegetable and herb seeds
26.
Palm oil
–
Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit. The differences are in color, and in saturated fat content, palm oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature, Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost. In 2004, a group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns. It is believed that traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Palm oil from E. guineensiss has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as an oil in Europe. Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as a lubricant for machinery during Britains Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers Sunlight soap, by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically, of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family. The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is, Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients derived from it. After milling, various oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid, then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached, RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the worlds commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil
Palm oil
–
Palm oil block showing the lighter color that results from boiling
Palm oil
–
Oil palms (Elaeis guineensis).
Palm oil
–
A palm oil plantation in Malaysia.
Palm oil
–
A palm oil plantation in Indonesia.
27.
Canola oil
–
B. campestris L. or Brassica juncea. To be called canola, the oil must contain less than 2% erucic acid, health concerns center around the fact that standard production may leave trace amounts of chemical solvent and that non-organic canola may be made from plants that have been genetically modified. It is also used as a source of biodiesel, in the 1970s, the Rapeseed Association of Canada chose the name canola to represent Can for Canada, and ola for oil. One dictionary purports that it stands for Can + o + l + a, Canola was developed through conventional plant breeding from rapeseed, an oilseed plant already used in ancient civilization as a fuel. The word rape in rapeseed comes from the Latin word rapum meaning turnip, turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, mustard, and many other vegetables are related to the two natural canola varieties commonly grown, which are cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa. The change in name serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, Brassica oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated by humanity, with documentation of its use in India 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago. Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to the 13th century and its use was limited until the development of steam power, when machinists found rapeseed oil clung to water- and steam-washed metal surfaces better than other lubricants. World War II caused high demand for the oil as a lubricant for the increasing number of steam engines in naval. When the war blocked European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil, a shortage developed. After the war, demand declined sharply, and farmers began to look for other uses for the plant, Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. Rapeseed oil had a taste and a disagreeable greenish color. It also contained a concentration of erucic acid. Feed meal from the plant also was not particularly appealing to livestock. A variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and this and other recent varieties have been produced using genetic engineering. In 2011, 26% of the acres sown were genetically modified canola, Canola was originally a trademark, but is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australia. In Canada, a definition of canola is codified in Canadian law. As of the 2013/2014 season, production in the ten leading territories was, Rapeseed is traded on the Euronext exchange. Canola oil is made at a facility by slightly heating
Canola oil
–
Close-up of rapeseed blooms
Canola oil
–
Canola flower
Canola oil
–
Canola field in
New South Wales, Australia
Canola oil
–
Canola being grown in
South Africa just outside of the City of
Cape Town.
Table Mountain is clearly visible in the far right. Canola is a relatively new crop in the country and was first cultivated in the early 1990s.
28.
Soybean oil
–
Soybean oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the soybean. It is one of the most widely consumed cooking oils, as a drying oil, processed soybean oil is also used as a base for printing inks and oil paints. To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, the oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated are sold as vegetable oil, or are ingredients in a variety of processed foods. Most of the residue is used as animal feed. In the 2002–2003 growing season,30, per 100 g, soybean oil has 16 g of saturated fat,23 g of monounsaturated fat, and 58 g of polyunsaturated fat. The major unsaturated fatty acids in soybean oil triglycerides are the polyunsaturates alpha-linolenic acid, 7-10%, and linoleic acid, 51%, and it also contains the saturated fatty acids stearic acid, 4%, and palmitic acid, 10%. The high-proportion of oxidation-prone linolenic acid is undesirable for some uses, three companies, Monsanto Company, DuPont/Bunge, and Asoyia in 2004 introduced low linolenic Roundup Ready soybeans. Hydrogenation may be used to reduce the unsaturation in linolenic acid, the resulting oil is called hydrogenated soybean oil. If the hydrogenation is only complete, the oil may contain small amounts of trans fat. The carcinogen N‐Nitrosodi-n-butylamine has been measured in soybean oil at a concentration of 290 μg/kg, in cheese at 20 to 30 μg/kg and it has also been detected in tobacco smoke at a concentration of 3 ng per cigarette. Soybean oil is used for frying and baking. It is also used as a condiment for salads, soybean oil is one of many drying oils, which means that it will slowly harden upon exposure to air, forming a flexible, transparent, and waterproof solid. Because of this property, it is used in printing ink. However, other oils may be superior for some drying oil applications, while soybean oil has no direct insect repellent activity, it is used as a fixative to extend the short duration of action of essential oils such as geranium oil in several commercial products. Soybean oil is traded at the Chicago Board of Trade in contracts of 60,000 pounds at a time, prices are listed in cents and hundredths of a cent per pound
Soybean oil
–
General
29.
Safflower
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Safflower is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds, plants are 30 to 150 cm tall with globular flower heads having yellow, orange, or red flowers. Each branch will usually have one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having seasonal rain and it grows a deep taproot which enables it to thrive in such environments. Safflower is one of humanitys oldest crops, chemical analysis of ancient Egyptian textiles dated to the Twelfth Dynasty identified dyes made from safflower, and garlands made from safflowers were found in the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun. John Chadwick reports that the Greek name for safflower κάρθαμος occurs many times in Linear B tablets, the explanation is that there are two parts of the plant which can be used, the pale seeds and the red florets. In 2013, global production of seeds was 718,161 tonnes. Other significant producers were India, the United States, Mexico, traditionally, the crop was grown for its seeds, and used for coloring and flavoring foods, in medicines, and making red and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper aniline dyes became available. For the last fifty years or so, the plant has been cultivated mainly for the oil extracted from its seeds. Safflower seed oil is flavorless and colorless, and nutritionally similar to sunflower oil and it is used mainly in cosmetics and as a cooking oil, in salad dressing, and for the production of margarine. There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds of oil, one high in monounsaturated fatty acid, currently the predominant edible oil market is for the former, which is lower in saturated fats than olive oil. The latter is used in painting in the place of linseed oil, particularly with white paints, one human study compared high-linoleic safflower oil with conjugated linoleic acid, showing that body fat decreased and adiponectin levels increased in obese women consuming safflower oil. In the same study, a meta-analysis of linoleic acid used in clinical trials showed no evidence of cardiovascular benefit. Safflower flowers are used in cooking as a cheaper substitute for saffron. In coloring textiles, dried flowers are used as a natural dye source for the orange-red pigment Carthamin. Carthamin is also known, in the dye industry, as Carthamus Red or Natural Red 26. Chinese herbology Conjugated linoleic acid Safflower Princess Tsheringma Complementary and Alternative Healing University Ahmed M. Zahran, M. F. Omran, S. Z. Mansour, effectiveness of Carthamus tinctorius L. in the Restitution of Lipid Composition in Irradiated Rats
Safflower
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Safflower
Safflower
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Carthamus tinctorius
Safflower
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Carthamus tinctorius -
MHNT
Safflower
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Safflower purchased at a market in Turkey
