1.
Fayum mummy portraits
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Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits is the modern term given to a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached to Egyptian mummies from the Coptic period. They belong to the tradition of painting, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world. In fact, the Fayum portraits are the large body of art from that tradition to have survived. Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the Faiyum Basin, particularly from Hawara in the Fayum Basin, Faiyum Portraits is generally thought of as a stylistic, rather than a geographic, description. While painted cartonnage mummy cases date back to times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the Coptic period at the time of the Roman occupation of Egypt. They date to the Roman period, from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century AD onwards and it is not clear when their production ended, but recent research suggests the middle of the 3rd century. The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial, extant examples indicate that they were mounted into the bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have now been detached from the mummies and they usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of tradition, the images clearly derive more from Graeco-Roman traditions than Egyptian ones. Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique, one of encaustic paintings, the former are usually of higher quality. About 900 mummy portraits are known at present, the majority were found in the necropoleis of Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are very well preserved. The Italian explorer Pietro della Valle, on a visit to Saqqara-Memphis in 1615, was the first European to discover and he transported some mummies with portraits to Europe, which are now in the Albertinum. Although interest in Ancient Egypt steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy portraits did not become known before the early 19th century, the provenance of these first new finds is unclear, they may come from Saqqara as well, or perhaps from Thebes. In 1820, the Baron of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, in 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the Louvre, the other in the British Museum. Ippolito Rosellini, a member of Jean-François Champollions 1828/29 expedition to Egypt and it is so similar to de Labordes specimens that it is thought to be from the same source. During the 1820s, the British Consul General to Egypt, Henry Salt, sent several further portraits to Paris and London. Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban Archon Pollios Soter, a character known from written sources
2.
Encaustic painting
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Encaustic painting, also known as hot wax painting, involves using heated beeswax to which colored pigments are added. The liquid or paste is applied to a surface—usually prepared wood, though canvas. Pure, powdered pigments can be used, though some mixtures use oil paints or other forms of pigment. Metal tools and special brushes can be used to shape the paint before it cools, today, tools such as heat lamps, heat guns, and other methods of applying heat allow artists to extend the amount of time they have to work with the material. Because wax is used as the pigment binder, encaustics can be sculpted as well as painted, other materials can be encased or collaged into the surface, or layered, using the encaustic medium to stick them to the surface. The word encaustic originates from the Greek word enkaustikos which means to burn in, kut-kut, a lost art of the Philippines, employs sgraffito and encaustic techniques. It was practiced by the tribe of Samar island around 1600 to 1800. Artists in the Mexican muralism movement, such as Diego Rivera, the Belgian artist James Ensor also experimented with encaustic. The wax encaustic painting technique was described by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder in his Natural History from the 1st Century AD, the oldest surviving encaustic panel paintings are the Romano-Egyptian Fayum mummy portraits from the 1st Century BC. Faiss held two German patents related to the preparation of waxes for encaustic painting, one covered a method for treating beeswax so that its melting point was raised from 60 to 100 °C. This occurred after boiling the wax in a solution of sea water, the resulting harder wax is the same as the Punic wax referred to in ancient Greek writings on encaustic painting. Encaustic art has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 1990s with people using electric irons, hotplates and heated styli on different surfaces including card, paper, the iron makes producing a variety of artistic patterns easier. The medium is not limited to just simple designs, it can be used to create paintings, just as in other media such as oil. Although technically difficult to master, attractions of this medium for artists are its dimensional quality. Artists specializing in encaustic painting include the following, the Mysterious Fayum Portraits, Faces from Ancient Egypt. El Primer Fresco de Jean Charlot, La Masacre en el Templo Mayor, congreso Internacional de Muralismo, San Ildefonso cuna del muralismo mexicano, Reflexiones historiográficas y artísticas. The Artists Handbook of Materials and Techniques, unique Wax Paintings by Immigrant Artist should Endure 10,000 Years. Los Angeles Times, Oct.19,1952 Birgit Hüttemann-Holz, gedichte und Malerei in Enkaustik - poems and encaustic paintings
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Cooper Union
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Inspired in 1830 when Peter Cooper learned about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France, Cooper Union was established in 1859. The Cooper Union originally granted each admitted student a full-tuition scholarship, following its own financial crisis, the school decided to abandon this policy starting in the Fall of 2014, but each incoming student receives at least a half-tuition merit scholarship. The college is divided into three schools, the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, the School of Art, and it offers undergraduate and masters degree programs exclusively in the fields of architecture, fine arts, and engineering. It is a member of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, until 2014 Cooper Union was one of the very few American institutions of higher learning to offer a full-tuition scholarship – valued at approximately $150,000 as of 2012 – to every admitted student. Cooper Union has historically been one of the most selective colleges in the United States, both the art and architecture schools have acceptance rates below 5%. Cooper Union received 2,536 applications for the 2014–2015 academic year, as a result of its record low acceptance ratio for the fall 2010 incoming class, Cooper Union was named by Newsweek as the #1 Most Desirable Small School and #7 Most Desirable School overall. The Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by American industrialist Peter Cooper, who was an inventor, successful entrepreneur. Cooper was a son who had less than a year of formal schooling, yet went on to become an industrialist. Cooper designed and built Americas first steam engine, and made a fortune with a glue factory. After achieving wealth, he turned his skills to successful ventures in real estate, insurance. Coopers dream was to give talented young people the one privilege he lacked and he also wished to make possible the development of talent that otherwise would have gone undiscovered. According to The New York Times in 1863, Those only are supposed to pay anything who are abundantly able, discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or sex was expressly prohibited. Since the opening of this institute all who desire, and particularly those who work for their own support, can avail themselves, free of charge, of all the advantages the institution affords. The early institution also had a reading room open day and night, and a new four-year nighttime engineering college for men. A daytime engineering college was added in 1902 thanks to funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie Initial board members included Daniel F. Tiemann, Peter Coopers dream of providing an education equal to the best has since become reality. Since 1859, the Cooper Union has educated thousands of artists, architects, after 1864 there were a few attempts to merge Cooper Union and Columbia University, but these were never realized. The Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum, was founded in 1897 as part of Cooper Union by Sarah, Eleanor, Cooper Unions Foundation Building is an Italianate brownstone building designed by architect Fred A. Petersen, one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects. It was the first structure in New York City to feature rolled-iron I-beams for structural support, Petersen patented a fire-resistant hollow brick tile he used in the buildings construction
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Tunic
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A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
5.
Tapestry
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Tapestry is a form of textile art, traditionally woven on a vertical loom. Tapestry is weft-faced weaving, in all the warp threads are hidden in the completed work. In tapestry weaving, weft yarns are typically discontinuous, the artisan interlaces each coloured weft back and it is a plain weft-faced weave having weft threads of different colours worked over portions of the warp to form the design. Most weavers use a warp thread, such as linen or cotton. The weft threads are usually wool or cotton, but may include silk, gold, silver, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
6.
California Academy of Sciences
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The California Academy of Sciences is a natural history museum in San Francisco, California, that is among the largest museums of natural history in the world, housing over 26 million specimens. Completely rebuilt in 2008, the building covers 400,000 square feet and is among the newest natural history museums in the United States, the primary building in Golden Gate Park reopened on September 27,2008. The Academy Fellows are, in turn, ominated by their colleagues, underlying these operations is a staff of hundreds of employees who operate the day-to-day functions without which the Academy could not offer its programs. The operations branch of the Academy is divided into three departments, Building Operations, Guest Operations, and IT Services, in fact, unbeknownst to most patrons, research and administrative facilities occupy nearly 50% of the Academys physical structure. Prior to being replaced, the old Academy building attracted approximately half a million each year. As has been the case from the start, the main thrust of the exhibits is natural history, Morrison Planetarium - features the worlds largest completely digital planetarium dome measuring in at 27. There also is an emphasis on environmental concerns, with all the various departments collaborating closely to focus on systematic biology. Academy researchers study life around the world, a 2011 expedition to the Philippines discovered an estimated 300 species new to science, the Academy publishes the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, as well as Occasional Papers, Memoirs, and Special Publications. The California Academy of Natural Sciences was founded in 1853, only three years after California joined the United States, becoming the first society of its kind in the Western US. Its stated aim was to undertake a systematic survey of every portion of the State. It was renamed as the more inclusive California Academy of Sciences in 1868, in 1892, Alice Eastwood, a botanist, was hired by the Academy and worked there until she retired in 1949. Fortunately, the 1905-1906 scientific collecting expedition to the Galápagos Islands already was underway, in 1916, the Academy moved to the North American Hall of Birds and Mammals in Golden Gate Park, the first building on the site that was to become its permanent home. In 1923, the Steinhart Aquarium was added, followed in 1934 by the Simson African Hall, the post-war years saw a flurry of new construction on the site, the Science Hall was added in 1951, followed by the Morrison Planetarium in 1952. The Morrison Planetarium was the seventh major planetarium to open in the United States and featured a one-of-a-kind star projector, the Academy Projector produced a remarkably natural-looking star field. It projected irregularly shaped stars, rather than the circular stars projected by many optical star projectors, the irregular shapes were created by placing variously sized grains of silicon carbide onto the glass star plates by hand, then aluminizing the plates, and brushing away the silicon carbide grains. In 1959, the Malliard Library, Eastwood Hall of Botany, in 1969, another new building, Cowell Hall, was added to the site. In 1976, several new galleries were opened, and the year, in 1977. Prior to the old building being torn down in 2005, there was a Life through Time gallery, housing a display on evolution
7.
Copts
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The Copts are an ethno-religious group that primarily inhabit the area of modern Egypt, where they are the largest Christian denomination. Copts are also the largest Christian adherent group in Sudan and Libya, historically, they spoke the Coptic language, a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken during the Roman era. The Coptic language is a focus of Coptology and remains in liturgical use, Copts in Sudan constitute the largest Christian community in Sudan, accounting for an estimated 1% of the Sudanese population. Copts in Libya constitute the largest Christian community in Libya, accounting for an estimated 1% of the Libyan population, most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Coptic Catholic Church, which is an Eastern Catholic church in communion with the Catholic Church. The Coptic word is in turn an adaptation of the Greek term for the people of Egypt. The Greek term for Egypt, Aigýptos, is derived from the Egyptian language. This Mycenaean form is likely from Middle Egyptian ḥwt-k3-ptḥ, literally Estate of the Spirit of Ptah, the term is thus ultimately derived from the Greek designation of the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt. After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, it restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion. In Coptic Egyptian, the Copts referred to themselves as ni rem en kīmi en khristianos, which literally means Christian people of Egypt or Christian Egyptians. The Coptic name for Egyptians, rem en kīmi, is realized in the Fayyumic dialect as lem en kēmi, or rem en khēmi in the Bohairic dialect, cf. Egyptian rmṯ n kmt, Demotic rmt n kmỉ. The Arabic word qibṭ has also connected to the Greek name of the town of Coptos. It is possible that this association has contributed to making Copt the settled form of the name, in the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term qubṭ in the historical sense. The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East, although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 10–20% of the population, though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in a chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church and the various Eastern orthodox churches, the legacy that Saint Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa, the Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world, however, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects, science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there
8.
Illuminated manuscript
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An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles
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Coptic Museum
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The Coptic Museum is a museum in Coptic Cairo, Egypt with the largest collection of Egyptian Christian artifacts in the world. It was founded by Marcus Simaika in 1908 to house Coptic antiquities, the museum traces the history of Egypt from its beginnings to the present day. It was erected on 8,000 square meter land offered by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic museum houses the worlds most important examples of Coptic art. The Coptic community was generous in their support of the museum, donating many vestments, frescoes, and icons. In 1931 the Coptic Museum became a museum, under the jurisdiction of the Department of Antiquities. These were housed in the New Wing, completed in 1944, because of damage, the Old Wing was closed in 1966, and the entire museum was renovated between 1983 and 1984. The foundations of the museum were strengthened and reinforced between 1986 and 1988, which helped the museum survive the 1992 earthquake, further renovations took place in 2005-06. Marcus Simaika Pasha was followed by Dr Togo Mina and then by Dr Pahor Labib, besides the museum buildings, there are gardens and courtyards and the area is surrounded by old Coptic churches. There are six churches, some which have origins as early as the 5th century AD and these old edifices include the of the Virgin Mary and the church of St. Sergius. The Coptic Museums grounds are a peaceful and tranquil place and its airy building is paved with mosaics and decorated with old mashrabiya screens. The museum houses a collection of objects from the Christian era. The museum was renovated in the early 1980 with two new annexes, which with the aisles, houses the collection of 16,000 artefacts arranged in chronological order through twelve sections. The Coptic Museum contains the worlds largest collection of Coptic artifacts, Coptic monuments display a rich mixture of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman traditions, linking ancient and Islamic Egypt. The objects are grouped into different mediums, such as stonework, woodwork, metalwork, textiles, the total number of objects on display is around 15,000 objects. The Coptic Museum also houses a corpus of 1,200 Nag Hammadi manuscripts in an open to specialist researchers only. Coptic Cairo Coptic art Coptic Orthodox Church Coptic history Coptology Coptic Museum website Kamil, Coptic Egypt, History and a Guide. Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity, Simaika, Samir M. Markus Pasha Simaika
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Coptic Cairo
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Coptic Cairo is a part of Old Cairo which encompasses the Babylon Fortress, the Coptic Museum, the Hanging Church, the Greek Church of St. George and many other Coptic churches and historical sites. It is believed in Christian tradition that the Holy Family visited this area, there is evidence of settlement in the area as early as the 6th century BC, when Persians built a fort on the Nile, north of Memphis. The Persians also built a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, the Persian settlement was called Babylon, reminiscent of the ancient city along the Euphrates, and it gained importance while the nearby city of Memphis declined, as did Heliopolis. During the Ptolemaic period, Babylon and its people were mostly forgotten and it is traditionally held that the Holy Family visited the area during the Flight into Egypt, seeking refuge from Herod. Further it is held that Christianity began to spread in Egypt when St. Mark arrived in Alexandria, becoming the first Patriarch, though the religion remained underground during the rule of the Romans. As the local population began to organize towards a revolt, the Romans, recognising the importance of the region, took over the fort. Trajan reopened the canal to the Red Sea, bringing increased trade, under the Romans, St. Mark and his successors were able to convert a substantial portion of the population, from pagan beliefs to Christianity. The Coptic Church later separated from the church of the Romans, under the rule of Arcadius, a number of churches were built in Old Cairo. In the early years of Arab rule, the Copts were allowed to build several churches within the old area of Old Cairo. The Ben Ezra Synagogue was established in Coptic Cairo in 1115, the Copts needed to sell it, in order to raise funds to pay taxes to Ibn Tulun. In the 11th Century AD, Coptic Cairo hosted the Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria, the Coptic Museum was established in 1910, and it houses the worlds most important examples of Coptic art. George Monastery and Church of St
11.
Icon
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An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
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Luke the Evangelist
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Luke the Evangelist is one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical Gospels. The New Testament mentions Luke briefly a few times, and the Pauline epistle to the Colossians refers to him as a doctor, Christians since the faiths early years have regarded him as a saint. He is believed to have been a martyr, reportedly as having been hanged in an olive tree, though some believe otherwise. Many scholars believe that Luke was a Greek physician who lived in the Greek city of Antioch in Ancient Syria, though other scholars. Bart Koet for instance considered it as widely accepted that the theology of Luke–Acts points to a gentile Christian writing for a gentile audience, gregory Sterling though, claims that he was either a Hellenistic Jew or a god-fearer. His earliest notice is in Pauls Epistle to Philemon—Philemon 1,24 and he is also mentioned in Colossians 4,14 and 2Timothy 4,11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul. He had become a disciple of the apostle Paul and later followed Paul until his martyrdom, having served the Lord continuously, unmarried and without children, filled with the Holy Spirit he died at the age of 84 years. If one accepts that Luke was in fact the author of the Gospel bearing his name and also the Acts of the Apostles, the we section of Acts continues until the group leaves Philippi, when his writing goes back to the third person. This change happens again when the returns to Philippi. There are three we sections in Acts, all following this rule, Luke never stated, however, that he lived in Troas, and this is the only evidence that he did. The composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, a quote in the Letter of Paul to the Colossians differentiates between Luke and other colleagues of the circumcision. 10 My fellow prisoner Aristarchus sends you his greetings, as does Mark,11 Jesus, who is called Justus, also sends greetings. These are the only Jews among my co-workers for the kingdom of God,14 Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings. This comment has traditionally caused commentators to conclude that Luke was a Gentile, if this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish. However, that is not the only possibility, although Luke is considered likely to be a Gentile Christian, some scholars believe him to be a Hellenized Jew. The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not. Lukes presence in Rome with the Apostle Paul near the end of Pauls life was attested by 2 Timothy 4,11, Only Luke is with me. In the last chapter of the Book of Acts, widely attributed to Luke, we find several accounts in the first person also affirming Lukes presence in Rome including Acts 28,16, And when we came to Rome
13.
Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
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The Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is the leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. A faith with ancient Christian roots in Egypt, the current holder of this position is Theodoros II or Tawadros II, who was selected as the 118th pope on November 4,2012. Following the traditions of the church, the pope is chairman and this organization is the highest authority in the Church of Alexandria, which has between 12 and 18 million members worldwide,10 to 14 million of whom are in Egypt. It formulates the rules and regulations regarding matters of the organization, faith. The pope is also the chairman of the churchs General Congregation Council, although historically associated with the city of Alexandria, the residence and Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria has been located in Cairo since 1047. The pope is currently established in Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, inside a compound includes the Patriarchal Palace. After the death of Shenouda III on March 17,2012 the Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church voted, the names of the three candidates who received most votes were put in a glass chalice. The name then picked became the new Patriarch of Alexandria and it is believed the name is picked by Divine Choice, by a blindfolded boy. He is believed to be guided by the hand of God, the liturgy of the Altar Ballot took place on November 4,2012. The 60-year-old Bishop Tawadoros, Auxiliary Bishop of Beheira, assistant to Metropolitan Pachomios of Beheira, was chosen as the 118th Pope of Alexandria and he then chose the name of Theodoros II. He was formally enthroned on November 18,2012, the early Christian Church recognized the special significance of several cities as leaders of the worldwide catholic Church. The later development of the Pentarchy also granted recognition to these religious leaders. Because of this split, the leadership of church is not part of this system. The leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is known as Pope of Alexandria, the Successor of St. Mark the Evangelist, Holy Apostle and Martyr, on the Holy Apostolic Throne of the Great City of Alexandria. Mark the Evangelist, the Holy Apostle and Martyr, in being so, he is considered to be, Father of Fathers. Hierarch of all Hierarchs Honorary titles attributed to the Hierarch of the Alexandrine Throne are, The Pillar and Defender of the Holy, Catholic, Apostolic Church, the Dean of the Great Catechetical School of Theology of Alexandria. The Ecumenical Judge of the Holy Apostolic and Catholic Church, the Thirteenth among the Holy Apostles. “Pope and Lord Archbishop of the Great City of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa on the Holy Apostolic Holy See of St. Mark the Evangelist, the appellation of pope has been attributed to the Bishop of Alexandria since the episcopate of Heraclas, the thirteenth Bishop of Alexandria
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Islamic architecture
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Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Persian, Roman, Byzantine, further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are, the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, from these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Symbolic views of scholars on Islamic architecture have consistently been criticized by historians for lacking historical evidence. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture and it is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style, the Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, the horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The Great Mosque of Damascus, built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital, other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir demonstrated the despotic, the Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and it is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque, the Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a structural feature of Islamic architecture. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques, the distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture, also originating with the Byzantines and Persians, have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century
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Coptic cross
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The term Coptic cross may refer to a number of Christian cross variants associated in some way with Coptic Christians. Coptic crosses are often shown with arms dividing into three points each (also called Ethiopian cross or Axum cross, Liungman shows a cross fleury. Bertran de la Farge identifies a cross crosslet as croix copte and cites it as a predecessor of the Occitan cross somewhere in the marquisate of Provence, probably Venasque. Old Coptic crosses often incorporate a circle, as in the form called a Coptic cross by Rudolf Koch in his The Book of Signs, sometimes the arms of the cross extend through the circle, as in the Celtic cross. The circle cross was used by the early Gnostic sects. The form used in the Coptic Church and defined as the Coptic cross is made up of two lines of equal length that intersect at the middle at right angles. At each angle are three points, representing the Trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, all together, the cross has 12 points symbolizing the Apostles whose mission it was to spread the Gospel message throughout the world. The Coptic cross is used in the Coptic church and the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches. Many Copts have the cross tattooed on the inside of their right arm, the Coptic cross in its modern and ancient forms is considered a sign of faith and pride to the Copts The Ethiopians Christians wear it as a symbol of faith. One of the forms of the Coptic cross, which is referred to as the Ethiopian Coptic cross was worn by Stevie Ray Vaughan, keith Richards also wears an Ethiopian Coptic Cross
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Ethiopian cross
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Ethiopian crosses are symbols of Christianity in Ethiopia. Their elaborate, stylized design is distinct from the similar European Christian crosses. Ethiopian crosses are almost always made from elaborate lattice work, the lattice represents everlasting life. Each cross looks different, and artisans can take liberty when choosing shapes, lalibela Cross Kryždirbystė, the Lithuanian art of wooden cross crafting Khachkars, Armenian cross stones Celtic crosses
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Abu Mena
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Abu Mena was a town, monastery complex and Christian pilgrimage center in Late Antique Egypt, about 45 km southwest of Alexandria. Its remains were designated a World Heritage Site in 1979, there are very few standing remains, but the foundations of most major buildings, such as the great basilica, are easily discernible. Recent agricultural efforts in the area have led to a significant rise in the water table, the site was added to the list of World Heritage in Danger in 2001. Authorities were forced to place sand in the bases of buildings that are most endangered in the site, menas of Alexandria was martyred in the late 3rd or early 4th century. Various 5th-century and later accounts give differing versions of his burial. The essential elements are that his body was taken from Alexandria on a camel, at some point, the camel refused to continue walking, despite all efforts to goad it. This was taken as a sign of divine will, and the bodys attendants buried it on that spot, Most versions of the story state that the location of the tomb was then forgotten until its miraculous rediscovery by a local shepherd. From the Ethiopian Synaxarium, And God wished to reveal the body of Saint Mînâs, and when the shepherd saw this thing, and understood the miracle, he marvelled exceedingly and was astonished. And afterwards he used to some of the dust from that shrine, and mix it with water, and rub it on the sheep. And this he used to do at all times, and he healed all the sick who came to him by this means, word of the shepherds healing powers spread rapidly. By the late 4th century, it was a significant pilgrimage site for Christians who sought healing and they are cheaply made but impressed with images of the saint that are of significance in the study of iconography, it is presumed they were made around the city. During the reign of Arcadius, the local archbishop observed that crowds were overwhelming the small church and he wrote to the eastern emperor, who ordered a major expansion of the facilities, the first of three major church expansions which would eventually take place. By the end of the Late Antique period, Abu Mena had become the leading pilgrimage site in Egypt, the site was first excavated from 1905 to 1907. These efforts uncovered a basilica church, an adjacent church which had probably housed the saints remains. A later, long-term series of excavations by the DAI ended in 1998, the most recent excavations uncovered a large dormitory for poor pilgrims, with separate wings for men and for women and children. A complex to the south of the basilica was likely the residence of the hegoumenos. Excavations suggest that the great xenodocheion, an area for pilgrims. A baptistery, adjacent to the site of the original church, also uncovered was a complex of wine presses, including underground storage rooms, which dates to the 6th and 7th centuries
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Terracotta
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Terracotta, terra cotta or terra-cotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. The term is used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta. This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Glazed architectural terracotta and its version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. In archaeology and art history, terracotta is used to describe objects such as figurines not made on a potters wheel. An appropriate refined clay is formed to the desired shape, after drying it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C, though it may be as low as 600 °C in historic and archaeological examples. In some contexts, such as Roman figurines, white-colored terracotta is known as pipeclay, as such clays were later preferred for tobacco pipes, fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water, for garden pots or building decoration in many environments, most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, painted terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was rarely left in its raw fired state in the West until the 18th century. Terracotta/earthenware was the known type of ceramic produced by Western and pre-Columbian people until the 14th century. Terracotta has been used throughout history for sculpture and pottery as well as for bricks, in ancient times, the first clay sculptures were dried in the sun after being formed. They were later placed in the ashes of open hearths to harden, however, only after firing to high temperature would it be classed as a ceramic material. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult and a belief in a mother goddess. The Burney Relief is a terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta
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Saint Menas
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For the Florentine saint, see Minias of Florence. Saint Menas, the Martyr and Wonder-worker, is one of the most well-known Egyptian saints in the East, Menas was an Egyptian soldier in the Roman army martyred because he refused to recant his Christian faith. His feast day is celebrated every year on 15 Hathor in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and on November 11 in the Catholic, Mina was his original name, according to the story his mother called him Mēna because she heard voice saying amēn. Minas is how he is known in Greek, while in Armenian, there are many sources written in different languages relating to Menas. Menas was born in Egypt in 285 in the city of Niceous and his parents were ascetic Christians but did not have any children for a long time. His fathers name was Eudoxios and his mothers name was Euphemia, on the feast of Mary, mother of Jesus, Euphemia was praying in front of an icon of Mary with tears that God may give her a blessed son. A sound came from the icon saying Amen, a few months later, Euphemia gave birth to a boy and named him Menas. Eudoxios, a ruler of one of the divisions of Egypt. At the age of fifteen Menas joined the Roman army and was given a high rank due to his fathers reputation, most sources state that he served in Cotyaeus in Phrygia, although some says his appointment was in Algeria. Three years later he left the army longing to devote his life to Christ. He headed towards the desert to live a different kind of life, after spending five years as a hermit, Menas saw in a revelation the angels crowning the martyrs with glorious crowns, and longed to join those martyrs. While he was thinking about it, he heard a voice saying and you shall be granted three immortal crowns, one for your celibacy, another for your asceticism, and a third for your martyrdom. Menas subsequently hurried to the ruler, declaring his Christian faith, the soldiers who executed Menas set his body on fire for three days but the body remained unharmed. Menas sister then bribed the soldiers and managed to carry the body away and she embarked on a ship heading to Alexandria, where she placed the saints body in a church. When the time of persecution ended, during the papacy of Athanasius of Alexandria an angel appeared to the Pope and ordered him to load Menas body on a camel and head towards the Libyan Desert. At a certain spot near a well at the end of Lake Mariout, not far from Alexandria. The Christians took this a sign from God and buried Menas body there, the Berbers of Pentapolis rose against the cities around Alexandria. As the people were getting ready to face them, the Roman governor decided to take the body of Menas with him to be his deliverer
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Iconography
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The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, after the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, the Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism
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Medieval art
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The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the crafts. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, in addition each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. Medieval art in Europe grew out of the heritage of the Roman Empire. These sources were mixed with the vigorous barbarian artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce an artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and barbarian art. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of art. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. Many regions did not regain their population levels until the 17th century. The population of Europe is estimated to have reached a low point of about 18 million in 650, doubling by 1000, in 1450 it was still only 50 million. To these figures, Northern Europe, especially Britain, contributed a lower proportion than today, and Southern Europe, including France, the increase in prosperity, for those who survived, was much less affected by the Black Death. Until about the 11th century most of Europe was short of labour, with large amounts of unused land. The medieval period saw the falling away of the invasions and incursions from outside the area that characterized the first millennium. The impression may be left by the works that almost all medieval art was religious. Most churches have been rebuilt, often times, but medieval palaces and large houses have been lost at a far greater rate. The situation is similar in most of Europe, though the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon survives largely intact. Paper became available in the last centuries of the period, but was extremely expensive by todays standards. Art in the Middle Ages is a subject and art historians traditionally divide it in several large-scale phases, styles or periods
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Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
23.
Egyptian Museum
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The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum or Museum of Cairo, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities. It has 120,000 items, with an amount on display. The edifice is one of the largest museums in the region, as of February 2017, the museum is open to the public. The Egyptian Museum of Antiquities contains many important pieces of ancient Egyptian history and it houses the world’s largest collection of Pharaonic antiquities. The Egyptian government established the museum, built in 1835 near the Ezbekeyah Garden, in 1855 Archduke Maximilian of Austria was given all of the artifacts by the Egyptian government, these are now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. A new museum was established at Boulaq in 1858 in a former warehouse, the building lay on the bank of the Nile River, and in 1878 it suffered significant damage in a flood of the Nile River. In 1891, the collections were moved to a royal palace. They remained there until 1902 when they were moved, for the last time, during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, the museum was broken into, and two mummies were destroyed. Several artifacts were shown to have been damaged. Since then 25 objects have been found and those that were restored were put on display in September 2013 in an exhibition entitled Damaged and Restored. There are two floors in the museum, the ground floor and the first floor. On the ground there is an extensive collection of papyrus. The numerous pieces of papyrus are generally small fragments, due to their decay over the past two millennia, several languages are found on these pieces, including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and ancient Egyptian. The coins found on floor are made of many different metals, including gold, silver. The coins are not only Egyptian, but also Greek, Roman and this has helped historians research the history of Ancient Egyptian trade. Also on the floor are artifacts from the New Kingdom. These artifacts are generally larger than items created in earlier centuries, two special rooms contain a number of mummies of kings and other royal family members of the New Kingdom. In the garden adjacent to the building of the museum a memorial to famous egyptologists of the world is located, the Murder of Tutankhamen, A True Story
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Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
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Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria
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This article uses dates and years written in the Coptic calendar, using the A. M. calendar era, in addition to the Gregorian calendar, using the A. D. calendar era. Pope St. Cyril VI of Alexandria also called Abba Kyrillos VI, born Azer Youssef Atta, Pope Cyril VI was born in Damanhour, Egypt, into a Coptic Orthodox family. He resigned a civil service position to become a monk in July 1927 and he passed his probationary period and, on 24 February 1928, took his monastic vows at the Paromeos Monastery, assuming the name of Father Mina el-Baramosy. He was also known as Father Mina the elder, in 1947, Father Mina built the Church of Saint Mina in Cairo. He also used to pray in the Church of the Holy Virgin in Babylon before assuming the papacy, Father Mina became Pope of Alexandria on 10 May 1959. In accordance with the old Coptic church tradition, Pope Cyril VI was the monk in the 20th century A. D. /17th century A. M. to be chosen for papacy without having been a bishop /Metropolitan first. Before him, there were three bishops / Metropolitans who became Popes of Alexandria, Pope John XIX, Pope Macarius III, after him, Pope Shenouda III was also a bishop before becoming Pope. Pope Cyril VI elevated the Archbishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to the title of Patriarch-Catholicos, abuna Basilios, who was the first Ethiopian to be appointed Archbishop of Ethiopia by Pope Joseph II, became Ethiopias first Patriarch. Pope Cyril VI was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Star of Solomon by Emperor Haile Selassie in gratitude, in November 1959 he laid the foundation stone of the new Monastery of Saint Mina in the Desert of Mariout. In January 1965, Pope Cyril VI presided over the Committee of Oriental Orthodox Churches in Addis Ababa, in June 1968, Pope Cyril received the relics of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Apostle, which had been taken from Alexandria to Venice over eleven centuries earlier. Cyrils papacy also saw marked the Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Zeitoun, the Seat of Pope Cyril VI was initially located in Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Azbakeya, Cairo. However, during his papacy he built the Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Abbasseya, also in Cairo, Pope Cyril died on 9 March 1971, after a short illness. Pope Shenouda III spoke about his predecessor, There is no man in all the history of the church like Pope Cyril VI and he prayed more than 12,000 liturgies. This matter never happened before in the history of the Popes of Alexandria or the world and he was wondrous in his prayers. On 20 June 2013,42 years after his death, he was canonised as a saint by the Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church
26.
Isaac Fanous
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Isaac Fanous was an Egyptian artist and scholar, who specialized in Coptic art and founded its contemporary school. Fanous was born in Al-Minya and moved to Cairo to gain his degree from The Faculty of Applied arts now part of Helwan University in Egypt in 1941 and got a diploma in teaching in 1943. Fanous was one of the first students of the Institute of Coptic Studies founded in 1954 and his two-year study grant in the Louvre in the mid- 1960s was a turning point in his career. He took the opportunity, while in France, to study painting under Léonid Ouspensky. This would lead, eventually, to his developing a style that was to become the new face of Coptic iconography in the mid-20th century. Fanous chaired the Coptic Art department at the Institute of Coptic Studies in Cairo and that is to say, he became more keenly aware of his Egyptian heritage. He was proud of everything comes from Al-Minya since the time of Akhnaten. For centuries before painters like Isaac Fanous the Coptic Orthodox church had its own style which is recognised as The Coptic style, fanouss contemporary school of icon painting came about as part of a general renaissance of Coptic culture which began during the patriarchate of Pope Cyril VI. He capitalised on the already established Coptic style which could be seen in historic Coptic Churches, Fanous drew all the pictures and icons in St. Takla Haymanots Church in Alexandria, which was consecrated in 1969. Between 1977 and 1978, he spent six months in the UK to paint icons in St Marks Coptic Orthodox church in Allen Street, the Coptic Icons from Holy Virgin Mary Church in Los Angeles http, //www. copts-united. com/wrr/go1. php. subaction=showfull&id=1169064300&archive=&start_from=&ucat=79&
27.
Ramses Wissa Wassef
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Ramses Wissa Wassef was an Egyptian architect and professor of art and architecture at the College of Fine Arts in Cairo and founder of the Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Centre. Ramses Wissa Wassef was born in Cairo and his father was a lawyer, a leader of Egypts nationalist movement and an art patron who promoted the development of the arts in Egypt. After high school, Wassef wanted to become a sculptor but changed his mind and his thesis project A Potters House in Old Cairo received the first prize in 1935. At the beginning of his career in 1935, Wassef was struck by the beauty of the medieval towns and he felt that ancient craftsmen had managed to derive from their traditional heritage an infinite variety of expression and created effects distinguished by local character. He developed a style that bore the stamp of his own strong personality. He made use of traditional craftsmen such as stonecutters, traditional carpenters, glass blowers and potters who had inherited the techniques, Wassef taught architecture and art at the Department of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, Cairo, which he also chaired. George in Heliopolis The Junior Lycee school at Bab al-Louq Cairo His home in Agouza, Cairo and several houses along the Saqqara road near the Pyramids Adam Henein House. Adam was his student at the college of fine art, Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Center compound, Harrania Giza, including tapestry workshops and gallery, the Habib Georgi sculpture museum. Wissa Wassef founded the Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Centre in 1951, located in the Harrania district of Giza and he established it to teach young Egyptian villagers how to create art, including tapestries. He believed that children are endowed with power and potential. The Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Centre won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture from the Aga Khan Development Network in 1983. The Art Centre is open to the public, with an art museum exhibiting its early tapestry works, tours are available, upon contacting the Art Centre in advance to schedule. The Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Centre has operated continuously since opening in 1951, the Centres artists create the designs and weave the tapestries directly from their imaginations onto the looms. Pre-designed patterns have never used, proving Wissa Wassefs belief that artistic creativity is intrinsic. The renowned textile artists Ali Selim and Karima Ali, who began as children at the Centre in the 1960s and 1970s, continue to weave tapestry masterworks, the tapestries have been internationally recognized since the late 1950s. Many exhibitions have been held in Europe and the Smithsonian Institution organized an exhibit in the USA in 1975-76. The most recent exhibition was at the Coningsby Gallery in London, UK, a simple paperback catalog was published for the 2006 for an exhibition at the School of Oriental and African Studies in the University of London to mark the centers 50th anniversary. Egyptian Landscapes is a book of photographs that highlights the work of the center, indianapolis, USA2012 - The Coningsby Gallery, London, UK In 1961, renowned photographer Werner Forman discovered the Art Centre by accident while shooting in Egypt
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Coptic architecture
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Coptic architecture is the architecture of the Copts, who form the majority of Christians in Egypt. Coptic churches range from great cathedrals such as Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral to the smallest churches in rural villages, many ancient monasteries like Monastery of Saint Anthony also exist. Ancient churches like the Hanging Church in Coptic Cairo carry important historical value to the Coptic Orthodox Church, others see the earliest Coptic churches as progressing, like those of the Byzantine and Roman churches, from the Graeco-Roman basilica. The ruins of the Cathedral at Hermopolis Magna are the survival of the single brief period when the Coptic Church represented the official religion of the state in Egypt. Thus, from its early beginnings Coptic architecture fused indigenous Egyptian building traditions, the fertile styles of neighbouring Christian Syria had a greatly increased influence after the 6th century, including the use of stone tympani. Over a period of two years, Coptic architecture incorporated native Egyptian, Graeco-Roman, Byzantine and Western European styles. This can be explained by the fact that the early Muslim rulers of Egypt, much like the Ptolemaic and Byzantine rulers before them, in later centuries, Coptic art and architecture also incorporated motifs inspired by Islamic styles. The Coptic Church broke from the other Eastern Orthodox Churches in 451 AD, Coptic architecture therefore lacked the lavish patronage of rulers and the Court, which was directly responsible for most of the important buildings of Byzantine and medieval Catholic architecture. Most buildings are small, conservative in design, and remain closer to vernacular styles, well before the break of 451, Egyptian Christianity had pioneered monasticism, with many communities being established in deliberately remote positions, especially in Southern Egypt. Many very early wall-paintings also survive, even the ruins of monasteries in many places have survived in a good enough condition to impress the visitor and inform the art historian. Early Coptic architecture is therefore of importance in the study of Early Christian architecture in general. However the existence of three altars in the sanctuary, sometimes in separate apses, is typically and distinctively Coptic, the altars themselves are always free-standing. Especially between the Muslim conquest and the 19th century, the facade of Coptic urban churches is usually plain and discreet. Equally the monasteries were often enclosed with high walls to defend them from desert raiders during the Middle Ages. However, internally the churches can be decorated, although monumental sculpture of holy figures is avoided as in Orthodoxy. Many Coptic monasteries and churches scattered throughout Egypt are built of mudbrick on the basilica plan inherited from Graeco-Roman architectural styles and they usually have heavy walls and columns, architraves and barrel-vaulted roofs, and end in a tripartite apse, but many variant plans exist. Domes are small compared to Byzantine churches, and from the 10th-century naves are often roofed with domed cupolas, the dome raised on a circular supporting wall, which is so characteristic of later Byzantine architecture, is rarely used. Massive timber is used across the nave, sometimes to support a flat roof
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Coptic flag
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The Coptic flag was created in 2005 by Coptic activists in different countries to represent the Coptic communities both in Egypt and in the Coptic diaspora. It is not recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic flag has been officially recognized and adopted by the New Zealand Coptic Association and the Free Copts. Copts voice opposition to aspects of Egypts political life. One of these is the present-day Egyptian flag, which most Copts feel does not represent their Egyptian identity, in this respect, taking into consideration that Copts are especially unlikely to consider themselves as Arab, the current Egyptian flag alienates the Egyptian Christian minority in its homeland. The Coptic flag arose from the conviction that any group has a right to represent itself through an emblem or a flag in its larger society. It is in line with such as the flag of the Muslim Brotherhood. The Coptic flag came about as a compromise, one represents the Copts and highlights their non-Arab. Some Copts have begun using the new flag alongside the official Egyptian flag, the Coptic Flag consists of two main components, a blue cross and a colorful coat of arms. The cross represents Christianity, the Copts religion, the blue color stems from the Egyptian sky and water. It also reminds the Copts of their persecution, when some Muslim rulers forced their ancestors to wear crosses around their necks until their necks became blue. The top of the coat of arms is decorated with Coptic crosses intertwined with lotus flowers, Coptic crosses are made of four arms equal in length, each of which is crossed by a shorter arm. They are different from the Latin cross that possesses three short arms and a longer arm, the lotus flower, also known as the Egyptian White Water-lily, is one of ancient Egypts most highly regarded flowers. It used to represent creation and resurrection, for it disappears under water after sunset, then resurfaces, the black background behind the ornaments is a symbol of Kimi or Kemet, the Egyptian name of Egypt, which means the Black Land. Ancient Egyptians gave their country this name since the waters of the Nile used to bring black soil during the season and deposit it on the banks of the Nile. Beneath these ornaments is a line in the middle of the coat of arms. Around it are two lines that symbolize the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt. These two lines are in turn flanked by two lines that represent the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea that enclose Egypt. Finally, these lines are separated by red lines symbolizing the blood of the Coptic martyrs, the Coptic Flag, Meanings and Colors The Coptic Flag
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Coptic history
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Many of the historic items related to Coptic Christianity are on display in many museums around the world and a large number is in the Coptic Museum in Coptic Cairo. The Egyptian Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border. The first Christians in Egypt were mainly Alexandrian Jews such as Theophilus, when the Church of Alexandria was founded by Saint Mark during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, a great multitude of native Egyptians embraced the Christian faith. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, the Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. St. Jerome records that the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by St. Mark himself, origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the Bible in addition to his famous Hexapla. Many scholars such as Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects, science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, by the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. A great number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations to this day, countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead, as a consequence of this, he denied the title Mother of God to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be Mother of Christ Christotokos. When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark, Pope Saint Cyril I of Alexandria acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, when he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope Cyril I of Alexandria, supported by the entire See and this epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy, The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril. In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius, for example, Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema. Nestorius however, still would not repent and so led to the convening of the First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. The First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus confirmed the teachings of Saint Athanasius and it also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is One Nature for God the Word Incarnate. Glory to you O our Master and King, Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins
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Coptic monasticism
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St. Anthonys Monastery is now the oldest monastery in the world. Institutional Christian monasticism seems to have begun in the deserts in AD 4th century Egypt as a kind of living martyrdom. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the changes in the church that had been brought about by Constantines acceptance of Christianity as the main Roman religion. This ended the position of Christians as a group that believed itself to be the godly elite. In response a new more advanced form of dedication was developed to preserve a nucleus of the dedicated, the end of persecution also meant that martyrdom was no longer an option to prove ones piety. Instead the long-term martyrdom of the ascetic became common, many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. Pachomius spent most of his time at his Pabau monastery, from his initial monastery, demand quickly grew and, by the time of his death in 345, one count estimates there were 3000 monasteries dotting Egypt from north to south. Within a generation after his death, this grew to 7000 and then moved out of Egypt into Palestine. By the end of the century, there were hundreds of monasteries. Countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, all of the Coptic bishops are chosen from monks, although this was not necessary traditionally. There are currently 33 monasteries in Egypt and in the lands of the immigration with a total of more than 1,000 monks, the largest monasteries, and most famous, are at Wadi Natrun, about 60 miles northwest of Cairo. They are the four of the ancient fortified self-sufficient monasteries which have survived out of many that were in the Wadi Natroun valley. Coptic Monasteries List of Coptic Monasteries Members of the covenant Desert Fathers The Daughters of St. Mary Gruber, sacrifice In the Desert, A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism
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Coptic nationalism
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Coptic nationalism refers to the nationalism of Copts. Questions of Egyptian identity rose to prominence in Egypt in the 1920s and 1930s as Egyptians sought independence from British occupation, the Pharaonist movement, or Pharaonism, looks to Egypts pre-Islamic past and argued that Egypt was part of a larger Mediterranean civilization. Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a heritage in Egyptian history. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, most scholars today see Pharaonism as a late development shaped primarily by western Orientalism, and doubt its validity. Coptic identity as it stands now saw its roots in the 1950s with the rise of pan-Arabism under Nasser. A Coptic flag was created in 2005 by a Coptic activist group called The Free Copts as a flag representing Copts, Coptic identity. The Coptic Flag consists of two components, a blue cross and a colorful coat of arms. The cross represents Christianity, the Copts religion, the blue color stems from the Egyptian sky and water. It also reminds the Copts of their persecution, when some of Muslim rulers forced their ancestors to wear crosses around their necks until their necks became blue. The top of the coat of arms is decorated with Coptic crosses intertwined with lotus flowers, Coptic crosses are made of four arms equal in length, each of which is crossed by a shorter arm. The lotus flower, also known as the Egyptian White Water-lily, has been a symbol of creation since Ancient Egyptian times, remains of the flower were found in the burial tomb of Pharaoh Ramesses II. Hence, its use on the flag represents the desire of all Coptic people to overthrow the Arab Islamic government, the black background behind the ornaments is a symbol of Kimi or Kemet, the Egyptian name of Egypt, which means the Black Land. Beneath these ornaments is a line in the middle of the coat of arms. Around it are two lines that symbolize the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt. These two lines are in turn flanked by two lines that represent the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea that enclose Egypt. Finally, these lines are separated by red lines symbolizing Coptic blood, Pharaonism Coptic diaspora Coptic identity Shatzmiller, Maya. Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies, the Battle for the Arab Spring, Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era
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Copts in Egypt
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Copts in Egypt refers to Coptic people born in or residing in Egypt. Coptic people are the largest ethno-religious minority in Egypt, under Muslim rule, the ethnic Copts were cut off from the main stream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to the Pact of Umar covenant, thus assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century and he abolished the Jizya and allowed ethnic Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs, khedive Ismail Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights, some ethnic Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910, some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid. In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup détat against King Farouk, Nassers mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The ethnic Copts were severely affected by Nassers nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population, many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a heritage in Egyptian history. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, however, some Western scholars today argue that Pharaonism was a late development shaped primarily by Orientalism, and doubt its validity. Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory, Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup détat led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and these restrictions do not apply for building mosques. The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes resulting in Copts being victims of murder by Islamic extremists, the most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh,440 kilometres south of Cairo, in 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as psychologically disturbed by the Ministry of Interior, in May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against ethnic Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept reconciliation with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, Boutros Boutros-Ghali is a Copt who served as Egypts foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat
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Copts in Sudan
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Copts in Sudan may refer to people born in or residing in Sudan of full or partial Coptic origin. Sudan has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Coptic immigrants from Egypt, Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid, Atbara, Dongola, Khartoum, Omdurman, Port Sudan, and Wad Medani. They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1% of the Sudanese population, due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam, resulting in their emigration, modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century, as a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam, and intermarry with the native Sudanese. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority, however, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule. Gaafar Nimeirys introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of treatment of Copts. After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the service and judiciary. In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways was executed for possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, a Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers, as the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervour on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south, today, the Coptic Church in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax. Bishop Karas, a Coptic Orthodox bishop born in Sudan, raouf Musad, a playwright, journalist and novelist born in Sudan. Coptic diaspora Christianity in Sudan Copts in Egypt Copts in Libya
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Copts in Libya
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Copts are an ethnoreligious group that form the largest Christian group in Libya, the Coptic Orthodox Church in the country having an estimated 60,000 adherents. The Coptic Church is known to have roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya. A part of the community is made up of immigrants from Egypt, the Coptic population is estimated to number 60,000. The Copts are the largest Christian denomination, followed by c.40,000 Roman Catholics and they are present in all three major regions. Synesius was consecrated by Theophilus of Alexandria in 410, since the Council of Nicaea in 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria, in accordance with the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers. The Pope of Alexandria to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction, the Coptic congregations in several countries were under the ancient Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis, which was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church for centuries until the 13th century. This was also a part of the restructuring of the Church as a whole and they are currently three Coptic Orthodox Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, Libya, one in Benghazi, Libya, and one in Misrata, Libya. In February 2014, seven Coptic Christians were dragged out of their houses in the middle of the night, then executed on a beach, a group of Copts were kidnapped on separate occasions in December 2014 and January 2015, then executed by the ISIL. A video of the execution of 21 men, in which threats are made to the nation of the cross, was released to the internet on 15 February 2015, Coptic diaspora Christianity in Libya Copts in Egypt Copts in Sudan Jason Morgan, Toyin Falola, Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi. Early Libyan Christianity, Uncovering a North African Tradition, Libyan studies, select papers of the late R. G. Goodchild. Goodchild, Richard G. Byzantines, Berbers and Arabs in 7th-century Libya, the plight of Christians in post-Gaddafi Libya, as it was under the dictatorship, continuing insecurity for a religious minority, North Africa-issue in focus
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Coptic Americans
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Coptic Americans are American citizens of Coptic descent or persons of Coptic descent residing in the United States of America. Estimates for the number of ethnic Copts in the US range from 700,000 to more than 1 million, the immigration of the Copts to the United States of America started as early as the late 1940s. After 1952, the rate of Coptic immigration from Egypt to the United States increased, the first Coptic church in the United States is St. Marks Coptic Orthodox Church, which was established in the late 1960s in Jersey City, there are many Coptic Orthodox churches and congregations in the United States. Estimated numbers of adherents, based on membership, was between 350,000 and 420,000. Based on the estimates of certain Coptic organizations, the number was between 700,000 and one million in the year 2002, currently, there are over 200 parishes in the United States that serve the expanding Coptic Orthodox population. The church has a population when compared to other smaller Christian bodies, yet is one of the least known Christian churches
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Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States
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This article is about Coptic Orthodoxy in the United States. For a list of Coptic parishes in the US, see list of Coptic Orthodox Churches in the United States The immigration of the Copts to the United States of America started as early as the late 1940s. After 1952, the rate of Coptic immigration from Egypt to the United States increased, the first Coptic church in the United States is St. Marks Coptic Orthodox Church, which was established in the late 1960s in Jersey City, there are many Coptic Orthodox churches and Congregations in the United States. Estimated numbers of adherents, based on membership, was between 350,000 and 420,000. Based on the estimates of certain Coptic organizations, the number was between 700,000 and one million in 2002, currently, there are over 200 parishes in the United States that serve the expanding Coptic Orthodox population. The Church does have a population when compared to other smaller Christian bodies, yet is among one of the least known Christian Churches. Youssef, Bishop of the Southern Diocese & Abbot of the Monastery of Most Holy Virgin Mary & Saint Moses the Strong in Corpus Christi, Karas, General Bishop & Patriarchal Exarch in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, Archdiocese of North America. David, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of New York and New England, Michael, Suffragan Bishop of the Holy Suffragan Diocese of Alexandria and all Virginia, United States, assistant to the Pope. Peter, Bishop of the Holy Diocese of South Carolina, North Carolina, Kyrillos, General Bishop & assistant to HE Metropolitan Serapion in the Holy Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, & Hawaii. Abraham, General Bishop & assistant to HE Metropolitan Serapion in the Holy Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, for the Eritrean Orthodox Church congregation, Macarius, Bishop of the Eritrean Church in the USA. Member of the Eritrean Holy Synod. G, Bishop Karas, General Bishop & Patriarchal Exarch in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, Archdiocese of North America. H. G. Bishop Michael, Suffragan Bishop of the Holy Suffragan Diocese of Alexandria and all Virginia of the Archdiocese of North America, in the Archdiocese of North America, there are over 200 Coptic Orthodox Churches. E. Metropolitan Serapion who is the first Metropolitan of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, H. G Bishop Kyrillos, General Bishop of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California and Hawaii. H. G. Bishop Abraham, General Bishop of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, the Diocese has around 40 churches, a theological school and a charity organization called Saint Verena Charity, named after the Coptic Saint Verena). The Diocese serves about 41 churches and has 17 Hegumen and 40 Presbyters, the Diocese of Los Angeles is based at 3803 W. Mission Blvd. H. G. Bishop Youssef is the Bishop of the Diocese of Southern United States and also is the Abbot of the Monastery of Most Holy Virgin Mary & Saint Moses the Strong in Corpus Christi, Texas. As of May 2016 there were 39 Churches and 29 Communities in this diocese along with a convent in Dawsonville, Georgia, the diocese is headquartered in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex suburb of Colleyville, Texas
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