1.
Counterfeit
–
To counterfeit means to imitate something. Counterfeit products are fakes or unauthorised replicas of the real product, counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. Counterfeit products tend to have company logos and brands, have a reputation for being lower quality. This has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, due to automobile and aviation accidents, poisoning, the counterfeiting of money is usually attacked aggressively by governments worldwide. Paper money is the most popular product counterfeited, counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government and in deliberate violation of that countrys laws. The United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of American money. Forgery is the process of making or adapting documents with the intention to deceive and it is a form of fraud, and is often a key technique in the execution of identity theft. Uttering and publishing is a term in United States law for the forgery of documents, such as a trucking companys time. Questioned document examination is a process for investigating many aspects of various documents. Security printing is a printing industry specialty, focused on creating legal documents which are difficult to forge, the spread of counterfeit goods has become global in recent years and the range of goods subject to infringement has increased significantly. Apparel and accessories accounted for over 50 percent of the goods seized by U. S Customs. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates that up to US$200 Billion of international trade could have been in counterfeit and illegally copied goods in 2005. In November 2009, the OECD updated these estimates, concluding that the share of counterfeit and that represents an increase to US$250 billion worldwide. In a detailed breakdown of the counterfeit goods industry, the total loss faced by countries around the world is $600 billion, when calculating counterfeit products, current estimates place the global losses at $400 billion. Some see the rise in counterfeiting of goods as being related to globalisation and these new managers of production have little or no loyalty to the original corporation. They see that profits are being made by the brand for doing little and see the possibilities of removing the middle men. Certain consumer goods, especially expensive or desirable brands or those that are easy to reproduce cheaply, have become frequent. The counterfeiters either attempt to deceive the consumer into thinking they are purchasing a legitimate item, or convince the consumer that they could deceive others with the imitation
2.
Medication
–
A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
3.
Packaging and labeling
–
Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
4.
Antibiotic
–
Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
5.
Antimicrobial resistance
–
Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication previously used to treat them. This broader term also covers antibiotic resistance, which applies to bacteria, resistance arises through one of three ways, natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of mutations, or more commonly following gradual buildup over time. Resistant microbes are increasingly difficult to treat, requiring alternative medications or higher doses, microbes resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant, or sometimes superbugs. Antimicrobial resistance is on the rise with millions of deaths every year, Antibiotics should only be used when needed as prescribed by health professionals. The prescriber should closely adhere to the five rights of administration, the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential, rising drug resistance is caused mainly by improper use of antimicrobials in humans as well as in animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two. Antibiotics increase selective pressure in bacterial populations, causing vulnerable bacteria to die, with resistance to antibiotics becoming more common there is greater need for alternative treatments. Calls for new antibiotic therapies have been issued, but new development is becoming rarer. Antibiotic resistance—when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infections—is now a threat to public health. Increasing public calls for collective action to address the threat include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not fully mapped, but poorer countries with weak healthcare systems are more affected, the WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganisms resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics, resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe. Bacteria with resistance to antibiotics predate medical use of antibiotics by humans, however and this may result in emergence of resistance in any remaining bacteria. Antibiotic use in feed at low doses for growth promotion is an accepted practice in many industrialized countries and is known to lead to increased levels of resistance. It is uncertain whether antibacterials in soaps and other products contribute to antibiotic resistance, increasing bacterial resistance is linked with the volume of antibiotic prescribed, as well as missing doses when taking antibiotics. Up to half of antibiotics used in humans are unnecessary and inappropriate, a single regimen of antibiotics even in compliant individuals leads to a greater risk of resistant organisms to that antibiotic in the person for a month to possibly a year
6.
Generic drug
–
A generic drug is a pharmaceutical drug that is equivalent to a brand-name product in dosage, strength, route of administration, quality, performance, and intended use. The term may refer to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising. Although they may not be associated with a company, generic drugs are usually subject to government regulations in the countries where they are dispensed. They are labeled with the name of the manufacturer and a generic name such as the United States Adopted Name or international nonproprietary name of the drug. A generic drug must contain the active ingredients as the original brand-name formulation. The U. S. Biopharmaceuticals such as monoclonal antibodies differ biologically from small molecule drugs, Generic versions of these drugs, known as biosimilars, are typically regulated under an extended set of rules. In most cases, generic products become available after the patent protections afforded to an original developer expire. Once generic drugs enter the market, competition leads to substantially lower prices for both the original brand-name product and its generic equivalents. In most countries, patents give 20 years of protection, manufacturers, wholesalers, insurers, and drugstores can each increase prices at various stages of production and distribution. In 2014, according to an analysis by the Generic Pharmaceutical Association, Generic drug names are constructed using standardized affixes that distinguish drugs between and within classes and suggest their action. When a pharmaceutical company first markets a drug, it is usually under a patent that, until it expires, large pharmaceutical companies often spend millions of dollars protecting their patents from generic competition. Apart from litigation, they may reformulate a drug or license a subsidiary to sell generics under the original patent, generics sold under license from the patent holder are known as authorized generics. Generic drugs are sold for significantly lower prices than their branded equivalents. One reason for this is that competition increases among producers when a drug is no longer protected by patents, the prices are often low enough for users in less-prosperous countries to afford them. For example, Thailand has imported millions of doses of a version of the blood-thinning drug Plavix from India. Many drugs introduced by generic manufacturers have already been on the market for a decade or more and may already be known to patients and providers. In the United Kingdom, generic drug pricing is controlled by the governments reimbursement rate, the price paid by pharmacists and doctors is determined mainly by the number of license holders, the sales value of the original brand, and the ease of manufacture. A typical price decay graph will show a scalloped curve, which starts at the brand-name price on the day of generic launch
7.
Intellectual property
–
Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
8.
Health
–
Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
9.
World Health Organization
–
The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
10.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
11.
Radio-frequency identification
–
Radio-frequency identification uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information, Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a power source such as a battery. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues, ISO/IEC18000 and ISO/IEC29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air privacy. ISO/IEC20248 specifies a digital data structure for RFID and barcodes providing data, source. This work is done within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC31 Automatic identification, in 2014, the world RFID market is worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, the market value is expected to rise to US$18.68 billion by 2026. In 1945, Léon Theremin invented a tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was routinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day, another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman. Considerable research and development work has to be done before the basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved. Mario Cardullos device, patented on January 23,1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, the basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation, banking, security and medical. An early demonstration of reflected power RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973, the portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983. A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified, two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags can be passive, active or battery-assisted passive
12.
Serial code
–
A serial code is a unique identifier assigned incrementally or sequentially to an item. It is also called a number, although it may be a character string that includes letters and other typographical symbols. Serial numbers identify otherwise identical individual units with many, obvious uses, Serial numbers are a deterrent against theft and counterfeit products, as they can be recorded, and stolen or otherwise irregular goods can be identified. Banknotes and other documents of value bear serial numbers to assist in preventing counterfeiting and tracing stolen ones. They are valuable in quality control, as once a defect is found in the production of a batch of product. Serial numbers may be used to identify individual physical or intangible objects, the purpose and application is different. A software serial number, otherwise called product key, is not embedded in the software. The software will function if a potential user enters a valid product code. The vast majority of codes are rejected by the software. If an unauthorised user is found to be using the software, the term serial number is sometimes used for codes which do not identify a single instance of something. It takes its name from the library use of the word serial to mean a periodical. Certificates and certificate authorities are necessary for use of cryptography. These depend on applying mathematically rigorous serial numbers and serial number arithmetic, the term serial number is also used in military formations as an alternative to the expression service number. Because of this, the number is sometimes called a tail number. LZ548/G—the prototype de Havilland Vampire jet fighter, or ML926/G—a de Havilland Mosquito XVI experimentally fitted with H2S radar, the serial number follows the aircraft throughout its period of service. In 2009 the U. S. FDA published draft guidance for the industry to use serial numbers on prescription drug packages. This measure will enhance the traceability of drugs and help to prevent counterfeiting, Serial numbers are often used in network protocols. However, most sequence numbers in computer protocols are limited to a number of bits
13.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
14.
Raman spectroscopy
–
Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used to observe vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. Raman spectroscopy is used in chemistry to provide a fingerprint by which molecules can be identified. It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, the shift in energy gives information about the vibrational modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy yields similar, but complementary, information, typically, a sample is illuminated with a laser beam. Electromagnetic radiation from the spot is collected with a lens. Historically, Raman spectrometers used holographic gratings and multiple stages to achieve a high degree of laser rejection. In the past, photomultipliers were the detectors of choice for dispersive Raman setups, for the spontaneous Raman effect, which is a form of inelastic light scattering, a photon excites the molecule in either the ground rovibronic state or an excited rovibronic state. This results in the molecule being in a virtual energy state for a short period of time before an inelastically scattered photon results. The resulting inelastically scattered photon which is emitted/scattered can be of lower or higher energy than the incoming photon. This shift in frequency is designated as a Stokes shift, if the final vibrational state is less energetic than the initial state, then the inelastically scattered photon will be shifted to a higher frequency, and this is designated as an anti-Stokes shift. In particular, the difference is equal to the difference in energy between the initial and final states and this contrasts with infrared absorption, where the energy of the single absorbed photon matches this difference in energy. Rayleigh scattering is an example of scattering, where the frequency of the Rayleigh scattered light is the same as that of the incoming electromagnetic radiation. The intensity of the Raman scattering is proportional to the electric dipole-electric dipole polarizability change, the Raman spectra is dependent on the rovibronic states of the sample. Bands which have large Raman intensities in many cases have weak infrared intensities, for very symmetric molecules, certain vibrations may be both infrared and Raman inactive. In those instances, one can use a technique called inelastic incoherent neutron scattering to determine the vibrational frequencies, the selection rules for inelastic incoherent neutron scattering are different from those of both infrared and Raman scattering. Although the inelastic scattering of light was predicted by Adolf Smekal in 1923, the Raman effect was named after one of its discoverers, the Indian scientist Sir C. V. Raman who observed the effect by means of sunlight. He found that an amount of light had changed frequency
15.
China Food and Drug Administration
–
The China Food and Drug Administration was founded on the basis of the former State Food and Drug Administration. In March 2013, the body was rebranded and restructured as the China Food and Drug Administration. The headquarters are in Xicheng District, Beijing, the CFDA replaced a large group of overlapping regulators with an entity similar to the Food and Drug Administration of the United States, streamlining regulation processes for food and drug safety. The State Food and Drug Administration is not responsible for regulating pharmaceutical ingredients manufactured and exported by chemical companies, the CFDA is responsible for registration of medical devices for the Chinese market. All medical devices have to be classified by the CFDA according to its risk in 3 classes, thy system is undergoing frequent changes and adjustments. In October 2013, more than 104 new YY Standards have been released
16.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
17.
Xinhua News Agency
–
The Xinhua News Agency is the official press agency of the Peoples Republic of China. Xinhua is the biggest and most influential organization in China. Xinhua is a ministry-level institution subordinate to the Chinese central government and its president is a member of the Central Committee of Chinas Communist Party. Xinhua operates more than 170 foreign bureaus worldwide, and maintains 31 bureaus in China—one for each province, Xinhua is the sole channel for the distribution of important news related to the Communist Party and Chinese central government. Xinhua is regarded as the most influential media outlet in China as almost every newspaper in China relies on Xinhua feeds for content, Peoples Daily, for example, uses Xinhua material for approximately 25 percent of its stories. The Xinhua press agency was started in November 1931 as the Red China News Agency, during the Pacific War the agency developed overseas broadcasting capabilities and established its first overseas branches. It began broadcasting to foreign countries in English from 1944, when the communists took power in China, the agency represented the Chinese Communist Party in countries and territories with which it had no diplomatic representation, such as Hong Kong. The agency was described as the eyes and tongue of the Party, observing what is important for the masses and passing on the information. A former Xinhua director, Zheng Tao, noted that the agency was a bridge between the Party, the government and the people, communicating both the demands of the people and the policies of the Party. Like many other organizations, Xinhua struggled to find the right line to use in covering the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Even so, many Xinhua reporters were angry with top editors for not going far enough, for several days after the violence on June 4, almost no one at Xinhua did any work, and journalists demonstrated inside the Agencys Beijing compound. It has made contracts to exchange news and news pictures with more than eighty foreign news agencies or political news departments, Xinhua is also responsible for handling, and in some cases, censoring reports from foreign media destined to release in China. The agency recently began to converge its news and electronic media coverage and has increased its English coverage through its wire service, Xinhua recently acquired commercial real estate on New Yorks Times Square and is developing a staff of top-tier English-language reporters. Xinhua has also started an English-language satellite news network, the State values these internal reports because they contain much of Chinas most sensitive, controversial, and high-quality investigative journalism. Xinhua produces reports for the internal journals, the Chinese governments internal media publication system follows a strict hierarchical pattern designed to facilitate party control. A three-to-ten-page report called Internal Reference is distributed to officials at the ministerial level, one example was the first reports on the SARS outbreak by Xinhua which only government officials were allowed to see. The most classified Xinhua internal reports are issued occasionally to the top dozen or so party, the Xinhua headquarters is located in Beijing. The Xinhua News Agency established its first overseas affiliate in 1947 in London, now it distributes its news in Asia, Middle East, Latin America, Africa where run the superior offices, in Hong Kong, Macau and many foreign countries and districts
18.
World Wide Web
–
The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
19.
Central Drugs Standard Control Organization
–
Within the CDSCO, the Drug Controller General of India regulates pharmaceutical and medical devices, under the gamut of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The DCGI is advised by the Drug Technical Advisory Board and the Drug Consultative Committee and it is divided into zonal offices which do pre-licensing and post-licensing inspections, post-market surveillance, and recalls when needed. Though the CDSCO has a track record with the World Health Organization, it has also been accused of past collusion with independent medical experts. CDSCO plans to open offices in Beijing, China. Official Central Drugs Standard Control Organization Website
20.
Pakistan
–
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
21.
Punjab Institute of Cardiology
–
Punjab Institute of Cardiology, located in Lahore, Pakistan, is a 292-bed tertiary care hospital providing nationwide comprehensive cardiac care services for the last 18 years. Its services include emergency, OPD, diagnostics, interventional and invasive cardiology. Fully equipped cardiac ambulatory services are available round the clock. More than 160,000 patients are examined annually at OPD, Punjab Institute of Cardiology is also actively involved in research and postgraduate training in cardiology, cardiac surgery and anesthesia. It is the first ISO certified hospital in the government sector, a problem that occurred in January 2012 at this institution showed a problem with drug packaging. That month more than 100 heart patients died of overdoses from a drug that had inadequate labeling. Hundreds more patients suffered nonfatal adverse reactions from this drug and this problem, while bringing unwanted attention to the Punjab Institute of Cardiology, was not unique to that hospital system. Official website Journal of CV diseases by PIC
22.
Steroids
–
A steroid is an organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific configuration. Examples include the dietary lipid cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, the steroid core structure is composed of seventeen carbon atoms, bonded in four fused rings, three six-member cyclohexane rings and one five-member cyclopentane ring. Steroids vary by the groups attached to this four-ring core. Sterols are forms of steroids with a group at position three and a skeleton derived from cholestane. They can also vary more markedly by changes to the ring structure, hundreds of steroids are found in plants, animals and fungi. All steroids are manufactured in cells from the sterols lanosterol or cycloartenol, lanosterol and cycloartenol are derived from the cyclization of the triterpene squalene. The three cyclohexane rings form the skeleton of a derivative of phenanthrene. The D ring has a cyclopentane structure, when the two methyl groups and eight carbon side chains are present, the steroid is said to have a cholestane framework. The following are some categories of steroids. In eukaryotes, steroids are found in fungi, animals, animal steroids include compounds of vertebrate and insect origin, the latter including ecdysteroids such as ecdysterone. Steroid hormones include, Sex hormones, which influence sex differences and these include androgens, estrogens, and progestagens. In popular use, the term often refers to anabolic steroids. Plant steroids include steroidal alkaloids found in Solanaceae, the phytosterols, in prokaryotes, biosynthetic pathways exist for the tetracyclic steroid framework – where its origin from eukaryotes is conjectured – and the more-common pentacyclic triterpinoid hopanoid framework. One example of how MeSH performs this classification is available at the Wikipedia MeSH catalog, examples of this classification include, The gonane is the parent 17-carbon tetracyclic hydrocarbon molecule with no alkyl sidechains. Secosteroids are a subclass of steroidal compounds resulting, biosynthetically or conceptually, major secosteroid subclasses are defined by the steroid carbon atoms where this scission has taken place. Norsteroids and homosteroids are structural subclasses of steroids formed from biosynthetic steps, the former involves enzymic ring expansion-contraction reactions, and the latter is accomplished or through ring closures of acyclic precursors with more ring atoms than the parent steroid framework. Combinations of these alterations are known in nature. Ingestion of these C-nor-D-homosteroids results in defects in lambs, cyclopia from cyclopamine
23.
Heparin
–
Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin, is medication which is used as a blood thinner. Specifically it is used to treat and prevent deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism and it is also used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. It is given by injection into a vein, other uses include inside test tubes and kidney dialysis machines. Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, serious side effects include heparin induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with kidney function. Heparin appears to be safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Heparin is a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan, the discovery of heparin was announced in 1916. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost in the developing world, when used for prevention, is about 9.63 to 37.95 USD per month. In the United States it costs about 25 to 50 USD per month, a fractionated version of heparin, known as low molecular weight heparin is also available. Heparin is a naturally occurring anticoagulant produced by basophils and mast cells, in therapeutic doses, it acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While heparin does not break down clots that have already formed, Heparin is generally used for anticoagulation for the following conditions, Acute coronary syndrome, e. g. This condition is usually reversed on discontinuation, and in general can be avoided with the use of synthetic heparins, also, a benign form of thrombocytopenia is associated with early heparin use, which resolves without stopping heparin. Two non-hemorrhagic side-effects of heparin treatment are known, the first is elevation of serum aminotransferase levels, which has been reported in as many as 80% of patients receiving heparin. This abnormality is not associated with liver dysfunction, and it disappears after the drug is discontinued, the other complication is hyperkalemia, which occurs in 5 to 10% of patients receiving heparin, and is the result of heparin-induced aldosterone suppression. The hyperkalemia can appear within a few days after the onset of heparin therapy, more rarely, the side-effects alopecia and osteoporosis can occur with chronic use. As with many drugs, overdoses of heparin can be fatal, in September 2006, heparin received worldwide publicity when three prematurely born infants died after they were mistakenly given overdoses of heparin at an Indianapolis hospital. Heparin is contraindicated in those with risk of bleeding, severe liver disease, protamine sulfate has been given to counteract the anticoagulant effect of heparin. It may be used in those who overdose on heparin or to reverse heparins effect when it is no longer needed, heparins normal role in the body is unclear
24.
PROTECT IP Act
–
The bill was introduced on May 12,2011, by Senator Patrick Leahy and 11 bipartisan co-sponsors. The Senate Judiciary Committee passed the bill, but Senator Ron Wyden placed a hold on it, the PROTECT IP Act is a re-write of the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which failed to pass in 2010. A similar House version of the bill, the Stop Online Piracy Act, was introduced on October 26,2011. In the wake of protests held on January 18,2012. The bill defines infringement as distribution of copies, counterfeit goods. Infringement exists if facts or circumstances suggest is used, primarily as a means for engaging in, enabling, the bill says that it does not alter existing substantive trademark or copyright law. The bill requires the Attorney General to serve notice to the defendant, the term information location tool is borrowed from the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and is understood to refer to search engines but could cover other sites that link to content. In addition, it must delete all hyperlinks to the offending Internet site, the website could still be reached by its IP address, but links or users that used the website’s domain name would not reach it. The PROTECT IP Act has received support in the Senate, with introduction sponsorship by Senator Patrick Leahy. The bill is supported by copyright and trademark owners in business, industry, the U. S. Chamber of Commerce and AFL-CIO have come together in support of the bill. Hirschmann promised to use every tool in our toolbox to make members of Congress know what’s in these bills. Constitutional expert Floyd Abrams, representing the MPAA and related trade groups, massachusetts Senator Scott Brown has also publicly voiced his opposition to the legislation as well as its sister bill in the House, SOPA. Congressional opponents of PROTECT IP have introduced a bill called the Online Protection. Among those who oppose the legislation are the Mozilla Corporation, Facebook, Electronic Frontier Foundation, eBay, American Express, reddit, Google, Reporters Without Borders, Human Rights Watch, English Wikipedia, Entertainment Consumers Association and Uncyclopedia. The Tea Party Patriots have argued that the bill is bad for consumers, english-language Wikipedia sites joined other Internet sites in protesting the PIPA and SOPA legislation by staging a blackout of service for 24 hours on January 18,2012. Many websites protested, including, Wikipedia, CNet and Cheezburger network sites, some websites denied access to their websites altogether. Campaigner Peter Bradwell of the Open Rights Group argues how this act could have an influence among other countries who are also considering this bill. These two bills are too broad and so badly worded that perfectly lawful sites could be censored, one reason were joining these protests is that we face very similar issues in UK copyright-enforcement policies
25.
NAFDAC
–
The immediate past director-general of NAFDAC, Paul Orhii, holds a PhD in medicine. The organization was formed to checkmate illicit and counterfeit products in Nigeria in 1993 under the countrys health, adulterated and counterfeit drugs are a problem in Nigeria. In one 1989 incident, over 150 children died as a result of paracetamol syrup containing diethylene glycol, the problem of fake drugs was so severe that neighbouring countries such as Ghana and Sierra Leone officially banned the sale of drugs, foods and beverages products made in Nigeria. The formation of NAFDAC was inspired by a 1988 World Health Assembly resolution requesting countries help in combating the global threat posed by counterfeit pharmaceuticals. In December 1992, NAFDACs first governing council was formed, the council was chaired by Tanimu Saulawa. In January 1993, supporting legislation was approved as legislative Decree No.15 of 1993, three people from the general public are also represented on the council. The Public Relations unit is headed by the director-general’s office and its main function is to inform, sensitivize, enlighten and create awareness concerning the role of the Agency. The agency is divided into eight directorates with the last two newly added, internal Audit provides a means of measuring the effectiveness of the system of internal control and accounting, and carries out special investigations. NAFDAC has various basic functions. Despite the establishment of NAFDAC, dissatisfied with progress in combating fake drugs, President Olusegun Obasanjos administration dissolved the management of NAFDAC in August 2000. In April 2001, a new management team, with Dora Akunyili as director-general, was inaugurated, release of shipping and cargo manifests by the Nigerian Ports Authority, shipping lines and airlines to NAFDAC inspectors. For several years, Nigeria was drowned in an ocean of fake drugs, then “Dora Akunyili approached her job with zeal…, to preserve in ridding the Nigerian market of fake drugs and contaminated water sold as “pure water. The activities of NAFDAC have been the subject of scrutiny in recent years. In one high-profile case, the former NAFDAC director of finance and accounts, Andrew Ademola Mogbojuri, alleged fraud in 2015 against the agencys director-general. The agency claimed sour grapes was behind the allegation and labelled Mogbojuris claim misleading, Orhii was also the subject of a sweeping fraud allegation by NAFDAC whistleblowers earlier in 2015. A petition was sent to Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari, alleging frivolous contract awards and supplies, manipulated publicity efforts, donations, some of the worlds largest brewers have been caught up in NAFDAC scandals as well. The bribes amount to millions of Naira, guinness was back in the NAFDAC glare in 2016. NAFDAC ensures it maintains close contact with a number of national and international organizations whose activities relate to the functions of NAFDAC. Dora Akunyili RxNigeria. com - An online database of pharmaceuticals, the database is searchable by Brand Name, Generic Name, Therapeutic Class and Pharmaceutical Company
26.
SMS
–
Short Message Service is a text messaging service component of most telephone, World Wide Web, and mobile telephony systems. It uses standardized protocols to enable mobile phone devices to exchange short text messages. SMS, as used on modern handsets, originated from radio telegraphy in radio memo pagers that used standardized phone protocols and these were defined in 1985 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications series of standards. The protocols allowed users to send and receive messages of up to 160 alpha-numeric characters to, though most SMS messages are mobile-to-mobile text messages, support for the service has expanded to include other mobile technologies, such as ANSI CDMA networks and Digital AMPS. SMS is also employed in marketing, a type of direct marketing. Adding text messaging functionality to mobile devices began in the early 1980s, the first action plan of the CEPT Group GSM was approved in December 1982, requesting that, The services and facilities offered in the public switched telephone networks and public data networks. Should be available in the mobile system and this plan included the exchange of text messages either directly between mobile stations, or transmitted via message handling systems in use at that time. The SMS concept was developed in the Franco-German GSM cooperation in 1984 by Friedhelm Hillebrand, the GSM is optimized for telephony, since this was identified as its main application. In this way, unused resources in the system could be used to transport messages at minimal cost, however, it was necessary to limit the length of the messages to 128 bytes so that the messages could fit into the existing signalling formats. Based on his observations and on analysis of the typical lengths of postcard and Telex messages. SMS could be implemented in every mobile station by updating its software, hence, a large base of SMS-capable terminals and networks existed when people began to use SMS. The technical development of SMS was a multinational collaboration supporting the framework of standards bodies, through these organizations the technology was made freely available to the whole world. The first proposal which initiated the development of SMS was made by a contribution of Germany and this proposal was further elaborated in GSM subgroup WP1 Services based on a contribution from Germany. There were also discussions in the subgroup WP3 network aspects chaired by Jan Audestad. The result was approved by the main GSM group in a June 85 document which was distributed to industry, the input documents on SMS had been prepared by Friedhelm Hillebrand with contributions from Bernard Ghillebaert. The last three words transformed SMS into something more useful than the prevailing messaging paging that some in GSM might have had in mind. SMS was considered in the main GSM group as a service for the new digital cellular system. In GSM document Services and Facilities to be provided in the GSM System, the discussions on the GSM services were concluded in the recommendation GSM02.03 TeleServices supported by a GSM PLMN
27.
Sproxil
–
The service was the first Mobile Authentication Service to launch in Nigeria. The ISO27001 and ISO9001 certified company also offers supply chain protection solutions, mobile-based loyalty and marketing programs, Sproxil has operations in Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and India. Sproxil’s service places a security label with a panel on all protected products. Consumers scratch off the panel at point of purchase to reveal a unique one-time use code and this is a form of mass serialization. The code is sent via SMS or mobile app to a short code. The company also has a 24/7 call center to support during the verification process. Sproxil’s services are used by several pharmaceutical companies in the fight against counterfeit drugs. The fake drug market, according to the World Customs Organization, is estimated to be a $200 Billion a year industry. The problem of drugs is particularly acute in emerging markets. To date, Sproxil protects products across over ten industries, including pharmaceuticals, agribusiness, automotive parts, in 2010, NAFDAC, the Nigerian government agency overseeing food and drugs, endorsed the Sproxil platform and the service has been widely deployed throughout Nigeria. In April 2011, CNN published a video discussing the role Sproxil played in the fight against counterfeit drugs in Nigeria. Sproxil CEO Ashifi Gogo was praised by former United States President Bill Clinton, funding is being used to help the company expand into India. Johnson & Johnson and GSK are using Sproxil services in Africa as is the Nigerian distributor of Merck KGaA named Biofem, in June 2011, Sproxil launched operations in India and in July 2011 Kenyas Pharmacy and Poisons Board also adopted similar text message-based anti-counterfeiting systems. As of early 2012, Sproxil announced that more than one people in Africa had checked their medicines using the text-message based verification service developed by Sproxil. In August 2012, Sproxil and Bharti Airtel, a global telecommunications company announced a partnership to combat the drug market in Africa using MPA. Airtel will offer the service free to its users and not charge for any SMS based verification. In February 2013, Sproxil signed on East African Cables to protect their electric cables through the Zinduka Initiative, the initiative utilizes the MPA solution to help consumers verify that their electrical cables are genuine before purchase. This partnership marked Sproxils further expansion into non-pharmaceutical markets, other industries that uses Sproxils solution is textile and clothing
28.
XML
–
In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
29.
LSD
–
Lysergic acid diethylamide, also known as acid, is a psychedelic drug known for its psychological effects. This may include altered awareness of the surroundings, perceptions, and feelings as well as sensations and it is used mainly as a recreational drug and for spiritual reasons. LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue and it is often sold on blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. However, adverse reactions such as anxiety, paranoia. LSD is in the ergoline family, LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, though it may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is odorless and clear or white in color, as little as 20–30 micrograms can produce an effect. LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in Switzerland in 1938 from ergotamine, the laboratory name for the compound was the acronym for the German Lyserg-säure-diäthylamid, followed by a sequential number, LSD-25. Hofmann discovered its properties in 1943. LSD was introduced as a medication under the trade-name Delysid for various psychiatric uses in 1947. In the 1950s, officials at the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency thought the drug might be useful for mind control and chemical warfare and tested the drug on young servicemen and students, and others without their knowledge. The subsequent recreational use by youth culture in the Western world as part of 1960s counterculture resulted in its prohibition, LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine. LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug, LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences, during which users may feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Users sometimes report out of body experiences, in 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament. LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite, and wakefulness, other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions, trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD by mouth, peak three to four hours after ingestion, and last up to 12 hours. It is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur, some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD causes an animated experience of senses, emotions, memories, time. Generally beginning within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts, changes in auditory and visual perception are typical
30.
Methamphetamine
–
Methamphetamine is a strong central nervous system stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational drug and less commonly as a treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity. Methamphetamine was discovered in 1893 and exists as two enantiomers, levo-methamphetamine and dextro-methamphetamine, Methamphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical, the racemic free base, which is an equal mixture of levomethamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in their pure amine forms. Dextromethamphetamine is a much stronger CNS stimulant than levomethamphetamine, both methamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine are illicitly trafficked and sold owing to their potential for recreational use. Levomethamphetamine is available as a drug for use as an inhaled nasal decongestant in the United States. While dextromethamphetamine is a potent drug, racemic methamphetamine is sometimes illicitly produced due to the relative ease of synthesis. In low doses, methamphetamine can elevate mood, increase alertness, concentration and energy in fatigued individuals, at higher doses, it can induce psychosis, breakdown of skeletal muscle, seizures and bleeding in the brain. Chronic high-dose use can precipitate unpredictable and rapid mood swings, prominent delusions, Methamphetamine is known to have a high addiction liability and dependence liability. Heavy recreational use of methamphetamine may lead to a post-acute-withdrawal syndrome, unlike amphetamine, methamphetamine is neurotoxic to human midbrain dopaminergic neurons. It has also shown to damage serotonin neurons in the CNS. This damage includes adverse changes in structure and function, such as reductions in grey matter volume in several brain regions. Methamphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine and substituted amphetamine chemical classes. It is related to the other dimethylphenethylamines as an isomer of these compounds. Methamphetamine is sometimes prescribed off label for narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia, in the United States, methamphetamines levorotary form is available in some over-the-counter nasal decongestant products. As methamphetamine is associated with a potential for misuse, the drug is regulated under the Controlled Substances Act and is listed under schedule II in the United States. Methamphetamine hydrochloride dispensed in the United States is required to include a warning regarding its potential for recreational misuse. Methamphetamine is often used recreationally for its effects as a potent euphoriant and stimulant as well as aphrodisiac qualities, according to a National Geographic TV documentary on methamphetamine, an entire subculture known as party and play is based around methamphetamine use. Members of this San Francisco sub-culture, which consists almost entirely of gay male methamphetamine users, due to its strong stimulant and aphrodisiac effects and inhibitory effect on ejaculation, with repeated use, these sexual encounters will sometimes occur continuously for several days on end. The crash following the use of methamphetamine in this manner is often severe
31.
Cocaine
–
Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins, mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, high doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes, Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery. Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure, Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This results in concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain. It can easily cross the barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the plant which are mostly grown in South America. In 2013,419 kilograms were produced legally and it is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD each year. With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine, after cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently used illegal drug globally. Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year, use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America. Between one and three percent of people in the world have used cocaine at some point in their life. In 2013 cocaine use resulted in 4,300 deaths. The leaves of the plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times. Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860, since 1961 the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime
32.
Russian roulette
–
Russian roulette is a lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against their head, and pulls the trigger. Russian refers to the country of origin, and roulette to the element of risk-taking and the spinning of the revolvers cylinder. Because only one chamber is loaded, the player has a one in x chance of being shot, so, for instance, if a revolver holds six rounds, the chance is one in six. That assumes that each chamber is likely to come to rest in the correct position. This only applies to swing-out cylinder type revolvers, and only if the cylinder is spun outside of the revolver, the number of pulls of the trigger before a round is expected to discharge is 3.5 or 6. However, the term Russian roulette does not appear in the story, the term Russian roulette was possibly first used in an eponymous 1937 short story by Georges Surdez. However, the story using a gun with one empty chamber out of six, instead of five empty chambers out of six. With the Russian army in Romania, around 1917, some officer would suddenly pull out his revolver, anywhere, at the table, remove a cartridge from the cylinder, spin the cylinder, snap it back in place, put it to his head and pull the trigger. There were five chances to one that the hammer would set off a live cartridge, in the epilogue to the book, Alex Haley states that Malcolm X revealed to him that he palmed the round. The incident is portrayed in the 1992 film adaptation of the autobiography, on December 25,1954, the American blues musician Johnny Ace killed himself in Texas, after a gun he pointed at his own head discharged. Sources including The Washington Post attribute this to Russian roulette, graham Greene relates in his first autobiography, A Sort of Life, that he played Russian roulette, alone, a few times as a teenager. In 1976, Finnish magician Aimo Leikas killed himself in front of a crowd while performing his Russian roulette act and he had been performing the act for about a year, selecting six bullets from a box of assorted live and dummy ammunition. John Hinckley, Jr. who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan in 1981, was known to have played Russian roulette, alone, Hinckley also took a picture of himself in 1980, pointing a gun at his head. PBS claims that William Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor and winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, had attempted suicide by playing a game of Russian roulette. On October 5,2003, psychological illusionist Derren Brown appeared to take part in a game of Russian roulette live on UK television. Two days later, a statement by the said they had been informed of the arrangements in advance. The BBC program Who Do You Think You Are, the family had previously believed he had died accidentally while cleaning his gun. On June 11,2016, MMA fighter Ivan JP Cole apparently killed himself by playing Russian roulette, There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette
33.
Drug packaging
–
Prescription bottles are containers that contain prescription drugs prescribed by physicians. Prescription bottles are found in pharmacies. Prescription bottles have been around since the 19th-century, throughout the 19th and 20th-centuries, prescription medication bottles were called medicinal bottles. There are many styles and shapes of prescription bottles and they come in, cylindrical and round, square, rectangular, oval, and other shapes. Other common colors include, Clear, blue, dark brown, green, packaging of prescriptions is often highly regulated, depending own the contents and the location. Child-resistant packaging is often called for, this consists of special caps or closures which are designed to deter children from opening the containers, the design is an attempt to clarify certain difficult aspects common to most prescription bottles. A cutout on the back of the bottle includes space for a card describing the effects. Fundamental to the design is a rubber ring that serves as a color code so different members of a household can distinguish their individual prescriptions. An overall priority is given to distinguishability, the most important information are placed prominently on the half of the label. Other innovations include revised warning symbols and labels and a small magnifying strip that can be inserted into the side of the bottle for customers with visual impairments. Liquid medicine bottles are not quite as distinctive, but feature a spill proof cap coupled with a syringe that is claimed to be more accurate than spoon dispensing. The liquid medicine bottles also feature the ring around the neck. The design won the Design of the Decade award from the Industrial Designers Society of America in 2010 and is included in the Museum of Modern Arts permanent collection. After Target sold their in-store pharmacy and clinic operations to CVS Health in December 2015, adler, Klaus Rosburg, Patrick L. Douglas, Matthew S. Grisik, Pharmacy Bottle System Including Label, issued 2007-12-25 US patent D542661, Deborah B. Adler, Klaus Rosburg, Patrick Douglas, Matthew S. Grisik, Bottle, issued 2007-5-15
_(27058270798).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
. PMID 23641326.
