1.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Topographic prominence
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It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
3.
Garnedd Ugain
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Garnedd Ugain, often referred to as Crib-y-Ddysgl, is a mountain in Wales that forms part of the Snowdon Massif. It is the second highest peak in Wales, and lies just under one kilometre north of the summit of Snowdon itself. It is part of the Snowdon Horseshoe route, being linked to Crib Goch via the col at Bwlch Coch, and to Snowdon summit via the col at Bwlch Glas. It is also linked to Cwm Glas to the northeast via a steep arete called Clogwyn y Person, both Garnedd Ugain and Crib-y-Ddysgl appear on the Ordnance Surveys maps of the area. The name Crib-y-Ddysgl refers to the east ridge whilst the summit is Garnedd or Carnedd Ugain, Crib-y-Ddysgl is the name used by Alan Dawson for the peaks listing as a Hewitt. Carnedd Ugain in Welsh means Cairn of the Twenty and this was named after the Roman legion based in Caernarfon
4.
Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles
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The mountains and hills of Great Britain, and to a lesser extent Ireland, are the subject of a considerable number of lists that categorise them by height, topographic prominence, or other criteria. They are commonly used as a basis for peak bagging, whereby hillwalkers attempt to reach all the summits on a given list. The oldest and best known of these lists is that of the Munros, mountains in Scotland over 3,000 feet, other well-known lists include the Corbetts, Wainwrights and Marilyns. There is no consensus on the definition of mountain, but in Great Britain. The UK government defines mountain as land over 600 metres for the purposes of freedom of access, in addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500 feet. In practice, mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to as no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the Cuillin Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use, the Munros are mountains in Scotland over 3,000 ft. The list was compiled by Sir Hugh Munro in 1891. There are 282 Munros and 227 further tops, all of them in the Scottish Highlands, list of Munros The Murdos are an attempt to apply objective criteria to the Munros and their associated tops. They comprise all the summits in Scotland over 3,000 feet with a prominence of at least 30 metres, there are currently 442 Murdos, compared to 282 Munros or 509 Munros plus tops. The list was compiled by Alan Dawson, all Murdos are also Munro Tops, but many Munro Tops fail to qualify as Murdos because of insufficient relative height. Before 1997 there were seven Murdos that were not Munro Tops, all seven were included in the 1997 edition of Munros Tables, plus two non-Murdos, Little Pap on Lochnagar and Knights Peak on Sgurr nan Gillean or a UK top-tier administrative area. There are now 347 Hardys with the recent addition of 5 low lying English coastal estuary islands,61 hill ranges,96 islands and 190 administrative areas,183 are in England,31 in Wales,107 in Scotland and 26 in Northern Ireland. The list was first compiled in the 1990s by Ian Hardy, the Marilyns were supplemented in 2007 by the HuMPs which reduces the Prominence requirement to 100m. The list was compiled by Mark Jackson from a number of sources. There are almost 3,000 British HuMPs, including three in the Channel Islands, More recently, Mark Jackson compiled the TuMPs, a list of all hills in Britain having a prominence of 30 metres. By definition, all Murdos, Corbett Tops, Graham Tops, Hewitts, there are over 16,000 TuMPs, approximately half of that number that did not appear in previously researched lists were researched by Mark Jackson between 2006 and 2009. Since 2012 the list has been published and maintained by the editors of The Database of British and Irish Hills, a list of mountains, over 2, 000-foot-high, in England and Wales was published by Buxton & Lewis in 1986
5.
Welsh 3000s
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The Welsh 3000s are the 15 mountains in Wales that have a height of 3,000 feet or more. Geographically they fall within three ranges, all close to make it possible to reach all 15 summits within 24 hours. The length of this challenge is about 26 miles, but including the walk to and from any start point, most people undertaking the challenge walk it, and many achieve it in much less than 24 hours. The record for the stands at 4 hours 19 minutes. On 5 August 1989 a ladies record was set by Angela Carson in a time of 5 hours 28 minutes and 21 seconds. On 17/18 June 1978 John Wagstaff of West Bromwich Mountaineering Club completed a crossing in 22 hours 49 minutes. Many people choose to make the small diversion to include it on their traverse, there is also an option to include a sixteenth top, Castell y Gwynt in the Glyder range, which has been reclassified as a Nuttall since a survey in 2007. The Snowdonia Society maintains a database of persons visiting the 14 peaks in a single journey
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
8.
Gwynedd
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Gwynedd is an area in north-west Wales, named after the old Kingdom of Gwynedd. As a local government area, it is the second biggest in Wales in terms of geographical area, a majority of the population are Welsh-speaking. The name Gwynedd is also used for a county, covering the two local government areas of Gwynedd and the Isle of Anglesey. Culturally and historically, the name can also be used for most of North Wales, the current area is 2,548 square km with a population as measured in the 2011 Census of 121,874. Gwynedd is the home of Bangor University and includes the scenic Llŷn Peninsula, the largest settlements are Bangor, Caernarfon, Bethesda and Ffestiniog. The largest settlement in the south is Tywyn, in the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant collection of tribes - the same root as the Irish fine, meaning tribe. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə is the Indo-European stem, the Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a stone from c. AD500 which reads, Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis, the name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974, Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, the county was divided into five districts, Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey. The remainder of the county was constituted as an area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996, the present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, the pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, a further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police, the Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, the county has a mixed economy
9.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
10.
Snowdonia
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Snowdonia is a mountainous region in north Wales and a national park of 823 square miles in area. It was the first to be designated of the three parks in Wales, in 1951. The English name for the area derives from Snowdon, which is the highest mountain in Wales at 3,560 ft, in Welsh, the area is named Eryri. The term ‘Eryri’ first appeared in a manuscript in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum, in the Middle Ages the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia. This is apparent in books published prior to 1951, such as the classic travelogue Wild Wales by George Borrow, F. J. North, as editor of the book Snowdonia, states When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper. The traditional Snowdonia thus includes the ranges of Snowdon and its satellites, the Glyderau, the Carneddau and it does not include the hills to the south of Maentwrog. As Eryri, this area has a place in Welsh history, tradition. Snowdonia National Park was established in 1951 as the national park in Britain, following the Peak District. It covers 827 square miles, and has 37 miles of coastline, the park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which is made up of local government and Welsh representatives, and its main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth. Unlike national parks in countries, Snowdonia are made up of both public and private lands under central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership at Snowdonia is as follows, More than 26,000 people live within the park,58. 6% of the population could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is open or mountainous land. Since the local government re-organisation of 1998, the park partly in the county of Gwynedd. Unusually, Snowdonia National Park has a hole in the middle, around the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog and this was deliberately excluded from the park when it was set up to allow the development of new light industry to replace the reduced slate industry. The Snowdonia Society is a charity formed in 1967. It is a group of people with an interest in the area. Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine. Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013
11.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
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The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
12.
Topographic map
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Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation, however, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly called topographic. The study or discipline of topography is a broader field of study. Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys, performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property, the first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle, as such, elevation information was of vital importance. As they evolved, topographic map series became a resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and up to 66 cm wide, although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990, digital elevation models were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for security reasons. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments, by the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt, the various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads and these signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet. Topographic maps are commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the national series is organized by a strict 7. 5-minute grid. Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines, contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level
13.
Ordnance Survey
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Ordnance Survey is a non-ministerial government department which acts as the national mapping agency for Great Britain and is one of the worlds largest producers of maps. Since 1 April 2015 it has operated as Ordnance Survey Ltd, the Ordnance Survey Board remain accountable to the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. It is also a member of the Public Data Group, the agencys name indicates its original military purpose, mapping Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745. There was also a general and nationwide need in light of the potential threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Ordnance Survey mapping is usually classified as either large-scale or small-scale, the Surveys large-scale mapping comprises maps at six inches to the mile or more and was available as sheets until the 1980s, when it was digitised. Small-scale mapping comprises maps at less than six inches to the mile, such as the one inch to the mile leisure maps. These are still available in sheet form. Ordnance Survey maps remain in copyright for fifty years after their publication, some of the Copyright Libraries hold complete or near-complete collections of pre-digital OS mapping. The origins of the Ordnance Survey lie in the aftermath of the last Jacobite rising which was defeated by forces loyal to the government at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In 1747, Lieutenant-colonel David Watson proposed the compilation of a map of the Highlands to facilitate the subjugation of clans, in response, King George II charged Watson with making a military survey of the Highlands under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. Among Watsons assistants were William Roy, Paul Sandby and John Manson, the survey was produced at a scale of 1 inch to 1000 yards and included the Duke of Cumberlands Map now held in the British Library. This work was the point of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. Roys technical skills and leadership set the standard for which Ordnance Survey became known. Work was begun in earnest in 1790 under Roys supervision, when the Board of Ordnance began a military survey starting with the south coast of England. A set of stamps, featuring maps of the Kentish village of Hamstreet, was issued in 1991 to mark the bicentenary. In 1801, the first one-inch-to-the-mile map was published, detailing the county of Kent, during the next twenty years, roughly a third of England and Wales was mapped at the same scale under the direction of William Mudge, as other military matters took precedence. It took until 1823 to re-establish a relationship with the French survey made by Roy in 1787, by 1810, one inch to the mile maps of most of the south of England were completed, but were withdrawn from sale between 1811 and 1816 because of security fears. It was gruelling work, major Thomas Colby, later the longest serving director general of Ordnance Survey, in 1824, Colby and most of his staff moved to Ireland to work on a six-inches-to-the-mile valuation survey
14.
Scrambling
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Scrambling is a walk up steep terrain involving the use of ones hands. It is a term that lies somewhere between hiking, hillwalking, mountaineering, and easy rock climbing. Alpine scrambling is a term applied to scrambling in high mountains like the Alps and the Rockies of North America, the Mountaineers climbing organization defines alpine scrambling as follows, Alpine Scrambles are off-trail trips, often on snow or rock, with a non-technical summit as a destination. A non-technical summit is one that is reached without the need for certain types of climbing equipment, however, this can mean negotiating lower angle rock, traveling through talus and scree, crossing streams, fighting ones way through dense brush, and walking on snow-covered slopes. Although ropes may be sensible on harder scrambles, sustained use of rope and belay counts as climbing, typically, for this reason mountain walkers are advised to carry a rope on harder scrambles. Scramblers are also advised to know their limits and to turn back before they get into difficulties, some mountain tops may be reached by walking or scrambling up their least-steep side. The essence of a modern via ferrata is a cable which runs along the route and is periodically fixed to the rock. Using a via ferrata kit, climbers can secure themselves to the cable, the cable can also be used as aid to climbing, and additional climbing aids, such as iron rungs, pegs, carved steps and even ladders and bridges are often provided. Thus via ferratas allow otherwise dangerous routes to be undertaken without the associated with unprotected scrambling and climbing or the need for climbing equipment such as ropes. Many of theses routes include a bad step, where the scrambling suddenly becomes more serious. The bad step on Crib Goch for example, involves only 20 feet or so of climbing, the rock face here is well polished by countless boots, but there are many holds which offer firm support. By contrast, the traverse of the Cuillin Ridge on Skye demands use of a rope at one point at least, the ridge routes of Liathach and Beinn Eighe in Wester Ross are easier to traverse but are extremely exposed. Descent from such ridges is very limited, so once committed, an Teallach to the north offers scrambling, as does Stac Pollaidh further north in Sutherland, which includes a bad step. One resource for scramblers in Britain are the guides by W A Poucher, though these are now dated, a guide to 156 scrambling routes in the Canadian Rockies can be found in Scrambles in the Canadian Rockies by Alan Kane. Backpacker magazine has featured the book as an expedition guide. The Canadian Alpine Journal referred to it as a scree gospel, mount Jefferson is in Coos County, New Hampshire, and is the third highest mountain in the state. Mount Jefferson has a direct ascent along the Caps Ridge Trail, whose base and this route, gaining only 2,700 feet vertically to the summit, makes for the easiest ascent of any Presidential mountain. However, climbing over the caps involves some exposed scrambling and can be steep, many easy scrambles become serious climbs in bad weather
15.
National parks of England and Wales
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The national parks of England and Wales are areas of relatively undeveloped and scenic landscape that are designated under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. There are currently thirteen national parks in England and Wales, when national parks carry out these purposes they also have the duty to, seek to foster the economic and social well-being of local communities within the national parks. An estimated 110 million people visit the parks of England. Recreation and tourism bring visitors and funds into the parks, to sustain their efforts and support the local population through jobs. These visitors also bring problems, such as erosion and traffic congestion, before the 19th century, relatively wild, remote areas were often seen simply as uncivilised and dangerous. In 1725 Daniel Defoe described the High Peak as the most desolate, wild, however, by the early 19th century, romantic poets such as Byron, Coleridge and Wordsworth wrote about the inspirational beauty of the untamed countryside. Wordsworth described the English Lake District as a sort of property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. This early vision, based in the Picturesque movement, took over a century, the idea for a form of national parks was first proposed in the United States in the 1860s, where national parks were established to protect wilderness areas such as Yosemite. This model has been used in other countries since. After thousands of years of integration into the landscape, Britain lacks any substantial areas of wilderness. Furthermore, those areas of beauty so cherished by the romantic poets were often only maintained and managed in their existing state by human activity. Alongside of direct action trespasses, such as the trespass of Kinder Scout. In 1931, Christopher Addison chaired a government committee that proposed a National Park Authority to choose areas for designation as national parks, however, no further action was taken after the intervention of the 1931 General Election. The voluntary Standing Committee on National Parks first met on 26 May 1936 to put the case to the government for national parks in the UK, after World War II, the Labour Party proposed the establishment of national parks as part of the post-war reconstruction of the UK. Further, the distribution of selected areas should as far as practicable be such that at least one of them is quickly accessible from each of the centres of population in England. The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 was passed with all party support, the first ten national parks were designated as such in the 1950s under the Act in mostly poor-quality agricultural upland. Accessibility from the cities was also considered important, on 31 March 2009, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn announced that the South Downs would be designated a national park. The South Downs National Park came into effect on 31 March 2010, following the Environment Act 1995, each national park has been managed by its own national park authority since April 1997
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Rock climbing
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Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up, down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls. The goal is to reach the summit of a formation or the endpoint of a usually pre-defined route without falling. Due to the length and extended endurance required and because accidents are likely to happen on descent than ascent. It is very rare for a climber to downclimb, especially on the larger multiple pitches, professional Rock climbing competitions have the objectives of either completing the route in the quickest possible time or attaining the farthest point on an increasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to rock climbing, however, rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climbers weight as well as to provide balance. Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport, one that often tests a climbers strength, endurance, agility and it can be a dangerous activity and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialized climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes. Because of the range and variety of rock formations around the world. Paintings dating from 200 BC show Chinese men rock climbing China woop woop, in early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits. In the 1880s, European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside of mountain climbing, Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity. However, climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily, today, free climbing, climbing using holds made entirely of natural rock while using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement, is the most popular form of the sport. Free climbing has since divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belay configuration. Over time, grading systems have also created in order to compare more accurately the relative difficulties of the rock climbs. In How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to the top of a route is not enough, in rock climbing, style refers to the method of ascending the cliff. There are three styles of climbing, on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge and it is considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers, redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it. Free climbing is typically divided into styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used
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Pyramidal peak
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It may be an example of a nunatak. Glaciers, typically forming in drainages on the sides of a mountain, cirque glaciers have rotational sliding that abrades the floor of the basin more than walls and that causes the bowl shape to form. As cirques are formed by glaciation in an environment, the headwall. This occurs due to freeze/thaw and mass wasting beneath the ice surface and it is widely held that a common cause for headwall steepening and extension headward is the crevasses known as bergschrund that occur between the moving ice and the headwall. Plucking and shattering can be here by those exploring the crevasses. A cirque is exposed when the glacier that created it recedes, when three or more of these cirques converge on a central point, they create a pyramid-shaped peak with steep walls. These horns are a shape for mountain tops in highly glaciated areas. The number of faces of a horn depends on the number of involved in the formation of the peak. Horns with more than four faces include the Weissmies and the Mönch, a peak with four symmetrical faces is called a Matterhorn The peak of a glacial horn will often outlast the arêtes on its flanks. As the rock around it erodes, the gains in prominence. Eventually, a glacial horn will have vertical faces on all sides. In the Alps, horn is also the name of very exposed peaks with slope inclinations of 45-60°, upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. Illustrated Glossary of Alpine Glacial Landforms
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Glacial period
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A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago, the Holocene epoch is the current interglacial. A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state, within the Quaternary glaciation, there have been a number of glacials and interglacials. The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, occurring in the Pleistocene epoch, the glacial advance reached its maximum extent about 18,000 BP. In Europe, the ice sheet reached northern Germany, since orbital variations are predictable, computer models that relate orbital variations to climate can predict future climate possibilities. Work by Berger and Loutre suggests that the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years
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Snowdon
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Snowdon is the highest mountain in Wales, at an elevation of 1,085 metres above sea level, and the highest point in the British Isles south of the Scottish Highlands. It is located in Snowdonia National Park in Gwynedd, and has described as probably the busiest mountain in Britain. It is designated as a nature reserve for its rare flora. The cliff faces on Snowdon, including Clogwyn Dur Arddu, are significant for rock climbing, the summit also houses a cafe called Hafod Eryri, open only when the railway is operating and opened in 2009 to replace one built in the 1930s. The railway generally operates to the station from Whitsun to October. The daily running schedule depends on weather and customer demand, as well as other figures from Arthurian legend, the mountain is linked to a legendary afanc and the Tylwyth Teg. A1682 survey estimated that the summit of Snowdon was at a height of 3,720 feet, in 1773, Thomas Pennant quoted a later estimate of 3,568 ft above sea level at Caernarfon. Recent surveys give the height of the summit as 1,085 m, making Snowdon the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon is one of three mountains climbed as part of the National Three Peaks Challenge. The unique environment of Snowdon, particularly its rare plants, has led to its designation as a nature reserve. In addition to plants that are widespread in Snowdonia, Snowdon is home to some plants rarely found elsewhere in Britain, Snowdon lies in the northern part of Snowdonia National Park, which has also provided some legal protection since the parks establishment in 1951. The rocks which make up Snowdon and its neighbouring mountains were formed in the Ordovician Period. At that time, most of modern-day Wales was near the edge of Avalonia, in the Soudleyan stage of the Caradoc age, a volcanic caldera formed, and produced ash flows of rhyolitic tuff, which formed deposits up to 500 metres thick. The current summit is near the edge of the ancient caldera, the calderas full extent is unclear. Snowdon and its surrounding peaks have been described as examples of Alpine topography. The summits of Snowdon and Garnedd Ugain are surrounded by cwms, erosion by glaciers in adjacent cwms caused the characteristic arêtes of Crib Goch, Crib y Ddysgl and Y Lliwedd, and the pyramidal peak of Snowdon itself. Other glacial landforms that can be seen around Snowdon include roches moutonnées, glacial erratics, the English name Snowdon comes from the Old English snaw dun, meaning snow hill, as Snowdon often has a covering of snow. Although the amount of snow on Snowdon in winter varies significantly, the slopes of Snowdon have one of the wettest climates in Great Britain, receiving an annual average of more than 200 inches of precipitation. A number of lakes are found in the various cwms of the Snowdon range, Llyn Llydaw –1,430 feet high,110 acres – lies in Cwm Dyli, Snowdons eastern cwm, and is one of Snowdonias deepest lakes, at up to 190 ft deep
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Mountain pass
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A mountain pass is a route through a mountain range or over a ridge. At lower elevations it may be called a hill pass, the highest vehicle-accessible pass in the world appears to be Mana Pass, located in the Himalayas on the border between India and China. Mountain passes make use of a gap, saddle or col, a topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a topographic map, passes are characterized by lines with an hourglass shape. Passes are often found just above the source of a river, a pass may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or may be a valley many kilometres long, whose highest point might only be identifiable by surveying. Roads have long been built – and more recently railways – through passes, some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath to allow faster traffic flow throughout the year. The top of a pass is frequently the only ground in the area. If a national border follows a mountain range, a pass over the mountains is typically on the border, and there may be a control or customs station. For instance Argentina and Chile share the worlds third-longest international border,5,300 kilometres long, the border runs north-south along the Andes mountains, with a total of 42 mountain passes. On a road over a pass, it is customary to have a roadside sign giving the name of the pass. As well as offering relatively easy travel between valleys, passes also provide a route between two mountain tops with a minimum of descent. As a result, it is common for tracks to meet at a pass, passes traditionally were places for trade routes, communications, cultural exchange, military expeditions etc. A typical example is the Brenner pass in the Alps, some mountain passes above the tree line have problems with snow drift in the winter. This might be alleviated by building the road a few meters above the ground, there are many words for pass in the English-speaking world. In the United States, pass is very common in the West, the gap is common in the southern Appalachians, notch in parts of New England. Scotland has the Gaelic term bealach, while Wales has the similar bwlch, the roads at Mana Pass at 5,610 metres and Marsimik La at 5,582 metres, on and near the China-India border respectively, appear to be worlds two highest motorable passes. Media related to Mountain passes at Wikimedia Commons
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Cliff
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In geography and geology, a cliff is a vertical, or nearly vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by the processes of weathering, Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to weathering, sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs, an escarpment is a type of cliff, formed by the movement of a geologic fault or a landslide. Most cliffs have some form of slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock, in areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters, sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with tea tables or other types of rock columns remaining. Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline, the Ordnance Survey distinguishes between cliffs and outcrops. Cliff is a Romance loanword that has its origins in the Latin forms clivus / clevus. Given that a cliff need not be vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not. For example, given a vertical rock wall above a very steep slope. Listings of cliffs are thus inherently uncertain, some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example, an 8,000 m drop over a 4,250 m span can be found at a ridge sitting inside the Kermadec Trench. One candidate for highest cliff in the world is Nanga Parbats Rupal Face, according to other sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. The location of the worlds highest sea cliffs depends also on the definition of cliff that is used, guinness World Records states it is Kalaupapa, Hawaii, at 1,010 m high. Another contender is the face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1,683 m to Milford Sound. These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees. A more vertical drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia which is situated in the Torssukátak fjord area at the tip of South Greenland
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Llanberis Pass
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The Llanberis Pass in Snowdonia carries the main road from the south-east to Llanberis, over Pen-y-Pass, between the mountain ranges of the Glyderau and the Snowdon massif. At the bottom of the pass is the village of Nant Peris. The Llanberis Pass lies between the massifs of Snowdon and the Glyderau in the county of Gwynedd, in northwestern Wales. The summit of the pass is 359 m above sea level, the A4086 road traverses the pass. The Nant Peris valley lies to the northwest descending to the town of Llanberis, the Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn lakes and continues on as the Afon Rhythallt to Caernarfon and the Menai Strait. The valley is narrow, straight and steep-sided, with rocky crags, about one mile to the east of Pen-y-Pass is the Pen-y-Gwryd Hotel. To the east of this are the headwaters of the Dyffryn Mymbyr, to the south of Pen-y-gwryd are the headwaters of the Afon Glaslyn which flows southwestwards towards Beddgelert. Many fine crags are easily accessible from the road, and the area is popular with rock climbers and abseilers. On the north side, the crags are, Dinas y Gromlech, Carreg Wastad, Clogwyn y Grochan. On the south side, the principal roadside cliff is Dinas Mot, the Cromlech Boulders are used for bouldering. These roadside boulders were saved from destruction in a 1973 road widening scheme by a six-year protest by people, climbers, historians. Climbers particularly associated with the area include John Menlove Edwards and Joe Brown, the British 1953 Everest expedition also trained in the area, and were based at the Pen-y-Gwryd Hotel at the eastern end of the pass. A Walk down the Llanberis Pass An Illustrated Guide to the Llanberis Pass
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Pen-y-Pass
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Pen-y-Pass is a mountain pass in Snowdonia, Gwynedd, north-west Wales. It is a location from which to walk up Snowdon. Glyder Fawr, to the north, is accessible from here. Situated at the point of the Llanberis Pass at an altitude of 359 metres. It would be taken down the Miners Track to a store-house at Pen-y-Pass first, previously, the miners had had to move the ore over the Snowdon summit and down to Beddgelert, which is located at around a third the height of Snowdon. The Llanberis pass road extends beyond Pen-y-Pass to join the Beddgelert-to-Capel Curig road at the Pen-y-Gwryd hotel, the former Gorphwysfa Hotel at Pen-y-Pass is now a youth hostel operated by YHA, and opposite is an information centre and café and a Snowdonia National Park-run car park. There is also a car park at the foot of the Llanberis Pass at Nant Peris as well as others in Llanberis village. There is a park and ride bus service to Pen-y-pass car park and this service links Pen-y-Pass to Llanberis, Capel Curig, Betws-y-Coed, Beddgelert, Porthmadog, Rhyd Ddu and Waunfawr
24.
Glaslyn
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Glaslyn is a lake in the Snowdonia National Park in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. It is found at approximately 600 metres above sea level in a cwm on the flanks of Snowdon. It is an ellipse in shape, about 500 metres east–west and about 300 metres north–south. Glaslyn is the source of the Afon Glaslyn, the river of Gwynedd. In Welsh folklore, Arthur had Bedivere throw his sword Excalibur into Glaslyn, Arthurs men then retreated to a cave on the slopes of Y Lliwedd, where they are said to sleep until such time as they are needed. Merlin is supposed to have hidden the golden throne of Britain among the north of Crib y Ddysgl when the Saxons invaded. Glaslyn was also the resting place of a water monster, known as an afanc. They tempted the monster out of the water with a girl, before securing it with chains. A large stone known as Maen Dur Arddu, below Clogwyn Dur Arddu, is supposed to have magical powers. Like several other sites in Wales, it is said that if two people spend the night there, one will become a poet while the other will become insane. Llyn Coch in Cwm Clogwyn has been associated with the Tylwyth Teg, including a version of the fairy bride legend
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Llyn Llydaw
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Llyn Llydaw is a natural lake in Snowdonia National Park on the flanks of Snowdon, Wales highest mountain. This long thin lake has formed in a cwm about one-third of the way up the mountain and its special significance is that it is one of the most visited lakes in the United Kingdom. Thousands of people every year visit Snowdon and many walk past this lake on the Miners Track, Llyn Llydaw is the largest of the three lakes on Snowdons eastern flank. Higher up lies Glaslyn, and lower down lies Llyn Teyrn, the lake featured in Robson Greens Wild Swimming Adventure, chosen because it is allegedly the coldest lake in Britain. Greens website states that the water was 7 degrees Celsius, www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Llyn Llydaw and surrounding area
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Y Lliwedd
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Y Lliwedd is a mountain, connected to Snowdon in the Snowdonia National Park, North Wales. Its summit lies 2,946 ft above sea level, the eastern flanks are steep cliffs rising above Glaslyn and Llyn Llydaw. Y Lliwedd is the most conspicuous of the peaks for those who approach Snowdon via the Miners and Pyg tracks. Few that summit Snowdon continue over to Y Lliwedd as the challenge of Wales highest peak is enough, leaving Y Lliwedd quiet, hikers and mountaineers often pass over Y Lliwedd when walking the Snowdon Horseshoe. The noted British climber George Mallory undertook many of his early climbs here and it was also the site of considerable training activity for the 1953 British Everest Expedition. The north face of Y Lliwedd was explored in the late 19th century and in 1909 was the subject of the first British climbing guide, The climbs on Lliwedd by J. M. A. Thomson and A. W. Andrews. Two subsidiary peaks of Y Lliwedd are listed as Nuttalls, Lliwedd Bach 2699 ft, SH628532 and Y Lliwedd East Peak 2947 ft, www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Y Lliwedd and surrounding area
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Climate of the United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom straddles the geographic higher mid-latitudes between 49 and 61 N. It is on the seaboard of Afro-Eurasia, the worlds largest land mass. These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air, in general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy, and hot temperatures are infrequent. The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as an oceanic climate, or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system. Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude, eastern areas are drier, cooler, less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations. Northern areas are cooler, wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas. An example of this could be that in the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 °C, England is also sunnier throughout the year, but unlike Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland, the sunniest month is July, totaling 193.5 hours. It rains on fewer days in every month throughout the year than the rest of the UK, the climate of south-west England experiences a seasonal temperature variation, although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom. Gales are less common in England compared to Scotland, however on occasions there can be strong winds, and rarely. Some events such as the Great Storm of 1987 occurred near to the UK, the prevailing wind direction for England is normally the south-west. Northern Ireland is warmer than Scotland throughout the year, maximum temperatures are milder than in Wales from December to April, and milder than in England from December to February, but Northern Ireland is cooler during the rest of the year. Sunshine totals in every month are more than those of Scotland, Northern Ireland is drier and has fewer rainy days than Scotland throughout the year, except in May, when it rains on more days. Northern Ireland is also drier than Wales in every month, yet it rains on more days, the rainiest month is January, when 17.8 days have more than 1 mm of rain on average. Scotland has the coolest weather of any country in the United Kingdom throughout the year, Scotland is also the wettest country in every month, apart from in May, June and December, when Wales is wetter. The wettest month is January, with 170.5 mm on average, Scotland is also the cloudiest country throughout the year, apart from in June and July, when Northern Ireland is. Wales has warmer temperatures throughout the year than Scotland, and has milder winter minima than England, Wales is wetter throughout the year than Northern Ireland and England, but has fewer rainy days than Northern Ireland, meaning that rainfall tends to be more intense. Wales is also drier than Scotland in every month apart from May, June and December, sunshine totals throughout the year are more than that of Scotland and Northern Ireland, but less than that of neighbouring England. May is the sunniest month, averaging 186.8 hours, Spring is the period from March to May
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Rain
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Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated—that is, become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for power plants. The major cause of production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus which can organize into narrow rainbands. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass, the movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities, global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm, climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges, rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar. Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water. Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a mass of dry air. The amount of moisture in air is commonly reported as relative humidity. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated, warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it, the dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. There are four mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point, adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, the air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain. Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath, evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation
29.
Manchester Evening News
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The Manchester Evening News is a regional daily newspaper covering Greater Manchester in North West England. It is published every day except Sunday and is owned by Trinity Mirror plc following its sale by Guardian Media Group in early 2010 and it has an average daily circulation of 52,158, of which 24,560 are fully paid for. The paper was first published in 1868 by Mitchell Henry as part of his Parliamentary election campaign, shortly after the election the newspaper was sold to John Edward Taylor, the son of the founder and owner of the Manchester Guardian, becoming the evening counterpart of the morning newspaper. This is also where Trinity Mirror titles in North West England are printed, despite its evening title, the newspaper began publication of a morning edition in November 2004, a controversial move which brought union members to the brink of strike action over new work rotas. For years the paper was famous for its Football Green edition, after the MEN merged with the rival Manchester Evening Chronicle, its more popular Sporting Pink was adopted as the Football Pink. The Green and Pink names came from being printed in paper of those colours, in the 1970s the Saturday sports paper began using white newsprint, which had become by then the industry standard. The papers were printed in mobile presses inside newspaper vans usually parked near the stadiums, on 2 May 2006 the Evening News dropped the Lite edition in favour of a part-free, part-paid distribution model for the main paper. Copies were free in Manchester city centre, while readers outside that area continued to pay for the paper, in December 2006, the paper also began free distribution at Manchester Airport and hospitals throughout Greater Manchester. In December 2009, the announced that as of January 2010 the paper would no longer be handed out free Monday to Friday in the city centre. Instead they would be handed out free as previously on Thursdays and Fridays, Manchester Metro News—weekly sister paper Official website
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BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
31.
The Independent
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The Independent is a British online newspaper. The printed edition of the paper ceased in March 2016, nicknamed the Indy, it began as a broadsheet newspaper, but changed to tabloid format in 2003. Until September 2011, the paper described itself on the banner at the top of every newspaper as free from party political bias and it tends to take a pro-market stance on economic issues. The daily edition was named National Newspaper of the Year at the 2004 British Press Awards. In June 2015, it had a daily circulation of just below 58,000,85 per cent down from its 1990 peak. On 12 February 2016, it was announced that The Independent, the last print edition of The Independent on Sunday was published on 20 March 2016, with the main paper ceasing print publication the following Saturday. Launched in 1986, the first issue of The Independent was published on 7 October in broadsheet format and it was produced by Newspaper Publishing plc and created by Andreas Whittam Smith, Stephen Glover and Matthew Symonds. All three partners were former journalists at The Daily Telegraph who had left the paper towards the end of Lord Hartwells ownership, marcus Sieff was the first chairman of Newspaper Publishing, and Whittam Smith took control of the paper. The paper was created at a time of a change in British newspaper publishing. Rupert Murdoch was challenging long-accepted practices of the print unions and ultimately defeated them in the Wapping dispute, consequently, production costs could be reduced which, it was said at the time, created openings for more competition. As a result of controversy around Murdochs move to Wapping, the plant was effectively having to function under siege from sacked print workers picketing outside, the Independent attracted some of the staff from the two Murdoch broadsheets who had chosen not to move to his companys new headquarters. Launched with the advertising slogan It is, and challenging both The Guardian for centre-left readers and The Times as the newspaper of record, The Independent reached a circulation of over 400,000 by 1989. Competing in a market, The Independent sparked a general freshening of newspaper design as well as, within a few years. Some aspects of production merged with the paper, although the Sunday paper retained a largely distinct editorial staff. It featured spoofs of the other papers mastheads with the words The Rupert Murdoch or The Conrad Black, a number of other media companies were interested in the paper. Tony OReillys media group and Mirror Group Newspapers had bought a stake of about a third each by mid-1994, in March 1995, Newspaper Publishing was restructured with a rights issue, splitting the shareholding into OReillys Independent News & Media, MGN, and Prisa. In April 1996, there was another refinancing, and in March 1998, OReilly bought the other 54% of the company for £30 million, brendan Hopkins headed Independent News, Andrew Marr was appointed editor of The Independent, and Rosie Boycott became editor of The Independent on Sunday. Marr introduced a dramatic if short-lived redesign which won critical favour but was a commercial failure, Marr admitted his changes had been a mistake in his book, My Trade
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YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
33.
Glyderau
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The Glyderau are a mountain group in Snowdonia, North Wales. The name derives from the highest peaks in the range, Glyder Fawr, according to Sir Ifor Williams, the word Glyder derives from the Welsh word Cludair, meaning a heap of stones. The eastern half of the range in particular, including Glyder Fawr, Glyder Fach, dinorwig Power Station, a hydroelectric pump-storage system, is located in a man-made cavern within Elidir Fawr. The slopes of the Glyderau also include the lake Llyn Idwal, the Glyderau were formed in the Ordovician period about 500 million years ago as the result of two land masses moving together and causing the Snowdonia massif to rise up. Since then, erosion and the advance and retreat of glaciers during the Ice Ages has worn down the mountains to their present proportions, the underlying rock is a mixture of sedimentary and volcanic material. The last ice sheet retreated about 10,000 years ago, the main glacier flowed down the adjoining Nant Ffrancon Valley, a route now followed by the A5 road, and Cwm Idwal housed a side glacier. The ice scarred the surrounding cliffs, hollowed out the bed of Llyn Idwal and dumped rocks, massive boulders and shattered rocks crashed down from above to form the boulder fields and screes. The land was covered with native forest mostly consisting of birch. This was cleared over the millennia by the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age farmers that settled here, groups of feral goats can still be found on the Glyderau, probably the remnants of the herds that were farmed here a thousand years ago. The large number of sheep that now graze the land were introduced in the 18th century with the rise of the woollen industry. The Glyderau present a more rocky appearance than the smooth rounded humps of the Carneddau just to the north. The ridge between the summits of Glyder Fawr and Glyder Fach is covered with grasses and heathers and strewn with boulders. The ascent to the summit of Tryfan requires scrambling rather than just walking, Tryfan, Glyder Fach and the cliffs around Cwm Idwal offer rock climbing with routes ranging from those suitable for beginners to those requiring great technical expertise. The mountains can be approached from Llyn Ogwen to the north, buses run hourly from Bangor to Llanberis and there is a less frequent service from Bethesda to Llyn Ogwen. The north-facing amphitheatre-shaped valley of Cwm Idwal with its dark cliffs has a unique flora, the Snowdon lily is found here, high on mountain ledges, the only place in Britain where it is found. Other Alpine species include the purple saxifrage, tufted saxifrage, Alpine meadow rue, because of the scientific interest of this valley, sheep have been excluded from it to allow the native plants to flourish and it has been made into a National Nature Reserve. The lake itself is shallow and fringed with rushes, reeds, plants growing in the water or on the damp ground nearby include awlwort, pillwort, waterwort and spring quillwort. Other plants growing on damp shady ledges include the Welsh poppy, animals that live here include badgers, foxes and polecats as well as buzzards, peregrine falcons, choughs, skylarks, black grouse and red grouse
34.
Elidir Fawr
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Elidir Fawr is a mountain in Snowdonia, north Wales, the northernmost peak in the Glyderau. To the north of the summit is a lake, Marchlyn Mawr, which is the upper reservoir for Dinorwig power station. Water from this lake flows through huge tunnels into the lower reservoir Llyn Peris, from the north, Elidir Fawr is very prominent, and can appear to be higher than the higher mountains behind it. From Llanberis, the mountain is dominated by the former Dinorwic slate quarries and it is a reasonably short, but steep walk up to the summit, and this can be undertaken from the Deiniolen side or from Nant Peris. The Deiniolen walk provides views down to Llanberis, while the Nant Peris approach is short, the summit can also be reached from Ogwen Cottage via a traverse of Y Garn and Foel-goch. The route makes its way around the headwall of Cwm Dudodyn to Bwlch y Brecan, walks to the summit www. geograph. co. uk, photos of and from Elidir Fawr
35.
Y Garn (Glyderau)
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Y Garn is a mountain in Snowdonia, North Wales, part of the Glyderau. It is one of the Welsh 3000s — the 15 summits in Wales over 3,000 ft in height and it is the tenth highest peak in Wales. Moderate snow accumulations can take place on the sloping side of the mountain from October to May. The south-westerly side of the mountain slopes gently down to the Nant Peris valley, the other, north-easterly side is of a different character, consisting of two steeply sided cwms, Cwm Clyd and Cwm Cywion, and finally Llyn Idwal and Ogwen Cottage. Along the ridge to the north lies Elidir Fawr, while to the south-east is the top of the Twll Du and Glyder Fawr. www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Y Garn
36.
Glyder Fawr
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Glyder Fawr is a mountain in Snowdonia, Wales, the highest peak in the Glyderau range at just over 1, 000m, having had its height recalculated in 2010 using GPS. It is the fifth highest mountain in Wales and has walking and scrambling routes leading to its summit. According to Sir Ifor Williams, the word Glyder derives from the Welsh word Gludair, Glyder Fawr is part of the Glyderau mountain range which lies to the northeast of the Snowdon massif, separated from that mountain by the Llanberis Pass and the Nant Peris Valley. Going from west to east, the Glyderau range consists of Elidir Fawr, Y Garn, Glyder Fawr, Glyder Fach, to the north of the range lie the Carneddau, separated from the Glyderau by the Ogwen Valley and the Nant Ffrancon Valley. The Glyderau are separated from the mountain ranges making them stand out clearly from afar and giving them commanding views of the surrounding peaks. Until late-2010, most maps showed the height of Glyder Fawr to be 999m, however the mountain was resurveyed with accurate GPS equipment and its height was found to be 1,000.8 m. A spokesman from the Snowdonia National Park Authority was pleased by the new height, the Glyderau range was formed about five hundred million years ago, when two land masses collided, causing the Snowdonia massif to rise up. Since then, wind, water and frost and the advance, the underlying rock is a mixture of volcanic and sedimentary material. The ice sheet of the most recent ice age retreated about ten years ago leaving Cwm Idwal as an example of a cirque. The ice scarred the surrounding cliffs, hollowed out the bed of Llyn Idwal and dumped rocks, massive boulders and shattered rocks crashed down from above to form the boulder fields and screes visible today. Although there is much shattered stone near the summit of Glyder Fach, a scrambling, circuit route encompasses the three summits of Tryfan, Glyder Fach and Glyder Fawr and takes six or seven hours. From here a steep path ascends the western shoulder to the summit of Glyder Fawr. The National Trust took over the management of the Glyderau and the Carneddau in 1951 in lieu of death duties on the Penrhyn Estate. The total area is about 7,000 hectares, half of which is common land with registered grazing rights for 45,000 sheep and 741 ponies. There are eight tenanted farms on the estate and the National Trust is responsible for the maintenance of footpaths and drystone walls, the two mountain ranges form part of the Snowdonia National Park. Computer generated summit panoramas North South Index Walking Route up Glyder Fawr via Tryfan Walk Eryri www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Glyder Fawr
37.
Glyder Fach
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Glyder Fach is a mountain in Snowdonia, north-west Wales, and is the second highest of the Glyderau and the sixth highest in Wales. Routes to the lead from Tryfan and Bristly Ridge to the north, via Glyder Fawr from Pen-y-Pass to the south. It is a spot for climbers. According to Sir Ifor Williams, the word Glyder derives from the Welsh word Gludair, situated near the summit isY Gwyliwr, a large rock which from the correct angle appears to be precariously balanced, making it a popular place for photographs. Another notable feature, west of the summit, is Castell y Gwynt, Bristly Ridge is a grade 1 scramble in Snowdonia. It is located on the side of Glyder Fach. Consensus puts the difficulty at Grade 1, but it is at the end of the grade. There are some exposed and steep sections of climbing, particularly the upper pitch of Sinister Gully, however these sections may be bypassed in favour of easier lines, reducing the overall difficulty to Grade 1
38.
Tryfan
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Tryfan is a mountain in the Ogwen Valley, Snowdonia, Wales. It forms part of the Glyderau group, and is one of the most famous and recognisable peaks in Britain, at 917.5 metres above sea level it is the fifteenth-highest mountain in Wales. The name Tryfan is derived from its historical Welsh name of Tri-faen, tri meaning three and faen meaning rocks which makes reference to the 3 rocky humps seen on the mountains summit. Between the mid-1980s and June 2010, its height was 915 metres. However, it was resurveyed using accurate GPS measurements and found to be 2.4 metres higher, until the 1980s, Ordnance Survey maps gave its height as 917.5 m, and so the new measurement confirms that the earlier survey was correct. Tryfan is said to be the final resting-place of Sir Bedivere of Arthurian legend, there are many routes of ascent, ranging from easy ridge scrambling, to long mountaineering rock climbs on the east face. A popular ascent route is its north ridge, which close to the A5 road. From here a route directly up the ridge, a Grade 1 scramble by the easiest line. The difficulty can be increased if the most direct line is followed throughout. About a third of the way up there is a rock known as The Cannon which points upwards at 45 degrees and is visible from the valley. Tryfan may also be climbed by the ridge, which links the mountain to Glyder Fach. The route begins at Bwlch Tryfan, the col between Tryfan and Bristly Ridge, the col is reached by a path leading up from Idwal Cottage to the west, passing through Cwm Bochlwyd. The summit of Tryfan is famous for the twin monoliths of Adam and Eve, the rocks are visible from the Ogwen valley. Those who tackle the step between the two rocks are said to gain the Freedom of Tryfan, two prominent pillar-like boulders are visible on the skyline midway through the approach to the summit via the South ridge. As these can be mistaken for Adam and Eve from a distance, they have known as Cain and Abel. Milestone Buttress at the base of Tryfan is a location for climbing. The Buttress is about 10 minutes walk from roadside laybys, the most popular route is known as the direct route, there are often queues of people waiting to climb it. It is 75 metres long, and graded Very Difficult, the route was first climbed by G. Barlow and H. Priestly-Smith in 1910
39.
Carneddau
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The Carneddau are a group of mountains in Snowdonia, Wales. They include the largest contiguous areas of ground in Wales and England. The range also encloses a number of such as Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Eigiau. It is delimited by the Irish Sea to the north, the Conwy valley to the east, the area covers nearly 200 square kilometres, about 10% of the area of Snowdonia. The rocks from which the Carneddau are formed mostly originated in the Ordovician period between 500 and 440 million years ago, at that time, the continental land masses on either side of the Iapetus Ocean were moving together. The friction between these caused the floor of the ocean to melt, volcanoes to form and the land to rise up and this was the origin of the towering mountains that were to become Snowdonia and the other mountain ranges in Central and North Wales. Over time, these mountains have been eroded by the weather, the Carneddau were formed in this way and consist of volcanic and sedimentary rock. The last ice sheet retreated about 10,000 years ago and it left behind a landscape of smooth summits above erratic boulders and scree at the foot of cliffs on the eastern side of the mountains, and moraines that created shallow lakes in the cwms. This area was first colonised in Neolithic times, when Stone Age farmers started clearing the forests of oak and birch that covered all but the uppermost ridges. They were followed by Bronze Age people who cleared more forests, there are more than one thousand ancient monuments on the Carneddau estate. The remains of stone huts dating back to this time have been found. On the north slopes of Drosgl there are clusters of Iron Age huts. This settlement endured for a thousand years, lasting until after the Romans arrived, there are other huts elsewhere and traces of field systems and numerous hill forts situated at strategic upland sites. The Romans subdued the area and built a road, Bwlch y Ddeufaen across the slopes of the Carnedds. After they left in 410, the land was controlled once again by Welsh princes who schemed and formed alliances among themselves, the clearance of the native forests continued and at one time goats were the main form of livestock. Their feral descendants are found in the area today on the Glyderau. They were later followed by cattle and it was not till the 18th century desire for wool that sheep became numerous, by the thirteenth century, English ambitions were increasing under King Edward I of England in this part of Wales and the English castles encircled Snowdonia. It was in a bog in the foothills of Bera Mawr, at a place called Nanhysglain
40.
Pen yr Ole Wen
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Pen yr Ole Wen is the seventh highest mountain in Snowdonia and in Wales. It is the most southerly of the Carneddau range, the mountain lies to the north of Idwal Cottage youth hostel on the A5 road, from where it has a pyramidal appearance. It may be climbed from the hostel by a path leads directly up the south west corner. For many years the name was translated as Head of the White Light. Pen yr Ole Wen is often climbed as part of a route on the Carneddau range. It is the height as Englands highest peak, Scafell Pike. The mountains average temperature hovers around 5 degrees Celsius, photos of and from Pen yr Ole Wen
41.
Carnedd Dafydd
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Carnedd Dafydd is a mountain peak in the Carneddau range in Snowdonia, North Wales, and is the third highest peak in Wales, or the fourth if Crib y Ddysgl on the Snowdon ridge is counted. Situated south-west of Carnedd Llewelyn and north of Pen yr Ole Wen, Carnedd Dafydd is on the ridge of the Carneddau. The average annual temperature of the mountain is around 3–4 °C, like most of the summits in the southern Carneddau, it has a flat, boulder-strewn summit plateau. Immediately to the north lie the crags of Ysgolion Duon, well-known to climbers, the nearby peak Carnedd Lladron, commonly known as Carnedd Uchaf, has now been renamed by O. S. Carnedd Gwenllian in memory of Llywelyns daughter Lady Gwenllian, Dafydd was captured at Nanhysglain, near Bera Mawr, on 21 June 1283, taken to Shrewsbury where he was hanged, drawn and quartered
42.
Carnedd Llewelyn
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Carnedd Llewelyn, usually spelt Carnedd Llywelyn in Welsh, is a mountain massif in the Carneddau range in Snowdonia, north-west Wales. It is the highest point of the Carneddau and the second highest peak by relative height in Wales, Carnedd Llewelyn lies in the middle of the main north-east to south-west ridge of the Carneddau, between Carnedd Dafydd to the south-west and Foel Grach to the north. A short subsidiary ridge links it to Yr Elen to the north-west and its position means that any route to this summit involves a long walk. It can be climbed from Gerlan, above Bethesda, taking the path following Afon Llafar then continuing to the summit of Yr Elen before following the ridge to Carnedd Llewelyn. Another path starts from Helyg on the A5, taking the track to the then following the slopes above Craig yr Ysfa to the summit. An alternative is to reach it by following the main ridge, the summit is a flat, boulder-strewn plateau, similar to several of the other mountains that lie in the southern Carneddau. The cliffs below the ridges are well-known rock climbs, notably Ysgolion Duon, the flat plateau means that during winter and spring, significant accumulations of snow and blizzards occur on frequent occasions. The mountain has also noted for its long-lying snow patches in recent years. The highest lake in Wales, Llyn Llyffant lies to the lee of the summit of Carnedd Llywelyn, Carnedd Llywelyn means Llywelyns cairn in Welsh. An alternative theory is that the peaks are named after Llywelyn the Great, an earlier prince of Gwynedd. Other sources cite a combination of the above, i. e. Llywelyn the Great, the spelling of the name is also controversial. Carnedd Llewelyn is the used by the Ordnance Survey, the mapping agency for Great Britain. In Wales the spelling Carnedd Llywelyn predominates, this is also the form preferred by most Welsh writers, many authoritative works, from other study groups, also use the Welsh form. The mountain features in Welsh poetry and literature, the earliest known work is a poem by Rhys Goch Eryri, Carnedd Llywelyn, the Mountain Walkers Guide to Wales. The Mountains of Wales, an anthology in verse and prose, the heart of Northern Wales, Vol. II. Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments Wales, Carnedd Llewelyn is at coordinates 53. 160587°N3. 969305°W /53.160587, -3.969305 Walking Routes, photos and GPS files for Carnedd Llewelyn Walk Eryri www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Carnedd Llewelyn
43.
Yr Elen
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Yr Elen is a mountain in the Carneddau range in Snowdonia, Wales. It is the ninth highest mountain in Snowdonia, the average annual temperature of the peak is around 4 Celsius. It lies on a ridge running WNW off the main north-east to south-west ridge of the Carneddau. It is usually climbed from the ridge of the Carneddau. In drier times, ascent can be made via the crossing of Afon Casseg, the views from this point north-west, over to Bangor and Anglesey, are stunning on a clear day, especially with a summers sunset. This is well worth the arduous ascent, the etymology of the name is unclear, with the personal name Helen or Eleanor being one possibility, perhaps after Eleanor de Montfort, Princess of Wales and wife of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. Another is the leech, perhaps in reference to the way in which Yr Elen appears to be attached to the side of the remaining Carneddau
44.
Foel Grach
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Foel Grach is a mountain in the Carneddau range, is the eighth-highest summit in Snowdonia as well as Wales, and therefore included the Welsh 3000s. It is located on a ridge extending northwards from Carnedd Llewelyn to Garnedd Uchaf. An emergency refuge has been built beneath the summit, compared to the surrounding mountains much deeper snow takes place due to its rather broad summit and high grassy slopes. On clear days the Isle of Man and even the Mourne Mountains in Northern Ireland can be seen Northwards from the summit
45.
Carnedd Gwenllian
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Carnedd Gwenllian is a minor summit of the Carneddau range in Snowdonia, Wales, and included in the Welsh 3000s. From the summit, distant views to the north can extend as far away towards Ireland and it lies between Foel Fras and Foel Grach, but is not always included in the Welsh 3000s, as its summit rises only slightly above the ridge. However, it is classed as a Hewitt and its slopes, like all those in the northern Carneddau, are largely grassy, although they are steep. The slopes can receive significant accumulations of snow-drifts during blizzards in winter, in the past, snow beds have survived on the mountain as far as June. The annual average temperature on Garnedd Uchaf is relatively cold, ranging between 4-5 degrees Celsius, for some years there was a campaign by the Princess Gwenllian Society to have the name of this peak changed from Garnedd Uchaf to Carnedd Gwenllian. Gwenllian of Wales was the daughter of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. After her fathers death, she was held in a nunnery at Sempringham in Lincolnshire until she died, on 26 September 2009 the summit was officially renamed Carnedd Gwenllian, and the Ordnance Survey has agreed to use the dual name Carnedd Uchaf/Carnedd Gwenllian on its maps from 2010 onwards. Www. geograph. co. uk, photos of and from Garnedd Uchaf
46.
Foel-fras
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Foel-fras is a mountain in the Carneddau range, about 10 km east of Bethesda in North Wales. It lies on the border between the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, with a height rising to 942m it is officially the eleventh highest peak in Wales. Due south and 400 m below lies the reservoir of Llyn Dulyn, because of its position, it is the first of the Welsh 3000s reached when doing this walk from the northern end. It can be climbed by driving up the road signposted Aber Falls in the village of Abergwyngregyn, passing the car park for the falls. The summit plateau has some ornithological interest in that it is one of the best places in Wales to observe dotterel on their spring, there exist also Foel Fras in central Wales, south of Machynlleth, and Foel-fras in The Moelwyns, north east of Blaenau Ffestiniog
