1.
Hyperion Cantos
–
The Hyperion Cantos is a series of science fiction novels by Dan Simmons. Within the fictional storyline, the Hyperion Cantos is a poem written by the character Martin Silenus. All four novels were nominated for various science fiction awards. An event series is being developed by Bradley Cooper, Graham King, first published in 1989, Hyperion has the structure of a frame story, similar to Geoffrey Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Giovanni Boccaccios Decameron. The story weaves the interlocking tales of a group of travelers sent on a pilgrimage to the Time Tombs on Hyperion. The travelers have been sent by the Church of the Final Atonement, alternately known as the Shrike Church, as they progress in their journey, each of the pilgrims tells their tale. This book concludes the story begun in Hyperion and it abandons the storytelling frame structure of the first novel, and is instead presented primarily as a series of dreams by John Keats. The story commences 272 years after the events in the previous novel, few main characters from the first two books are present in the later two. The main character is Raul Endymion, an ex-soldier who receives a sentence after an unfair trial. He is rescued by Martin Silenus and asked to perform a series of rather extraordinarily difficult tasks, the main task is to rescue and protect Aenea, a messiah coming from the distant past via time travel. The Catholic Church has become a dominant force in the human universe, the group of Aenea, Endymion, and A. Bettik evades the Churchs forces on several worlds, ending the story on Earth. This final novel in the series finishes the story begun in Endymion, expanding on the themes in Endymion as Raul and Aenea battle the church and it then inspired his short story Remembering Siri, which eventually became the nucleus around which Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion formed. After the quartet was published came the short story Orphans of the Helix, Orphans is currently the final work in the Cantos, both chronologically and internally. The original Hyperion Cantos has been described as a novel published in two volumes, published separately at first for reasons of length. A large number of elements are acknowledged by Simmons to be inspired by elements of Out of Control, The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems. The Hyperion series has many echoes of Jack Vance, explicitly acknowledged in one of the later books, the title of the first novel, Hyperion, is taken from one of Keatss poems, the unfinished epic Hyperion. Similarly, the title of the novel is from Keats poem Endymion. Quotes from actual Keats poems and the fictional Cantos of Martin Silenus are interspersed throughout the novels, Simmons goes so far as to have two artificial reincarnations of John Keats play a major role in the series
2.
Cross
–
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally, a cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is also termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. The word [[wikt, cross|crossded from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin crux, stake, the English verb to cross arises from the noun c. 1200, first in the sense to make the sign of the cross, the Latin word was, however, influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as*krukjo. This word, by conflation with Latin crux, gave rise to Old French crocier, Latin crux referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, but not necessarily to intersecting or cruciform beams. The Latin word derived from the verb crucio to torture, Latin crux originally referred to the tree or stake on which criminals were crucified in the pre-imperial period. This was later specified as crux acuta or crux simplex, the method of execution may have been adopted from the Phoenicians. The addition of a bar, to which the criminal would be fastened with nails or cords. The Latin name of the cross is crux decussata, the heraldic term saltire is introduced only towards the end of the medieval period. The Greek equivalent of Latin crux stake, gibbet is σταυρός stauros stake, the letter Tau was associated with the stauros or crux, while the notion of cruciform shapes, i. e. intersecting lines, were associated with the letter Chi. The Greek term for crossing was χίασμα chiasma, from a verb χιάζω chiázō to shape like the letter Chi, Latin had the comparable decussatus shaped like the numeral ten. Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines. Speculation of this kind became popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included G. de Mortillet, L. Müller, W. W. Blake, Ansault, in the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial. The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals, the Chinese rod numerals and the Brahmi numerals. In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i. e. the letter taw. The letter name taw means mark, presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph two crossed sticks, according to W. E. Vines Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, worshippers of Tammuz in Chaldea and thereabouts used the cross as symbol of that god. The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, clements contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi, and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes
3.
Christian cross
–
The Christian cross, seen as a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus, is the best-known symbol of Christianity. It is related to the crucifix and to the general family of cross symbols. The basic forms of the cross are the Latin cross and the Greek cross, with variants used in heraldry. The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly predates the introduction of Christianity, in both East and West and it goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have used not just for its ornamental value. It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire or as a symbol of the sun, denoting its daily rotation. It has also interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, or the emblem of the Aryan pantheon. Another associated symbol is the cross used in ancient Egypt. It was often depicted in the hands of the goddess Sekhmet, Egyptian Christians adopted it as the emblem of the cross. Yet another Egyptian symbol is the nfr - meaning, beauty or perfect, in the Bronze Age a representation of the cross as conceived in Christian art appeared, and the form was popularised. The more precise characterization coincided with a general change in customs. The cross then came into use in forms on many objects, fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments. De Mortillet believed that use of the sign was not merely ornamental. In the proto-Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it, true crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci. According to Swami Vivekananda the Christian cross is the Shivalinga converted into a cross, according to W. E. Vine, the cross was used by worshipers of Tammuz, an Ancient Near East deity of Babylonian origin who had the cross-shaped taw as his symbol. In which there was not only a straight and erected piece of Wood fixed in the Earth, but also a transverse Beam fastned unto that towards the top thereof. A symbol similar to the cross, the staurogram, was used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very early New Testament manuscripts such as P66, P45 and P75, the extensive adoption of the cross as Christian iconographic symbol arose from the 4th century. Another early depictions of the cross as a Christian symbol is the Alexamenos graffito. e, in his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross
4.
Peterborough Cathedral
–
Although it was founded in the Anglo-Saxon period, its architecture is mainly Norman, following a rebuilding in the 12th century. With Durham and Ely Cathedrals, it is one of the most important 12th-century buildings in England to have remained intact, despite extensions. Peterborough Cathedral is known for its imposing Early English Gothic West Front which, the appearance is slightly asymmetrical, as one of the two towers that rise from behind the façade was never completed, but this is only visible from a distance. The monastic settlement with which the church was associated lasted at least until 870, in an alcove of the Lady Chapel, lies an ancient stone carving, the Hedda Stone. This medieval carving of 12 monks, six on each side, commemorates the destruction of the Monastery, the Hedda Stone was likely carved sometime after the raid, when the monastery slipped into decline. The original central tower was, however, retained and it was dedicated to St Peter, and came to be called a burgh, hence the town surrounding the abbey was eventually named Peter-burgh. The community was revived in 972 by Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. This newer church had as its focal point a substantial western tower with a Rhenish helm and was largely constructed of ashlars. In 2008, Anglo-Saxon grave markers were reported to have been found by workmen repairing a wall in the cathedral precincts, the grave markers are said to date to the 11th century, and probably belonged to townsfolk. Although damaged during the struggle between the Norman invaders and local folk-hero, Hereward the Wake, it was repaired and continued to thrive until destroyed by a fire in 1116. This event necessitated the building of a new church in the Norman style, by 1193 the building was completed to the western end of the Nave, including the central tower and the decorated wooden ceiling of the nave. The ceiling, completed between 1230 and 1250, still survives and it is unique in Britain and one of only four such ceilings in the whole of Europe. It has been over-painted twice, once in 1745, then in 1834, then, after completing the Western transept and adding the Great West Front Portico in 1237, the medieval masons switched over to the new Gothic style. The completed building was consecrated in 1238 by Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, the trio of arches forming the Great West Front, the defining image of Peterborough Cathedral, is unrivalled in medieval architecture. The line of spires behind it, topping an unprecedented four towers, chief amongst them was the wish to retain the earlier Norman towers, which became obsolete when the Gothic front was added. Between 1496 and 1508 the Presbytery roof was replaced and the New Building, the supposed arm of Oswald of Northumbria disappeared from its chapel, probably during the Reformation, despite a watch-tower having been built for monks to guard its reliquary. Various contact relics of Thomas Becket were brought from Canterbury in a reliquary by its Prior Benedict when he was promoted to Abbot of Peterborough. These items underpinned the importance of what is today Peterborough Cathedral, at the zenith of its wealth just before the Reformation it had the sixth largest monastic income in England, and had 120 monks, an almoner, an infirmarian, a sacristan and a cellarer
5.
Cathedral floorplan
–
In Western ecclesiastical architecture, a cathedral diagram is a floor plan showing the sections of walls and piers, giving an idea of the profiles of their columns and ribbing. Light double lines in perimeter walls indicate glazed windows, dashed lines show the ribs of the vaulting overhead. By convention, ecclesiastical floorplans are shown map-fashion, with north to the top, many abbey churches have floorplans that are comparable to cathedrals, though sometimes with more emphasis on the sanctuary and choir spaces that are reserved for the religious community. Smaller churches are planned, with simplifications. Cathedral floorplans are designed to provide for the rites of the church. Before the legalization of Christianity by Emperor Constantine, Christians worshiped in private homes or in secretive locations, once legally able to publicly worship, the local churches adapted the available Roman designs to their needs. Unlike the Roman and Greek religions, where priests performed rituals without public participation, thus, the limited spaces used in pagan temples were not suitable to Christian worship. Roman civic buildings were designed for the participation of the citizens of the city and this included an entry on one end of a long narrow, covered space with a raised dais at the other end. Upon the dais, public officials would hear cases, or expound on some matter of public interest. Christians adopted the long hall of the basilica for the liturgy of the Mass. With the legalization of Christianity in 311 A. D. the church adopted a structure that mimicked the Roman world. The designation of Bishops began at that time and the designation of his cathedra or Cathedral, aisle, A pair of walkways that are parallel to the primary public spaces in the church, e. g. nave, choir and transept. The aisles are separated from the areas by pillars supporting the upper walls. Ambulatory, A specific name for the aisle around the choir Apse. Often circular, but it can be angular or flat, in medieval traditions, it was the east end of the building. Buttress, Large stone pier holding the roof vaults in place, a buttress may be visible as in the Gothic flying buttress, or it may be hidden in the complex of aisles and galleries. Cathedral, The home church of a Bishop, which contains the cathedra or bishops chair, the church may be of any size. Choir, The part of the church beyond the transept, the area may be higher than the level of the nave
6.
Architecture of cathedrals and great churches
–
Cathedrals in particular, as well as many abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. Such a cathedral or great church is one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of churches are among the worlds most renowned works of architecture. The earliest large churches date from Late Antiquity, as Christianity and the construction of churches and cathedrals spread throughout the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Overlaid on each of the styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a country or region that they appear, regardless of style. Among the worlds largest and most architecturally significant churches, many were built to serve as cathedrals or abbey churches, among the Roman Catholic churches, many have been raised to the status of basilica. The categories below are not exclusive, a church can be an abbey, serve as a cathedral, and also be a basilica. Among the great Protestant churches, some, such as Ulm Minster have never served as any of these, others, such as Westminster Abbey, are former abbeys and cathedrals. Neither Orthodox or Protestant churches are designated as basilicas in the Catholic sense, the term cathedral in Orthodoxy and Protestantism is sometimes loosely applied to a large church that is not a bishops principal church. Some significant churches are termed temples or oratories, in fact, a cathedral does not have to be large or imposing, although many cathedrals are. The cathedral takes its name from the word cathedra, or bishops throne, a cathedral has a specific ecclesiastical role and administrative purpose as the seat of a bishop. The role of bishop as administrator of local clergy came into being in the 1st century and it was two hundred years before the first cathedral building was constructed in Rome. With the legalising of Christianity in 313 by the Emperor Constantine I, the architectural form which cathedrals took was largely dependent upon their ritual function as the seat of a bishop. But in a cathedral, in general, these things are done with an amount of elaboration, pageantry. This elaboration is particularly present during important liturgical rites performed by a Bishop, a cathedral is often the site of rituals associated with local or national Government, the Bishops performing the tasks of all sorts from the induction of a mayor to the coronation of a monarch. Some of these tasks are apparent in the form and fittings of particular cathedrals, the church that has the function of cathedral is not always a large building. It might be as small as Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, but frequently, the cathedral, along with some of the abbey churches, was the largest building in any region
7.
Christianity
–
Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
8.
Early Christianity
–
Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
9.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
10.
Eastern Orthodox Church
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
11.
Church architecture
–
Church architecture refers to the architecture of buildings of Christian churches. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns, however, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel, the history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. The simplest church building comprises a single meeting space, built of locally available material, such churches are generally rectangular, but in African countries where circular dwellings are the norm, vernacular churches may be circular as well. A simple church may be built of mud brick, wattle and daub and it may be roofed with thatch, shingles, corrugated iron or banana leaves. However, church congregations, from the 4th century onwards, have sought to construct buildings that were both permanent and aesthetically pleasing. This had led to a tradition in which congregations and local leaders have invested time, money and personal prestige into the building, within any parish, the local church is often the oldest building, and is larger than any pre-19th-century structure except perhaps a barn. The church is built of the most durable material available. To the two-room structure is often added aisles, a tower, chapels, in the first three centuries of the Early Christian Church, the practice of Christianity was illegal and few churches were constructed. In the beginning Christians worshipped along with Jews in synagogues and in private houses, after the separation of Jews and Christians the latter continued to worship in peoples houses, known as house churches. These were often the homes of the members of the faith. Saint Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians writes, aquila and Prisca, together with the church in their house, greet you warmly in the Lord. Some domestic buildings were adapted to function as churches, one of the earliest of adapted residences is at Dura Europos church, built shortly after 200 AD, where two rooms were made into one, by removing a wall, and a dais was set up. To the right of the entrance a small room was made into a baptistry, some church buildings were specifically built as church assemblies, such as that opposite the emperor Diocletians palace in Nicomedia. The books of the Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames, the utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage, all was rapine, confusion, tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was within view of the palace, and Diocletian and Galerius stood, as if on a watchtower, disputing long whether it ought to be set on fire. The sentiment of Diocletian prevailed, who dreaded lest, so great a fire being once kindled, some part of the city might he burnt, for there were many and large buildings that surrounded the church. Then the Pretorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other iron instruments, from the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly
12.
Tetraconch
–
A tetraconch, from the Greek for four shells, is a building, usually a church or other religious building, with four apses, one in each direction, usually of equal size. The basic ground plan of the building is therefore a Greek cross and they are most common in Byzantine, and related schools such as Armenian and Georgian architecture. It has been argued that they were developed in areas or Syria. Apart from churches, the form is suitable for a mausoleum or baptistery, normally, there will be a higher central dome over the central space. The Basilica of San Lorenzo, Milan is possibly the first example of a grander type, in middle Byzantine architecture, the cross-in-square plan was developed, essentially filling out the tetraconch to form a square-ish exterior. Either of these types may also be described precisely as cross-domed. In these types the semi-dome of the apse usually starts directly from the central domed space, the ruined Ninotsminda Cathedral of c.575 in Georgia is perhaps the oldest example in that country. The Armenian and Georgian examples are later than others but a distinctive. In Armenia, the plan developed in the 6th century. The ruined so-called Cathedral of Bosra, of the early 6th century, is the earliest major Syrian tetraconch church, though in Syria the type did not remain as popular as in the Caucasus. The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, world-famous for its mosaics, is almost a tetraconch and these end in a flat wall with no semi-dome, and the entrance end is slightly longer. A famous revival of the formula in the West is Bramantes first design for the Basilica of St. Peter. A triconch building has three apses, normally omitting the one at the liturgical west end, which may be replaced with a narthex. Many churches of both types have been extended, especially to the west by addition of naves, so that came to resemble more conventional basilica-type churches. The church in Istanbul of St. Mary of the Mongols is an example, atroshenko and Judith Collins, The Origins of the Romanesque, Lund Humphries, London,1985, ISBN 0-85331-487-X Hill, Julie. The Silk Road Revisited, Markets, Merchants and Minarets, AuthorHouse,2006, ISBN 1-4259-7280-2, Google books Kleinbauer, zvartnots and the Origins of Christian Architecture in Armenia, The Art Bulletin, Vol.54, No. 3, pp. 245–262 JSTOR Graphic model of a 7th-century Armenian simple tetraconch church
13.
Christian cross variants
–
This is a list of Christian cross variants. The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Christ included, is the religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a crucifix, the term Greek cross designates a cross with arms of equal length, as in a plus sign, while the term Latin cross designates a cross with an elongated descending arm. Numerous other variants have developed during the medieval period. Christian crosses are used widely in churches, on top of buildings, on bibles, in heraldry, in personal jewelry, on hilltops. Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian cemeteries, either carved on gravestones or as sculpted stelae, roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize that it is Jesus that is important, rather than the cross in isolation. Large crucifixes are a prominent feature of some Lutheran churches, as illustrated in the article Rood, several Christian cross variants are available in computer-displayed text. The Latin cross symbol is included in the character set as 271D. For others, see Religious and political symbols in Unicode, basic variants, or early variants widespread since antiquity
14.
Cross-in-square
–
A cross-in-square or crossed-dome plan was the dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches. It featured a centre with an internal structure shaped like a cross. The first cross-in-square churches were built in the late 8th century. In the West, Donato Bramantes first design for St. Peters Basilica was a centrally planned cross-in-square under a dome, in German, such a church is a Kreuzkuppelkirche, or ‘cross-dome church’. In French, it is an église à croix inscrite, ‘church with an inscribed cross’, a cross-in-square church is centered around a quadratic naos which is divided by four columns or piers into nine bays. The inner five divisions form the shape of a quincunx, the central bay is usually larger than the other eight, and is crowned by a dome which rests on the columns. The four rectangular bays that directly adjoin this central bay are usually covered by barrel vaults, the four remaining bays in the corner are usually groin-vaulted. To the west of the stands the narthex, or entrance hall. To the east stands the bema, or sanctuary, often separated from the naos by templon or, in later churches, the sanctuary is usually formed by three additional bays adjoining the easternmost bays of the naos, each of which terminates in an apse crowned by a conch. The central apse is larger than those to the north and south, the term bema is sometimes reserved for the central area, while the northern section is known as the prothesis and the southern as the diakonikon. The architectural articulation of the spaces of a cross-in-square church corresponds to their distinct functions in the celebration of the liturgy. The narthex serves as a hall, but also for special liturgical functions, such as baptism. The naos is the space where the stands during the service. The sanctuary is reserved for the priests, the altar stands in the central bay, or bema, which is sometimes provided with a synthronon, or bench, where the clergy may sit. The prothesis is used for the preparation of the eucharist, the architectural form and liturgical function described above correspond to the classic type of the cross-in-square church, which is exhibited by a number of significant monuments. However, this type represents only one of a number of possible variations on the cross-in-square form. Particularly in later Byzantine architecture, the core of the plan could be augmented through the addition of peripheral structures. An example is provided by the Chora Church in Constantinople, the original 11th-century cross-in-square was expanded in the 14th century through the addition of a second narthex to the west and by a side chapel to the south, used for burials
15.
Gothic architecture
–
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
16.
Altar
–
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes, and by extension the Holy table of post-reformation Anglican churches. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches, today they are used particularly in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, as well as in Neopaganism and Ceremonial Magic. Judaism used such a structure until the destruction of the Second Temple, many historical faiths also made use of them, including Greek and Norse religion. Altars in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth or unwrought stone, altars were generally erected in conspicuous places. The first altar recorded in the Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah, altars were erected by Abraham, by Isaac, by Jacob, and by Moses. In Catholic and Orthodox Christian theology, the Eucharist is a re-presentation, hence, the table upon which the Eucharist is consecrated is called an altar. The altar plays a role in the celebration of the Eucharist, which takes place at the altar on which the bread. The altar is often on a higher elevation than the rest of the church, in Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a Communion table, serves an analogous function. In some colloquial usage, the altar is used to denote the altar rail also. The main altar was also referred to as the high altar, in the earliest days of the Church, the Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable altars set up for the purpose. Some historians hold that, during the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the Catacombs of Rome, other historians dispute this, but it is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the High Priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur, the ministers, celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. Some hold that for the part of the celebration the congregation faced the same way. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and the altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration, most rubrics, even in books of the seventeenth century and later, such as the Pontificale Romanum, continued to envisage the altar as free-standing. The rite of the Dedication of the Church continued to presume that the officiating Bishop could circle the altar during the consecration of the church and its altar. Despite this, with the increase in the size and importance of the reredos, most altars were built against the wall or barely separated from it. This diversity was recognized in the rubrics of the Roman Missal from the 1604 typical edition of Pope Clement VIII to the 1962 edition of Pope John XXIII, Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum
17.
Baptismal font
–
A baptismal font is an article of church furniture used for baptism. The fonts of many Christian denominations are for baptisms using an immersion method, the simplest of these fonts has a pedestal with a holder for a basin of water. The materials vary greatly consisting of carved and sculpted marble, wood, many are eight-sided as a reminder of the new creation and as a connection to the practice of circumcision, which traditionally occurs on the eighth day. Some are three-sided as a reminder of the Holy Trinity, Father, Son, in many churches of the Middle Ages and Renaissance there was a special chapel or even a separate building for housing the baptismal fonts, called a baptistery. Both fonts and baptisterys were often octagonal, saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptistries were octagonal because on the eighth day, by rising, Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves. Saint Augustine similarly described the day as everlasting. Hallowed by the resurrection of Christ, the quantity of water is usually small. There are some fonts where water pumps, a natural spring and this visual and audible image communicates a living waters aspect of baptism. Some church bodies use special holy water while others use water straight out of the tap to fill the font. A special silver vessel called a ewer can be used to fill the font, the mode of a baptism at a font is usually one of sprinkling, pouring, washing, or dipping in keeping with the Koine Greek verb βαπτιζω. Βαπτιζω can also mean immerse, but most fonts are too small for that application, some fonts are large enough to allow the immersion of infants, however. The earliest baptismal fonts were designed for full immersion, and were often cross-shaped with steps leading down into them, often such baptismal pools were located in a separate building, called a baptistery, near the entrance of the church. As infant baptism became common, fonts became smaller. Full-immersion baptisms may take place in a tank or pool. The entire body is immersed, dunked, submerged or otherwise placed completely under the water. This practice symbolizes the death of the old nature, as found in Romans 6, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism is always by full triple immersion, even in the case of infant baptism. For this reason, Eastern baptismal fonts tend to be larger than Western, and are shaped like a large chalice. During the baptismal service, three candles will be lit on or around the font, in honor of the Holy Trinity
18.
Baptism
–
Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
19.
Transept
–
A transept is a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the edifice. In churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a building within the Romanesque. Each half of a transept is known as a semitransept, the transept of a church separates the nave from the sanctuary, apse, choir, chevet, presbytery or chancel. The transepts cross the nave at the crossing, which belongs equally to the main nave axis, upon its four piers, the crossing may support a spire, a central tower or a crossing dome. Since the altar is located at the east end of a church. The north and south end walls often hold decorated windows of stained glass, such as rose windows, occasionally, the basilicas and the church and cathedral planning that descended from them were built without transepts, sometimes the transepts were reduced to matched chapels. More often, the transepts extended well beyond the sides of the rest of the building, forming the shape of a cross and this design is called a Latin cross ground plan, and these extensions are known as the arms of the transept. A Greek cross ground plan, with all four extensions the same length, when churches have only one transept, as at Pershore Abbey, there is generally a historical disaster, fire, war or funding problem, to explain the anomaly. At Beauvais only the chevet and transepts stand, the nave of the cathedral was never completed after a collapse of the daring high vaulting in 1284. At St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague, only the choir, in a metro station or similar construction, a transept is a space over the platforms and tracks of a station with side platforms, containing the bridge between the platforms. Placing the bridge in a rather than an enclosed tunnel allows passengers to see the platforms. Aisle Apse Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram Glossary of the Catholic Church Transom
20.
Chapel
–
The term chapel usually refers to a place of prayer and worship that is attached to a larger, often nonreligious institution or that is considered an extension of a primary religious institution. Chapel has also referred to independent or nonconformist places of worship in Great Britain—outside of the established church, the earliest Christian places of worship are now often referred to as chapels, as they were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building. Most larger churches had one or more secondary altars, which if they occupied a distinct space, in Russian Orthodox tradition, the chapels were built underneath city gates, where most people could visit them. The most famous example is the Iberian Chapel, although chapels frequently refer to Christian places of worship, they are also commonly found in Jewish synagogues and do not necessarily connote a specific denomination. In England—where the Church of England is established by law—non-denominational or inter-faith chapels in such institutions may nonetheless be consecrated by the local Anglican bishop, non-denominational chapels are commonly encountered as part of a non-religious institution such as a hospital, airport, university or prison. Many military installations have chapels for the use of military personnel, the earliest Christian places of worship were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building, such as a room in an individuals home. Here one or two people could pray without being part of a communion/congregation, people who like to use chapels may find it peaceful and relaxing to be away from the stress of life, without other people moving around them. The word, chapel, like the word, chaplain, is ultimately derived from Latin. The other half he wore over his shoulders as a small cape, the beggar, the stories claim, was Christ in disguise, and Martin experienced a conversion of heart, becoming first a monk, then abbot, then bishop. This cape came into the possession of the Frankish kings, the tent which kept the cape was called the capella and the priests who said daily Mass in the tent were known as the capellani. From these words, via Old French, we get the names chapel, the word also appears in the Irish language in the Middle Ages, as Welsh people came with the Norman and Old English invaders to the island of Ireland. While the traditional Irish word for church was eaglais, a new word, séipéal, in British history, chapel or meeting house, was formerly the standard designation for church buildings belonging to independent or Nonconformist religious societies and their members. As a result, chapel is used as an adjective in the UK to describe the members of such churches. A proprietary chapel is one that belonged to a private person. In the 19th century they were common, often being built to cope with urbanisation, frequently they were set up by evangelical philanthropists with a vision of spreading Christianity in cities whose needs could no longer be met by the parishes. Some functioned more privately, with a wealthy person building a chapel so they could invite their favorite preachers and they are anomalies in the English ecclesiastical law, having no parish area, but being able to have an Anglican clergyman licensed there. Historically many Anglican Churches were Proprietary Chapels, over the years they have often been converted into normal Parishes. While the usage of the chapel is not exclusively limited to Christian terminology
21.
Crossing (architecture)
–
A crossing, in ecclesiastical architecture, is the junction of the four arms of a cruciform church. In a typically oriented church, the crossing gives access to the nave on the west, the arms on the north and south. The crossing is surmounted by a tower or dome. A large crossing tower is common on English Gothic cathedrals. With the Renaissance, building a dome above the crossing became popular, because the crossing is open on four sides, the weight of the tower or dome rests heavily on the corners, a stable construction thus required great skill on the part of the builders. In centuries past, it was not uncommon for overambitious crossing towers to collapse, sacrist Alan of Walsinghams octagon, built between 1322 and 1328 after the collapse of Elys nave crossing on 22 February 1322, is the. Greatest individual achievement of architectural genius at Ely Cathedral according to architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner, a tower over the crossing may be called a lantern tower if it has openings through which light from outside can shine down to the crossing. In Early Medieval churches, the square was often used as a module. The nave and transept would have lengths that were a multiple of the length of the crossing square. This was to ensure that the church was properly proportioned
22.
Second Temple
–
The Second Temple was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple, the accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible. According to the Bible, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great, the events take place in the second half of the 5th century BCE. Listed together with the Book of Ezra as Ezra-Nehemiah, it represents the chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible. The original core of the book, the memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era, the book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata, there he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israels enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem and he finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law. A wide interest was felt in this movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators. The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work, Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews, according to Ezra 4,5, the Samaritans sought to frustrate their purpose and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended. Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, on his death, the false Smerdis, an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, the Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first. Some of the artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE. In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included, The Menorah for the Hekhal The Table of Showbread The golden altar of incense, with golden censers. According to the Mishnah, the Foundation Stone stood where the Ark used to be, the Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great. According to the Babylonian Talmud, however, the Temple lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria
23.
Holliday junction
–
A Holliday junction is a branched nucleic acid structure that contains four double-stranded arms joined together. These arms may adopt one of several conformations depending on buffer salt concentrations, the structure is named after the molecular biologist Robin Holliday, who proposed its existence in 1964. In biology, Holliday junctions are a key intermediate in many types of genetic recombination, additionally, four-arm junctions similar to Holliday junctions appear in some functional RNA molecules. Holliday junctions may exist in a variety of isomers with different patterns of coaxial stacking between the four double-helical arms. Coaxial stacking is the tendency of nucleic acid blunt ends to bind to each other, there are three possible stacking conformers, an unstacked form and two stacked forms. The unstacked form dominates in the absence of divalent cations such as Mg2+, in the presence of at least about 0.1 mM Mg2+, the electrostatic repulsion is counteracted and the stacked structures predominate. The unstacked form is a square planar, extended conformation. On the other hand, the stacked conformers have two continuous double-helical domains separated by an angle of about 60° in a right-handed direction. Two of the four strands stay roughly helical, remaining within each of the two domains, while the other two cross between the two domains in an antiparallel fashion. The two possible stacked forms differ in which pairs of the arms are stacked with each other, some sequences result in an equilibrium between the two conformers, while others strongly prefer a single conformer. While most studies have focused on the identities of the four bases nearest to the junction on each arm, in junctions with symmetrical sequences, the branchpoint is mobile and can migrate in a random walk process. The rate of migration varies dramatically with ion concentration, with single-step times increasing from 0. 3−0.4 ms with no ions to 270−300 ms with 10 mM Mg2+. The change in rate is correlated with the formation of the stacked versus the unstacked structures and they are additionally involved in repair of double-strand breaks. In addition, cruciform structures involving Holliday junctions can arise to relieve helical strain in symmetrical sequences in DNA supercoils, the Holliday junctions in homologous recombination are between identical or nearly identical sequences, leading to a symmetric arrangement of sequences around the central junction. This allows a branch migration process to occur where the move through the junction point. Cleavage, or resolution, of the Holliday junction can occur in two ways, all products, regardless of cleavage, are heteroduplexes in the region of Holliday junction migration. Many proteins are able to recognize or distort the Holliday junction structure, one such class contains junction-resolving enzymes that cleave the junctions, sometimes in a sequence-specific fashion. Other classes are branch migration proteins that increase the rate by orders of magnitude
24.
Welding joint
–
A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined together. They are formed by welding two or more according to a particular geometry. Five types of joints referred to by the American Welding Society, butt, corner, edge, lap and these configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual welding can occur. Butt welds are welds where two pieces of metal are to be joined are in the same plane and these types of welds require only some preparation and are used with thin sheet metals that can be welded with a single pass. Common issues that can weaken a butt weld are the entrapment of slag, excessive porosity, for strong welds, the goal is to use the least amount of welding material possible. Butt welds are prevalent in automated welding processes, such as submerged-arc welding, when metals are welded without human guidance, there is no operator to make adjustments for non-ideal joint preparation. Because of this necessity, butt welds can be utilized for their design to be fed through automated welding machines efficiently. There are many types of welds, but all fall within one of these categories, single welded butt joints, double welded butt joint. A single welded butt joint is the name for a joint that has only been welded from one side, a double welded butt joint is created when the weld has been welded from both sides. With double welding, the depths of each weld can vary slightly, a closed weld is a type of joint in which the two pieces that will be joined are touching during the welding process. An open weld is the joint type where the two pieces have a gap in between them during the welding process. The square-groove is a butt welding joint with the two pieces being flat and parallel to each other and this joint is simple to prepare, economical to use, and provides satisfactory strength, but is limited by joint thickness. The closed square butt weld is a type of square-groove joint with no spacing in between the pieces and this joint type is common with gas and arc welding. For thicker joints, the edge of each member of the joint must be prepared to a geometry to provide accessibility for welding and to ensure the desired weld soundness. The opening or gap at the root of the joint and the angle of the groove should be selected to require the least weld metal necessary to give needed access. Single butt welds are similar to a joint, but instead of only one side having the beveled edge. In thick metals, and when welding can be performed both sides of the work piece, a double-V joint is used. When welding thicker metals, a double-V joint requires less material because there are two narrower V-joints compared to a wider single-V joint
25.
Humfrey Wanley
–
Humfrey Wanley was an English librarian, palaeographer and scholar of Old English, employed by manuscript collectors such as Robert and Edward Harley. He was the first keeper of the Harlein Library, now the Harleian Collection and he was the son of Nathaniel Wanley, born on 21 March 1672 at the Vicarage House adjoining Jesus Hall, Coventry. Starting out as a draper in his town, he soon tired of this and moved to Oxford University to study in 1695 thanks to his patron William Lloyd, bishop of Coventry. Wanley, together with John Bagford and John Talman, was one of three members of the reconstituted Society of Antiquaries, which first met at the Bear Tavern on the Strand on 5 December 1707. He died of dropsy on 6 July 1726 and was buried at St Marylebone Church, wanleys contributed to the scholarship of Old English literature. His 1705 catalog of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, Antiquae literaturae septentrionalis liber alter, cum totius thesauri linguarum septentrionalium sex indicibus, was of paramount importance in the field. According to Neil Ripley Ker, Wanley was a great paleographer. His catalogue of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts is a book which scholars continue to use. The first edition of text is available as an article on Wikisource
26.
Lectionary 150
–
Lectionary 150, designated by siglum ℓ150, is also known as Codex Harleianus. It is a Greek manuscript of the New Testament, on vellum leaves, the manuscript is written in compressed Greek Uncial letters, on 374 parchment leaves, in 2 columns per page,21 lines per page, with ornaments. The capital letters and nomina sacra are in red ink, the codex includes ten leaves of paper containing a series of Lessons from the Gospels, John, Matthew and the Luke lectionary. The image shows the text of John 1,18 and it is one of the most beautiful lectionary codices, with a scribal date of 27 May 995 A. D. It is a most splendid specimen of the class of Evangelistaria. According to the colophon it was written by a presbyter called Constantine, in 1677 John Covel, chaplain of the English embassy in Constantinople, purchased this manuscript. It was shown by him to John Mill, in London, from Covell it was purchased – together with other manuscripts – by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford. It was collated by Bloomfield and examined by Woide, the manuscript is often cited in the critical editions of the Greek New Testament. The codex now is located in the British Library, henri Omont, Notes sur les manuscrits grecs du British Museum, Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes,45, p.337. Edward Maunde Thompson, An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1912, Codex Harleianus 5598 at the British Library Liste Handschriften
27.
Anglo-Saxons
–
The Anglo-Saxons are a people who have inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century. Historically, the Anglo-Saxon period denotes the period in Britain between about 450 and 1066, after their settlement and up until the Norman conquest. The early Anglo-Saxon period includes the creation of an English nation, with many of the aspects that survive today, including government of shires. During this period, Christianity was re-established and there was a flowering of literature, charters and law were also established. The term Anglo-Saxon is popularly used for the language that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons in England, in scholarly use, it is more commonly called Old English. The history of the Anglo-Saxons is the history of a cultural identity and it developed from divergent groups in association with the peoples adoption of Christianity, and was integral to the establishment of various kingdoms. Threatened by extended Danish invasions and occupation of eastern England, this identity was re-established, the visible Anglo-Saxon culture can be seen in the material culture of buildings, dress styles, illuminated texts and grave goods. Behind the symbolic nature of these emblems, there are strong elements of tribal. The elite declared themselves as kings who developed burhs, and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms, above all, as Helena Hamerow has observed, local and extended kin groups remained. the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. Use of the term Anglo-Saxon assumes that the words Angles, Saxons or Anglo-Saxon have the meaning in all the sources. Assigning ethnic labels such as Anglo-Saxon is fraught with difficulties and this term began to be used only in the 8th century to distinguish the Germanic groups in Britain from those on the continent. The Old English ethnonym Angul-Seaxan comes from the Latin Angli-Saxones and became the name of the peoples Bede calls Anglorum, Anglo-Saxon is a term that was rarely used by Anglo-Saxons themselves, it is not an autonym. It is likely they identified as ængli, Seaxe or, more probably, also, the use of Anglo-Saxon disguises the extent to which people identified as Anglo-Scandinavian after the Viking age or the conquest of 1016, or as Anglo-Norman after the Norman conquest. The earliest historical references using this term are from outside Britain, referring to piratical Germanic raiders, Saxones who attacked the shores of Britain, procopius states that Britain was settled by three races, the Angiloi, Frisones, and Britons. The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in writing of the 8th century. The name therefore seemed to mean English Saxons, the Christian church seems to have used the word Angli, for example in the story of Pope Gregory I and his remark, Non Angli sed angeli. The terms ænglisc and Angelcynn were also used by West Saxon King Alfred to refer to the people, at other times he uses the term rex Anglorum, which presumably meant both Anglo-Saxons and Danes. Alfred the Great used Anglosaxonum Rex, the term Engla cyningc is used by Æthelred
28.
Insular art
–
Insular art, also known as Hiberno-Saxon art, is the style of art produced in the post-Roman history of Ireland and Britain. The term derives from insula, the Latin term for island, in this period Britain, most Insular art originates from the Irish monastic movement or metalwork for the secular elite, and the period begins around 600 with the combining Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles. One major distinctive feature is interlace decoration, applied to decorating new types of objects mostly copied from the Mediterranean world, above all the codex or book. The finest period of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and these are presumed to have interrupted work on the Book of Kells, and no later Gospel books are as heavily or finely illuminated as the masterpieces of the 8th century. In England the style merged into Anglo-Saxon art around 900, whilst in Ireland the style continued until the 12th century, the influence of insular art affected all subsequent European medieval art, especially in the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts. Surviving examples of Insular art are mainly illuminated manuscripts, metalwork and carvings in stone, surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning, with no attempt to give an impression of depth, volume or recession. The best examples include the Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels, Book of Durrow, brooches such as the Tara Brooch, carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts, although historiated initials, canon tables and figurative miniatures, especially Evangelist portraits, are also common. The term was derived from its use for Insular script, first cited by the OED in 1908, the Insular style is most famous for its highly dense, intricate and imaginative decoration, which takes elements from several earlier styles. From the Iron Age came the style called late Celtic art or Ultimate La Tène, there is no attempt to represent depth in manuscript painting, with all the emphasis on a brilliantly patterned surface. The origins of the format of the carpet page have often been related to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets and manuscript paintings. Across all the society was effectively entirely rural, buildings were rudimentary. Especially in Ireland, clerical and secular elites were very closely linked. Ireland was divided into numerous, generally small kingdoms, while in Britain there was a number of generally larger kingdoms. The elites of all the peoples had long traditions of metalwork of the finest quality. The Insular style arises from the meeting of their two styles, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon animal style, in a Christian context, and with awareness of Late Antique style. This was especially so in their application to the book, which was a new type of object for both traditions, as well as to metalwork, the role of the Kingdom of Northumbria in the formation of the new style appears to have been pivotal. The Irish monastery at Iona was established by Saint Columba in 563, christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so that, at least from the Anglo-Saxons, we have a larger number of pre-Christian survivals than those from later periods. The majority of examples survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden
29.
Melody
–
A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London
30.
Steps and skips
–
In music, a step, or conjunct motion, is the difference in pitch between two consecutive notes of a musical scale. In other words, it is the interval between two consecutive scale degrees, any larger interval is called a skip, or disjunct motion. In the diatonic scale, a step is either a second or a major second. For example, C to D is a step, whereas C to E is a skip, renaissance melodies are generally characterized by conjunct motion, with only occasional leaps of more than a fifth and then rarely anything but a sixth or octave. In contrast, melody in the 20th century varied greatly including the diatonic idiom of the 18th century, the variety of idioms from the 19th century, some of these later idioms included many or predominately leaps. Coltrane changes Giant Steps Linear progression Transposition
31.
Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
32.
Musical cryptogram
–
The most common and best known examples result from composers using ciphered versions of their own or their friends names as themes or motifs in their compositions. Much rarer is the use of notation to encode messages for reasons of espionage or personal security called steganography. Because of the ways in which notes and letters can be related, detecting hidden ciphers. From the initial assignment by Western music theorists of letter names to notes in the 9th century it became possible to reverse the procedure, however, this does not seem to have become a recognized technique until the Baroque period. From the mid-19th century it has become quite common, sporadic earlier encipherments used solmization syllables. It is believed that this method was first used by Josquin des Prez in his Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie and it was named Soggetto cavato by the later theorist Zarlino. Under this scheme the vowel sounds in the text are matched to the sounds of the solmization syllables of Guido of Arezzo. Thus the Latin name of the dedicatee Hercules Dux Ferrarie becomes re-ut-re-ut-re-fa-mi-re and this is used as the cantus firmus of the mass setting. Josquins method was imitated by several of his contemporaries and successors, including Adrian Willaert, since the note names only cover letters A to G, the problem arises as to how to cipher the rest of the alphabet. Historically there have two main solutions, which may be labelled for convenience the German and the French methods. Because the development of note took place within the framework of modes, in the German-speaking world B-flat was named B. The most common musical cryptogram is the B-A-C-H motif, which was used by Johann Sebastian Bach himself, by his contemporaries, other note names were derived by sound, for example E-flat, Es in German, could represent S and A-flat the digraph As. Composers less fortunate than Bach usually seem to have chosen to ignore non-musical letters in generating their motifs, for example, Robert Schumann, an inveterate user of cryptograms, has just S-C-H-A to represent himself in Carnaval. Sometimes phonetic substitution could be used, Schumann representing Bezeth by B-E-S-E-D-H, johannes Brahms used B-A-H-S for his surname in the A-flat minor organ fugue, and the mixed language Gis-E-La for Gisela von Arnim, among many examples. The French method of generating cryptograms arose late in the 19th century and was akin to normal encipherment. The many-to-one mapping of this makes it more difficult to extract possible motifs from the musical score than the one-to-one correspondence of the German system. Honeggers system involved placing the letters after H under sharpened and flattened notes, olivier Messiaen developed his own full cipher, involving pitches and note lengths, for his organ work Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité. Dmitri Shostakovich used the German scheme for his personal motto D-Es-C-H, representing D. SCH, elliott Carter featured both a cryptogram for the last name Boulez in his piece Réflexions and a sonic symbol of the first name Pierre
33.
BACH motif
–
In music, the BACH motif is the motif, a succession of notes important or characteristic to a piece, B flat, A, C, B natural. In German musical nomenclature, in which the note B natural is written as H, one of the most frequently occurring examples of a musical cryptogram, the motif has been used by countless composers, especially after the Bach Revival in the first half of the 19th century. Johann Gottfried Walthers Musicalisches Lexikon contains the only biographical sketch of Johann Sebastian Bach published during the composers lifetime, there the motif is mentioned thus, This reference work thus indicates Bach as the inventor of the motif. Bach used the motif in a number of works, most famously as a subject in the last Contrapunctus of The Art of Fugue. The motif also appears in the end of the variation of Bachs Canonic Variations on Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her. For example, the first measure of the Sinfonia in F minor BWV795 includes a version of the motif followed by the original in measure 17. Later commentators wrote, The figure occurs so often in Bachs bass lines that it cannot have been accidental, the motif was used as a fugue subject by Bachs son Johann Christian, and by his pupil Johann Ludwig Krebs. However, the wide popularity came only after the start of the Bach Revival in the first half of the 19th century. Today, composers continue writing works using the motif, frequently in homage to Johann Sebastian Bach, a similar list is available in Malcolm Boyds volume on Bach, it also contains some 400 works. 1968 – Alfred Schnittke, Quasi Una Sonata 1974 – Rudolf Brucci, Metamorfosis B-A-C-H for strings 1981 – Schnittke, four Modern Piano Compositions Incorporating the B-A-C-H Motive. Ulrich Prinz, Joachim Dorfmüller and Konrad Küster, die Tonfolge B–A–C–H in Kompositionen des 17. Jahrhunderts, ein Verzeichnis, in,300 Jahre Sebastian Bach, the B–A–C–H Motive in German Keyboard Compositions from the Time of J. S
34.
The Well-Tempered Clavier
–
The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 846–893, is a collection of two series of Preludes and Fugues in all 24 major and minor keys, composed for solo keyboard by Johann Sebastian Bach. In the German of Bachs time Clavier was a name indicating a variety of keyboard instruments, most typically a harpsichord or clavichord –. The modern German spelling for the collection is Das wohltemperierte Klavier, some 20 years later Bach compiled a second book of the same kind, which became known as The Well-Tempered Clavier, Part Two. Modern editions usually refer to both parts as The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I and The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II, the collection is generally regarded as being among the most influential works in the history of Western classical music. Each set contains twenty-four pairs of preludes and fugues, the first pair is in C major, the second in C minor, the third in C♯ major, the fourth in C♯ minor, and so on. The rising chromatic pattern continues until every key has been represented, the first set was compiled in 1722 during Bachs appointment in Köthen, the second followed 20 years later in 1742 while he was in Leipzig. The C♯ major prelude and fugue in book one was originally in C major – Bach added a key signature of seven sharps, although the Well-Tempered Clavier was the first collection of fully worked keyboard pieces in all 24 keys, similar ideas had occurred earlier. His contemporary Johann Heinrich Kittel also composed a cycle of 12 organ preludes in successive keys, Fischer was published in 1702 and reissued 1715. It is a set of 20 prelude-fugue pairs in ten major and nine minor keys, Bach knew the collection and borrowed some of the themes from Fischer for the Well-Tempered Clavier. Finally, a lost collection by Johann Pachelbel, Fugen und Praeambuln über die gewöhnlichsten Tonos figuratos and it was later shown that this was the work of a composer who was not even born in 1689, Bernhard Christian Weber. It was in written in 1745–50, and in imitation of Bachs example. Bachs title suggests that he had written for a tuning system in which all keys sounded in tune. The opposing system in Bachs day was meantone temperament in which keys with many accidentals sound out of tune, Bach would have been familiar with different tuning systems, and in particular as an organist would have played instruments tuned to a meantone system. There is debate whether Bach meant a range of temperaments, perhaps even altered slightly in practice from piece to piece. During much of the 20th century it was assumed that Bach wanted equal temperament, internal evidence for this may be seen in the fact that in Book 1 Bach paired the E♭ minor prelude with its enharmonic key of D♯ minor for the fugue. This represents an equation of the most tonally remote enharmonic keys where the flat, any performance of this pair would have required both of these enharmonic keys to sound identically tuned, thus implying equal temperament in the one pair, as the entire work implies as a whole. However, research has continued into various unequal systems contemporary with Bachs career, accounts of Bachs own tuning practice are few and inexact. The three most cited sources are Forkel, Bachs first biographer, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, who received information from Bachs sons and pupils, and Johann Kirnberger, one of those pupils
35.
Cross motif
–
In music, the cross motif is a motif. A motif was used by Franz Liszt to represent the Christian cross, pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky associated a motif with the crucifixion, himself, and Tristan, a variation of which first appears in mm. 1-2 of his Pathétique Symphony. Tchaikovsky identified with and associated the cross-motif with star-crossd lovers in general, such as in Romeo and Juliet
36.
Longsword
–
It was prevalent during the late medieval and Renaissance periods, with early and late use reaching into the 13th and 17th centuries. The term longsword is ambiguous, and refers to the sword only where the late medieval to Renaissance context is implied. Longsword in other contexts has been used to refer to Bronze Age swords, Migration period, historical terms for this type of sword included Spanish espadón, montante, or mandoble, Italian spadone or spada longa, Portuguese montante and Middle French passot. The Gaelic claidheamh mòr means great sword, anglicised as claymore, the French épée de passot may also refer to a medieval single-handed sword optimized for thrusting. The Masters of Defence competition organised by Henry VIII in July 1540 listed two hande sworde and bastard sword as two separate items. Contemporary use of long-sword or longsword only resurfaced in the 2000s in the context of reconstruction of the German school of fencing, translating the German langes schwert, the term hand-and-a-half sword is relatively modern. This name was given because the balance of the sword made it usable in one hand, as well as two. During the first half of the 20th century, the bastard sword was used regularly to refer to this type of sword, while long sword, if used at all. The longsword is characterised not so much by a blade, but by a longer grip. Swords with exceptionally long hilts are found throughout the High Middle Ages, but these remain rare, the longsword as a late medieval type of sword emerges in the 14th century, as a military steel weapon of the earlier phase of the Hundred Years War. It remains identifiable as a type during the period of about 1350 to 1550 and it remained in use as a weapon of war intended for wielders wearing full plate armour either on foot or on horseback, throughout the late medieval period. From the late 15th century, however, it is attested as being worn. Use of the two-handed Great Sword or Schlachtschwert by infantry seems to have originated with the Swiss in the 14th century. By the 16th century, its use was mostly obsolete. By the second half of the 16th century, it persisted mostly as a weapon for sportive competition, distinct bastard sword hilt types developed during the first half of the 16th century. Ewart Oakeshott distinguishes twelve different types and these all seem to have originated in Bavaria and in Switzerland. By the late 16th century, early forms of the developed-hilt appear on this type of sword, beginning about 1520, the Swiss sabre in Switzerland began to replace the straight longsword, inheriting its hilt types, and the longsword had fallen out of use in Switzerland by 1550. In southern Germany, it persisted into the 1560s, but its use declined during the second half of the 16th century
37.
Knight
–
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
38.
Crossguard
–
On a sword, the crossguard, or cross-guard, also known as quillons, is a bar of metal at right angles to the blade, placed between the blade and the hilt. The crossguard was developed in the European sword around the 10th century for the protection of the wielders hand, the earliest forms were the crossguard variant of the Spatha used by the Huns, the so-called Pontic swords. The crossguards were not only used to counter attacks. They were later seen in late Viking swords, and is a feature of the Norman sword of the 11th century and of the knightly arming sword throughout the high. Early crossguards were straight metal bars, sometimes tapering towards the outer ends, while this simple type was never discontinued, more elaborate forms developed alongside it in the course of the Middle Ages. The crossguard could be waisted or bent in the 12th and 13th century, beginning in the 13th or 14th century, swords were almost universally fitted with a so-called chappe or rain-guard, a piece of leather fitted to the crossguard. The purpose of this leather is not entirely clear, but it seems to have originated as a part of the scabbard, in the 14th to 15th century, many more elaborate forms were tried. A feature of late medieval forms is the cusp or écusson. Also from the 14th century, the leather chappe is sometimes replaced with a metal sheet, an early example of this is a sword dated to c. 1320–40 kept at the Kelvingrove Museum in Glasgow, a later example is the Monza sword of Estore Visconti, where the rain-guard is of silver and decorated with a floral motif. Ewart Oakeshott in chapter 4 of his The Sword in the Age of Chivalry classifies medieval cross-guards into twelve types and this is the basic shape found from the late Viking era through the 17th century. Waisted type, popular in the 15th century, a relatively short bar with a rectangular cross-section. Popular during 1150–1250 and again during 1380–1430, the terminals of the bar are bent towards the blade. Bow tie style with widened and flattened terminals, a curved or bent variant of type 5. The bar has a flat cross-section and is bent towards the blade, bent terminals as in style 4, but a more elaborate form with a hexagonal cross-section of the part fitted around the tang and a pronounced écusson, popular in the late medieval period. An elaborate late medieval type with the bar bent towards the blade and a diamond or V shaped cross-section. The arms of the bar taper towards the hilt rather than away from it, the medieval dagger in the 14th and 15th century also adopted a variant with quillons, styled after the hilt of a sword. Quillon-daggers remained popular in the 16th century, after the type it resembled had fallen out of use
39.
Sword
–
A sword is a long bladed weapon intended for slashing or thrusting. The precise definition of the term varies with the epoch or the geographical region under consideration. A sword consists of a blade attached to a hilt. The blade can be straight or curved, thrusting swords have a pointed tip on the blade, and tend to be straighter, slashing swords have sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade, and are more likely to be curved. Many swords are designed for thrusting and slashing. Historically, the sword developed in the Bronze Age, evolving from the dagger, the later Iron Age sword remained fairly short and without a crossguard. The word sword continues the Old English, sweord, the use of a sword is known as swordsmanship or as fencing. In the Early Modern period, western sword design diverged into two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabers. The thrusting swords such as the rapier and eventually the smallsword were designed to impale their targets quickly and their long and straight yet light and well balanced design made them highly maneuverable and deadly in a duel but fairly ineffective when used in a slashing or chopping motion. A well aimed lunge and thrust could end a fight in seconds with just the swords point, the saber and similar blades such as the cutlass were built more heavily and were more typically used in warfare. Built for slashing and chopping at multiple enemies, often from horseback, most sabers also had sharp points and double edged blades, making them capable of piercing soldier after soldier in a cavalry charge. Sabers continued to see use until the early 20th century. The US Navy kept tens of thousands of sturdy cutlasses in their armory well into World War II, non-European weapons called sword include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Eastern scimitar, the Chinese dao and the related Japanese katana. The Chinese jian is an example of a non-European double-edged sword, the first weapons that can be described as swords date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, some of them are inlaid with silver. The sword developed from the dagger when the construction of longer blades became possible, from the late 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first in arsenic copper, then in tin-bronze. Blades longer than 60 cm were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age because the strength of bronze is relatively low. These are the type A swords of the Aegean Bronze Age, one of the most important, and longest-lasting, types swords of the European Bronze Age was the Naue II type, also known as Griffzungenschwert
40.
British Aerospace Jetstream
–
The British Aerospace Jetstream is a small twin-turboprop airliner, with a pressurised fuselage, developed as the Jetstream 31 from the earlier Handley Page Jetstream. The result was the Jetstream 31, which first flew on 28 March 1980, the new version proved to be as popular as Handley Page hoped the original model would be, and several hundred 31s were built during the 1980s. In 1985, an engine upgrade was planned, which flew in 1988 as the Jetstream Super 31. Production continued until 1993, by which time 386 31/32s had been produced, four Jetstream 31s were ordered for the Royal Navy in 1985 as radar observer trainers, the Jetstream T.3, but were later used for VIP transport. In 1993, British Aerospace adopted the Jetstream name as its name for all twin turboprop aircraft. As well as the Jetstream 31 and Jetstream 32, it built the related Jetstream 41 and the unrelated. The Jetstream 61 never entered service, and retained its ATP marketing name, in July 2008, a BAE Systems team that included Cranfield Aerospace and the National Flight Laboratory Centre at Cranfield University achieved a major breakthrough in unmanned air systems technology. The team flew a series of missions, totalling 800 mi, in a specially modified Jetstream 31 without any human intervention, Jetstream 31 Airliner, 18/19 passenger commuter airliner. Jetstream 31 Corporate,12 passenger executive transport aircraft, Jetstream 31EZ, EEZ or maritime patrol version. Jetstream Executive Shuttle, 12-seat executive transport aircraft, Jetstream 31 Special, Utility transport aircraft. Jetstream 32EP, Enhanced performance,19 People, the crew executed an excessively steep and unstabilized ILS approach. That approach, along with air traffic control commands and aircraft icing. Both crew members and all four passengers were killed, on 12 March 1992, a deadheading USAir Express Jetstream 31 crashed on landing at McGhee Tyson Airport near Knoxville, Tennessee after the pilot failed to lower the landing gear. There were no passengers aboard, however the 2 crew members were killed, on 1 December 1993, Northwest Airlink Flight 5719 had a controlled flight into terrain killing all crew and passengers. The captain mistakenly thought that an engine had failed and decided to abandon the landing approach, on 8 July 2000, Aerocaribe Flight 7831 crashed into a mountainous area as the aircraft was on approach into Carlos Rovirosa Pérez International Airport and killed all 19 passengers and crew. On 19 October 2004, Corporate Airlines Flight 5966 crashed on approach to Kirksville Regional Airport killing 13 out of 15 passengers and crew. On 18 November 2004, Venezolana Flight 213 crashed into a station on landing at Simón Bolívar International Airport after a flight from Juan Pablo Perez Alfonso Airport. Four passengers were killed out of 21 passengers and crew on the flight, on 8 February 2008, Eagle Airways Flight 2279 was hijacked by a passenger over New Zealand just after taking off from Woodbourne Airport
41.
Stabilizer (aeronautics)
–
An aircraft stabilizer is an aerodynamic surface, typically including one or more movable control surfaces, that provides longitudinal and/or directional stability and control. A stabilizer can feature a fixed or adjustable structure on which any movable control surfaces are hinged, depending on the context, stabilizer may sometimes describe only the front part of the overall surface. In the conventional configuration, separate vertical and horizontal stabilizers form an empennage positioned at the tail of the aircraft. Other arrangements of the empennage, such as the V-tail configuration, feature stabilizers which contribute to a combination of longitudinal and directional stabilization, Longitudinal stability and control may be obtained with other wing configurations, including canard, tandem wing and tailless aircraft. Some types of aircraft are stabilized with electronic control, in this case, fixed. Transonic flight makes special demands on horizontal stabilizers, since the crossing of the barrier is associated with a sudden move aft of the center of lift. Another role of a stabilizer is to provide longitudinal static stability. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim and this maintains a constant aircraft attitude, with unchanging pitch angle relative to the airstream, without active input from the pilot. The elevator serve to control the pitch axis, in case of a movable tail. In the conventional configuration the horizontal stabilizer is a horizontal tail or tailplane located to the rear of the aircraft. This is the most common configuration, on many aircraft, the tailplane assembly consists of a fixed surface fitted with a hinged aft elevator surface. Trim tabs may be used to pilot input forces, conversely in some cases, such as small aircraft with all-moving stabilizers. Most airliners and transport aircraft feature a large, slow-moving trimmable tail plane which is combined with independently-moving elevators. The elevators are controlled by the pilot or autopilot and primarily serve to change the attitude, while the whole assembly is used to trim. Many supersonic aircraft feature an all-moving tail assembly, also named stabilator, variants on the conventional configuration include the T-tail, Cruciform tail, Twin tail and Twin-boom mounted tail. Three-surface aircraft such as the Piaggio P, lacking elevators, the tailplanes of these aircraft were not what is now called conventional stabilizers. For example, the Voisin was a layout with a foreplane that was neither stabilizing nor mainly lifting, it was called an équilibreur. In the canard configuration, a wing, or foreplane, is located in front of the main wing
42.
Grumman F-9 Cougar
–
The Grumman F9F/F-9 Cougar was an aircraft carrier-based fighter aircraft for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. Based on Grummans earlier F9F Panther, the Cougar replaced the Panthers straight wing with a more modern swept wing, the Navy considered the Cougar an updated version of the Panther, despite having a different official name, and thus Cougars started off from F9F-6 upward. Rumors that the Soviet Union had produced a swept-wing fighter had been circulating since 1948, despite the level of activity taking place with swept-wing aircraft, the Navy was initially not heavily focused on the development of such aircraft. Nonetheless the Navy appreciated the importance of getting a capable carrier-based swept-wing jet fighter, Grumman was awarded a contract for the development of a swept-wing fighter jet in 1951. The arrival of the Mig 15, which easily outclassed straight-wing fighters in the air war over North Korea was a contributing factor. Prototypes were quickly produced by modifying Panthers, and the first flew on 20 September 1951. The aircraft was still subsonic, but the critical Mach number was increased from 0.79 to 0.86 at sea level and to 0.895 at 35,000 ft, improving performance markedly over the Panther. Instead of using conventional ailerons for roll control, the F9F-6 uses spoilers on the surfaces of the wing. Wing fences were added and the spoilers extended from the fences to the tips of the wing. The rudder pedals controlled the part of the rudder below the tail surface. This allowed the Cougar to fly safely and easily without the portion of the tail. Initial production was the F9F-6, delivered from mid-1952 through July 1954, the F9F-6 first flew on September 20,1951, seven months after Grumman signed a contract with the Navy for swept-wing fighter. The first 30 production aircraft used the same J42 P-6 engine used in the F9F-5, Armament was four 20 mm It had AN/M3 cannons in the nose and provisions for two 1,000 lb bombs or 150 US gal drop tanks under the wings. Most were fitted with a UHF homing antenna under the nose, the F9F-6 used an Aero 5D-1 weapons sight with an APG-30A gun-ranging radar. The F9F-6 was later designated F-9F in 1962, sixty were built as F9F-6P reconnaissance aircraft with cameras instead of the nose cannon. The F9F/F-9 Cougar is one of few aircraft which do not have ailerons, after withdrawal from active service, many F9F-6s were used as unmanned drones for combat training, designated F9F-6D, or as drone controllers, designated F9F-6K. The F9F-6K and the F9F-6D were redesignated the QF-9F and DF-9F, the F9F-7 referred to the next batch of Cougars that were given the Allison J33 also found in the F9F-4, instead of the Pratt & Whitney J48. A total of 168 were built, but the J33 proved both powerful and less reliable than the J48
43.
Douglas F3D Skyknight
–
The Douglas F3D Skyknight was a United States twin-engined, mid-wing jet fighter aircraft manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California. The F3D was designed as a carrier-based all-weather night fighter and saw service with the United States Navy, the mission of the F3D was to search out and destroy enemy aircraft at night. The F3D Skyknight was never produced in numbers but it did achieve many firsts in its role as a night fighter over Korea. The Skyknight played an important role in the development of the radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missile which led to further guided air-to-air missile developments and it also served as an electronic warfare platform in the Vietnam War as a precursor to the EA-6A Intruder and EA-6B Prowler. The aircraft is sometimes unofficially called Skynight, dropping the second k, the unusual, portly profile earned it the nickname Willie the Whale. Some Vietnam War U. S. Marine veterans have referred to the Skyknight as Drut and this may be in reference to its age, unflattering looks or its low-slung air intakes that made it vulnerable to foreign object damage. The F3D was not intended to be a typical sleek and nimble dogfighter, but as a night fighter, packing a powerful radar system. It originated in 1945 with a US Navy requirement for a jet-powered, radar-equipped, carrier-based night fighter, the Douglas team led by Ed Heinemann designed around the bulky air intercept radar systems of the time, with side-by-side seating for the pilot and radar operator. The result was an aircraft with a wide, deep, instead of ejection seats, an escape tunnel was used, similar to the type used in the A-3 Skywarrior. The XF3D-1 beat out Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporations G-75 two-seat, four-engined, Westinghouse J30-powered night fighter design, the US Navys Bureau of Aeronautics also issued a contract to Grumman for two G-75 XF9F-1 experimental aircraft on 11 April 1946 in case the Skyknight ran into problems. Grumman soon realized that the G-75 was a design but had been working on a completely different. The first flight of the XF3D-1 was on 23 March 1948 at Douglas El Segundo facility with test pilot Russell Thaw at the controls, further flight testing followed at El Segundo until October 1948. Three prototypes were taken to Muroc Air Force Base for service trials. These units were powered by two Westinghouse J34-WE-24 turbojets of 3,000 lbf thrust, mounted under the roots of then-standard straight wings of the jet era. A production contract for 28 F3D-1 J34-WE-32 powered production aircraft was issued in June 1948 with the first production aircraft flying on 13 February 1950, the F3D was, however, able to outturn a MiG-15. The fire control system in the F3D-1 was the Westinghouse AN/APQ-35, the complexity of this vacuum tube-based radar system, which was produced before the advent of semiconductor electronics, required intensive maintenance to keep it operating properly. The F3D-1 was followed by the F3D-2, which was first ordered in August 1949, higher-thrust J34-WE-38 engines which increased aircraft performance were installed later. The F3D-2 also incorporated an improved Westinghouse AN/APQ-36 fire control system, a total of 237 F3D-2s were built before production ended on 23 March 1952
44.
Sud Aviation Caravelle
–
The Sud Aviation SE210 Caravelle was a French short/medium-range jet airliner. It holds the distinction of being the worlds first jet-powered airliner to be developed for the short/medium-range market, in order to achieve this, SNCASE formed partnerships with British companies such as de Havilland and Rolls-Royce Limited. Within a few years of commencing passenger services, the Caravelle had become regarded as being one of the most successful European first-generation jetliners. The airliner achieved substantial sales to operators throughout Europe and had managed to penetrate the United States market. The Caravelle established the aft-mounted engine, clean-wing design configuration that is used by smaller jetliners. On 12 October 1951, the Comité du matériel civil published a specification for a medium-range aircraft, which was later sent to the aviation industry by the Direction technique et industrielle. This called for a capable of carrying 55 to 65 passengers and 1,000 kg of cargo on routes up to 2,000 km with a cruising speed of about 600 km/h. The type and number of engines were not specified, hurel-Dubois had entered several turboprop designs based on a narrow fuselage and shoulder-mounted wing, similar to many regional propliners. Proposals from the SNCA du Sud-Ouest included the S. O.60 with two Rolls-Royce Avon RA.7 engines, outfitted with two smaller Turbomeca Marborés as auxiliaries. SNCA du Sud-Est had also returned a number of designs from the X-200 to X-210, the Committee issued a request for SNCASE to re-submit its X-210 proposal as a twin-Avon design. This turned out to be a benefit to the design, as the noise was greatly reduced as a result. In July 1952, the revised X-210 design with twin Avons was re-submitted to the SGACC, two months later, SNCASE received official notification that its design had been accepted. On 6 July 1953, the SGACC placed an order for the construction of a pair of prototypes along with a pair of static airframes for fatigue testing. Suds design licensed several fuselage features from British aircraft company de Havilland, the nose area and cockpit layout were both taken directly from the de Havilland Comet jet airliner, while the rest of the airliner was locally designed. A distinctive design feature was the windows in the shape of a curved triangle which were smaller than conventional windows. On 21 April 1955, the first prototype of the Caravelle, on 27 May 1955, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight, powered by a pair of British Rolls-Royce RA-26 Mk.522, capable of providing 4,536 kgf of unitary thrust. For the maiden flight, which had a duration of 41 minutes. Almost one year later, on 6 May 1956, the prototype made its first flight
45.
Web page
–
A web page is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device, the web page is what displays, but the term also refers to a computer file, usually written in HTML or comparable markup language. Web browsers coordinate the various web resource elements for the web page, such as style sheets, scripts. Typical web pages provide hypertext that includes a bar or a sidebar menu to other web pages via hyperlinks. On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a web server. On a higher level, the web server may restrict access to only a network such as a corporate intranet or it provides access to the World Wide Web. On a lower level, the web browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol to make such requests, dynamic website pages help the browser to enhance the web page through user input to the server. Web pages usually include information as to the colors of text and backgrounds, an HTTP1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the web page. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows, a web browser can have a Graphical User Interface, like Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera, or can be text-based, like Lynx or Links. Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages, disabled and able-bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth, anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium and Web Accessibility Initiative recommend that all web pages should be designed with all of options in mind. Non-textual information, Static images may be raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG, Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet. Audio, typically MP3, Ogg or various proprietary formats, video, WMV, RM, FLV, MPG, MOV Interactive information, see interactive media. For on page interaction, Interactive text, see DHTML, Interactive illustrations, ranging from click to play images to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave. Buttons, forms providing an interface, typically for use with script orchestration. For between pages interaction, Hyperlinks, standard change page reactivity, forms, providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases
