1.
Culture
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Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
2.
Imperialism
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Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
3.
Civilization
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Historically, a civilization was a so-called advanced culture in contrast to more supposedly primitive cultures. As an uncountable noun, civilization also refers to the process of a society developing into a centralized, urbanized, stratified structure, Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East, and later in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China, similar pre-civilized neolithic revolutions also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as northwestern South America and Mesoamerica. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, with civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago. Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various cradles from around 3300 BCE. Chalcolithic civilizations, as defined above, also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and, despite an early start in Egypt, Axum and Kush, the English word civilization comes from the 16th-century French civilisé, from Latin civilis, related to civis and civitas. The fundamental treatise is Norbert Eliass The Civilizing Process, which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period, in The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlines two opinions, one purely material and the other material and ethical. Adjectives like civility developed in the mid-16th century, the abstract noun civilization, meaning civilized condition, came in the 1760s, again from French. The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, in the pursuit of progress characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French revolution, civilization was used in the singular, never in the plural and this is still the case in French. The use of civilizations as a noun was in occasional use in the 19th century. Only in this sense does it become possible to speak of a medieval civilization. Already in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement, one historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. From this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder and this sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by conscious, rational, deliberative acts, but a kind of pre-rational folk spirit. Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and leads to vices of social life such as guile, hypocrisy, envy and avarice. In World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this opinion of civilization was behind Nazism, Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Andrew Nikiforuk argues that civilizations relied on shackled human muscle and it took the energy of slaves to plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities and considers slavery to be a common feature of pre-modern civilizations. All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation
4.
Cultural hegemony
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In philosophy and in sociology, the term cultural hegemony has denotations and connotations derived from the Ancient Greek word ἡγεμονία indicating leadership and rule. In the 20th century, the denotation of hegemony expanded to include cultural imperialism. Therefore, the changes to the functioning of the economy of a society determine its social superstructures. To that end, Antonio Gramsci proposed a distinction, between a War of Position and a War of Manœuvre. The proletarian culture will increase class consciousness, teach revolutionary theory and historical analysis, on winning the war of position, socialist leaders would then have the necessary political power and popular support to begin the political manœuvre warfare of revolutionary socialism. As a result of their different social purposes, the classes will be able to coalesce into a society with a social mission. Yet, when perceived as a society, the life of each person does contribute to the greater social hegemony. The cultural hegemony is manifested in and maintained by an existence of minor, different circumstances that are not always fully perceived by the men, althusser draws from the concepts of hegemony present in cultural hegemony, yet rejects the absolute historicism proposed by Gramsci. That the ideological state apparatuses are the sites of ideological conflict among the classes of a society. That, in contrast to the state apparatuses, such as the military and the police forces. While the ruling class in power can readily control the state apparatuses. Moreover, the ISA are not monolithic social entities, and are distributed throughout the society, as public and as private sites of class struggle. ”Cultural capital Cultural conflict Domination. The Free Art Collective Manifesto for a Counter-Hegemonic Art, the New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought. Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony, Marxism, Capitalism, and Their Relation to Sexism, Racism, Nationalism, st. Petersburg, Florida, Red and Black Publishers. Gramsci, Antonio, Buttigieg, Joseph A, ed. Prison notebooks, New York City, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-10592-4, OCLC24009547 Abercrombie, Nicholas, Turner, the London School of Economics and Political Science, Wiley-Blackwell. The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci, New Left Review, http, //newleftreview. org/static/assets/archive/pdf/NLR09801. pdf Gramsci, rethinking Marxism, Association for economic & social analysis, EI Net Gramsci, Selections, Prison notebooks, Marxists
5.
Industrialisation
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As industrial workers incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution, the invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work, by the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world. The BRICS states are undergoing the process of industrialisation, there is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development. The concentration of labour into factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve, workers have to either leave their families or bring them along in order to work in the towns and cities where these industries are found. The family structure changes with industrialisation, the sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in pre-industrial societies there is an extended family structure spanning many generations who probably remained in the same location for generations. In industrialised societies the nuclear family, consisting of parents and their growing children. Families and children reaching adulthood are more mobile and tend to relocate to where jobs exist, extended family bonds become more tenuous. Currently the international development community endorses development policies like water purification or primary education and Co-Operation amongst third world communities, the relationships among economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction are complex. Higher productivity is argued to be leading to lower employment, division of labour Newly industrialised country Idea of Progress Chandler Jr. Alfred D. The Visible Hand, The Management Revolution in American Business, belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Hewitt, T. Johnson, H. and Wield, D. industrialisation and Development, Oxford University Press, hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Revolution. Kemp, Tom Historical Patterns of Industrialisation, Longman, London, ISBN 0-582-09547-6 Kiely, R industrialisation and Development, A comparative analysis, UCL Press, London. The Unbound Prometheus, Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present, Cambridge, New York, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Pomeranz, Ken The Great Divergence, China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy by Tilly, industrialization as an Historical Process, European History Online, Mainz, Institute of European History,2010, retrieved,29 February 2011
6.
Developed country
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Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2015, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2015, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2016, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2015 and covers the period up to 2014. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2014 report
7.
Postcolonialism
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Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the consequences of external control and economic exploitation of native people. As a genre of history, postcolonialism questions and reinvents the manner in which a culture is being viewed. Anthropologically, it records human nations between the colonists and the peoples under colonial rule, seeking to build an understanding of the nature and practice of colonial rule. It also examines the effects of rule on the cultural aspects of the colony and its treatment of women, language, literature. Postcolonialism is aimed at destabilizing these theories by means of which colonialists perceive, understand, Colonialism was presented as the extension of civilization, which ideologically justified the self-ascribed racial and cultural superiority of the Western world over the non-Western world. Especially in the colonisation of the Far East and in the late-nineteenth century Scramble for Africa, hence, Belgium and Britain, and France and Germany proffered theories of national superiority that justified colonialism as delivering the light of civilisation to unenlightened peoples. A decolonised people develops a postcolonial identity that is based on interactions between different identities which are assigned varying degrees of social power by the colonial society. e. Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, in The Wretched of the Earth, the psychiatrist and philosopher Frantz Fanon analysed and medically described the nature of colonialism as essentially destructive. Its societal effects—the imposition of a subjugating colonial identity—are harmful to the health of the native peoples who were subjugated into colonies. Fanon wrote the ideological essence of colonialism is the denial of all attributes of humanity of the colonised people. Such dehumanization is achieved with physical and mental violence, by which the colonist means to inculcate a servile mentality upon the natives, for Fanon the natives must violently resist colonial subjugation. Hence, Fanon describes violent resistance to colonialism as a mentally cathartic practice, which purges colonial servility from the native psyche, thus he supported the Front de Libération Nationale in the Algerian War for independence from France. Michel Foucault argues that colonial discourses are where power and knowledge become intertwined and his work implies that power does not exist for punitive measures but rather, power provides a consistent gratification during its perpetual expression. Orientalism thus conflated and reduced the world into the homogeneous cultural entity known as the East. In Edward Said, The Exile as Interpreter, about Saïds Orientalism and that the applied power of such cultural knowledge allowed Europeans to rename, re-define, and thereby control Oriental peoples, places, and things, into imperial colonies. The power–knowledge binary relation is conceptually essential to identify and understand colonialism in general, with this described binary logic, the West generally constructs the Orient subconsciously as its alter ego. Therefore, descriptions of the Orient by the Occident lack material attributes and this inventive, or imaginative interpretation subscribes female characteristics to the Orient and plays into fantasies that are inherent within the Wests alter ego
8.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
9.
Neocolonialism
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Neo-colonialism is discussed in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre and Noam Chomsky. Some neocolonial ideas, like cities, are popular among economists. Neocolonialism labels European countries continued economic and cultural relationships with their former colonies, Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended to the post–War 20th century the socio-economic and political arguments presented by Lenin in the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. The pamphlet frames 19th-century imperialism as the extension of geopolitical power. Neocolonialism was formally defined by the All-African Peoples Conference and published in the Resolution on Neo-colonialism, at both the Tunis conference and the Cairo conference, AAPC described the actions of the French Community of independent states, organized by France, as neocolonial. Moreover, neocolonialism was integrated into the national liberation ideologies of Marxist guerrilla armies, the representative example of European neocolonialism is Françafrique, the French Africa constituted by the continued close relationships between France and its former African colonies. In 1955, the usage of the French Africa term, by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Ivory Coast, denoted positive social, cultural. It was later applied by critics to describe an imbalanced international relation. The politician Jacques Foccart, the advisor for African matters to French presidents Charles de Gaulle. Cited examples are Omar Bongo, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, Denis Sassou-Nguesso, Idriss Déby, the most contested part was in the province of Katanga where the Union Minière du Haut Katanga, part of the Société, controlled the mineral-resource-rich province. After a failed attempt to nationalize the mining industry in the 1960s, in 1961, regarding the economic mechanism of neocolonial control, in the speech Cuba, Historical Exception or Vanguard in the Anti-colonial Struggle. Argentine revolutionary Ché Guevara said, Dependency theory is the description of economic neocolonialism. It proposes that the economic system comprises wealthy countries at the center. Economic neocolonialism extracts the human and natural resources of a country to flow to the economies of the wealthy countries. It claims that the poverty of the countries is the result of how they are integrated in the global economic system. It includes the concept of the late 19th century semi-colony and it contrasts the Marxist perspective of the Theory of Colonial Dependency with capitalist economics. The latter proposes that poverty is a development stage in the countrys progress towards full integration in the global economic system. During the mid-to-late 20th century, in the course of the conflict between the U. S. and the U. S. S. R
10.
Media studies
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Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media, in particular, the mass media. Media is studied as a subject in most states in Australia. Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, today, almost all Australian universities teach media studies. In secondary schools, a film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s. And, by the early 1970s, a media studies course was being taught. The course became part of the secondary curriculum in the 1980s. It has since become, and continues to be, a component of the VCE. Notable figures in the development of the Victorian secondary school curriculum were the long time Rusden College media teacher Peter Greenaway, Trevor Barr, Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level. Media studies also form a part of the primary and junior secondary curriculum. Victoria also hosts the peak media teaching body known as ATOM which publishes Metro, there are two universities in China that specialize in media studies. Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, CUC has 15,307 full-time students, including 9264 undergraduates,3512 candidates for doctor and masters degrees and 16780 students in programs of continuing education. The other university known for studies in China is Zhejiang University of Media and Communications which has campuses in Hangzhou. Almost 10,000 full-time students are studying in over 50 programs at the 13 Colleges. Both institutions have produced some of Chinas brightest broadcasting talents for television as well as leading journalists at magazines, one prominent French media critic is the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu who wrote among other books On Television. Bourdieus analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, in his view, the market not only imposes uniformity and banality, but also a form of invisible censorship. In Germany two main branches of theory or media studies can be identified. The first major branch of media theory has its roots in the humanities and cultural studies, such as theater studies and German language and this branch has broadened out substantially since the 1990s. And it is on this basis that media studies in Germany has primarily developed and established itself
11.
Herbert Schiller
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Herbert Irving Schiller was an American media critic, sociologist, author, and scholar. He earned his PhD in 1960 from New York University. Schiller used Time Warner Inc. as an example of packaged consciousness, stating that it “basically dominates publishing, cable television, recordings, tapes and filmmaking. ”He was married to librarian and scholar Anita Schiller, and their children include sons Zach and Dan. Zach Schiller is a policy analyst in Ohio, and Dan Schiller is a telecommunications historian at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
12.
Colonialism
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Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
13.
International relations
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International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides, in practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, the centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state. The term republic increasingly became its synonym, the same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism, the contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. While the nation-state system is considered modern, many states have not incorporated the system and are termed pre-modern, further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered post-modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of different types of states is disputed. What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and R in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, in the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations. International relations as a field of study began in Britain. IR emerged as an academic discipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship. Georgetown Universitys Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States and this was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE, furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 2012, Ramon Llull University initiated the first International Relations degree in Barcelona, fully in English
14.
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
15.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
16.
Jacques Derrida
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Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together with hundreds of essays and he also influenced architecture, music, art, and art criticism. Particularly in his writings, Derrida addressed ethical and political themes in his work. Some critics consider Speech and Phenomena to be his most important work, others cite Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Margins of Philosophy. These writings influenced various activists and political movements and he became a well-known and influential public figure, while his approach to philosophy and the notorious difficulty of his work made him controversial. Derrida was the third of five children and his elder brother Paul Moïse died at less than three months old, the year before Derrida was born, leading him to suspect throughout his life his role as a replacement for his deceased brother. Derrida spent his youth in Algiers and in El-Biar, on the first day of the school year in 1942, French administrators in Algeria — implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government — expelled Derrida from his lycée. He secretly skipped school for a rather than attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers an instrument of revolt against family and his reading also included Camus and Sartre. In the late 1940s, he attended the Lycée Bugeaud and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, on his first day at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1952, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his masters degree in philosophy on Edmund Husserl and he then passed the highly competitive agrégation exam in 1956. Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and he spent the 1956–57 academic year reading Joyces Ulysses at the Widener Library, in June 1957, he married the psychoanalyst Marguerite Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence of 1954–1962, Derrida asked to teach children in lieu of military service, teaching French. Following the war, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne and his wife, Marguerite, gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. In 1964, on the recommendation of Louis Althusser and Jean Hyppolite, Derrida got a permanent teaching position at the ENS, in 1965 Derrida began an association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists, which lasted for seven years. Derridas subsequent distance from the Tel Quel group, after 1971, has attributed to his reservations about their embrace of Maoism. At the same colloquium Derrida would meet Jacques Lacan and Paul de Man, a second son, Jean, was born in 1967
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Edward Said
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Edward Wadie Said was a professor of literature at Columbia University, a public intellectual, and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies. A Palestinian American born in Mandatory Palestine, he was a citizen of the United States by way of his father, a U. S. Army veteran. As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book Orientalism, as a foundational text, Orientalism was controversial among the scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature. Said advocated the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel. In 1999, with his friend Daniel Barenboim, Said co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, based in Seville, which comprises young Israeli, Palestinian, Edward Said died of leukemia on 25 September 2003. Edward Wadie Said was born on 1 November 1935, to Hilda Said and Wadie Said, a businessman in Jerusalem, then part of British-governed Mandatory Palestine. Wadie Said was a Palestinian man who soldiered in the U. S. Army component of the American Expeditionary Forces, commanded by General John J. Pershing, afterwards, that war-time military service earned American citizenship to Said père and his family. Edward’s mother, Hilda Said was born Lebanese and raised in Nazareth, in 1919, in partnership with a cousin, Wadie Said established a stationery business in Cairo. Like her husband, Hilda Said was an Arab Christian, and, although the Said family practiced the Jerusalemite variety of Greek Orthodox Christianity, moreover, his sister Rosemarie Saïd Zahlan also pursued an academic career. Said lived his boyhood between the worlds of Cairo and Jerusalem, in 1947, he attended St. Georges School, Jerusalem, nonetheless, the student Edward excelled, and achieved the rank of either first or second in a class of one hundred sixty students. In 1963, Said joined Columbia University, as a member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. In 1974, he was Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard, during the 1975–76 period, he was a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science, Said also worked as a visiting professor at Yale University, and lectured at other universities. Said lectured at more than 200 universities in North America, Europe, in 1992, Said was promoted to Professor, the highest-rank academic job at Columbia University. Editorially, Prof. Saids first published book, Joseph Conrad, moreover, in Edward Saïd, Criticism and Society, Abdirahman Hussein said that Conrads novella Heart of Darkness was foundational to Saids entire career and project. That Lewis was saying that knowledge about Europe the only criterion for true knowledge. That the appearance of academic impartiality was part of Lewiss role as an authority for zealous anti–Islamic, anti–Arab, Zionist. Moreover, in the Afterword to the 1995 edition of the book, in the academy, Orientalism became a foundational text of the field of Post-colonial studies, for what the British intellectual Terry Eagleton said is the books central truth. That demeaning images of the East, and imperialist incursions into its terrain, have gone hand in hand
18.
Post-structuralism
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Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos
19.
Hegemony
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Hegemony is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others. In ancient Greece, hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states, the dominant state is known as the hegemon. In the 19th century, hegemony came to denote the Social or cultural predominance or ascendancy, later, it could be used to mean a group or regime which exerts undue influence within a society. In contrast to authoritarian rule, cultural hegemony is hegemonic only if those affected by it also consent to and struggle over its common sense. From the post-classical Latin word hegemonia, from 1513 or earlier, or the Greek word ἡγεμονία, meaning authority, rule, political supremacy, likewise, the role of Athens within the short-lived Delian League was that of a hegemon. Ancient historians such as Xenophon and Ephorus were the first who used the term in its modern sense. In Ancient East Asia, Chinese hegemony existed during the Spring and Autumn period and they were appointed by feudal lord conferences, and thus were nominally obliged to uphold the imperium of the Zhou Dynasty over the subordinate states. 1st and 2nd century Europe was dominated by the peace of the Pax Romana. It was instituted by the emperor Augustus, and was accompanied by a series of military campaigns. From the 7th century to the 12th century, the Umayyad Caliphate and later Abbasid Caliphate dominated the vast territories they governed, with other states like the Byzantine Empire paying tribute. In 7th century India, Harsha, ruler of an empire in northern India from 606 to 647 AD. He preferred not to rule as a government, but left conquered kings on their thrones and contenting himself with tribute. From the late 9th to the early 11th century, the empire developed by Charlemagne achieved hegemony in Europe, with dominance over France, Italy and he lists several contenders for historical hegemony. Based on Portugals dominance in navigation, based on Dutch control of credit and money. Based on British textiles and command of the high seas, based on British industrial supremacy and railroads. To this list could be added the hegemony of Habsburg Spain in 16th century Europe, however, after an attempt by Phillip IV to restore it, by the middle of the 17th century Spains pretensions to hegemony had definitely and irremediably failed. This, in turn, made possible the Amsterdam stock market, in France, King Louis XIV and Napoleon I attempted French hegemony via economic, cultural and military domination of most of Continental Europe. However, Jeremy Black writes that, because of Britain, France was unable to enjoy the benefits of this hegemony, Britain also controlled the Indian subcontinent and large portions of Africa
20.
Social theorist
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Social theories are frameworks of empirical evidence used to study and interpret social phenomena. A tool used by scientists, social theories relate to historical debates over the most valid and reliable methodologies. Certain social theories attempt to strictly scientific, descriptive. Conflict theories, by contrast, present ostensibly normative positions, Тhe origins of social theory are difficult to pinpoint, but debates frequently return to ancient Greece. From these foundations in Western philosophy arose Enlightenment social contract theory, sociological positivism, today, social science is used as an umbrella term to refer to sociology, economics, political science, jurisprudence, and other disciplines. Social theory is interdisciplinary and draws ideas from fields as diverse as anthropology. Social theory of a nature, or authorship based outside of academic social and political science. Similarly, cultural criticism may be associated both with formal cultural and literary scholarship, as well as other non-academic or journalistic forms of writing, the origins of the term are ancient and are derived from two words, ‘social’ from the Latin socius and ‘theory’ from the Greek theoria. Social thought provides general theories to explain actions and behavior of society as a whole, encompassing sociological, political, Social theory is used to make distinctions and generalizations among different types of societies, and to analyze modernity as it has emerged in the past few centuries. Classical social theory has generally been presented from a perspective of Western philosophy, Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato, did not see a distinction between politics and society. The concept of society did not come until later, during the Enlightenment period. The term, société, was probably first used as key concept by Rousseau in discussion of social relations, the earliest proto-social scientific observations are to be found in the founding texts of Western philosophy, as well as in the non-European thought of figures such as Confucius. Prior to the enlightenment, social theory took largely narrative and normative form, expressed as stories and fables, it may be assumed the pre-Socratic philosophers and religious teachers were the precursors to social theory proper. Saint Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas concerned themselves exclusively with the idea of the just society, St. Augustine describes late Ancient Roman society but through a lens of hatred and contempt for what he saw as false Gods, and in reaction theorized City of God. Similarly, in China, Master Kong envisaged a just society that went beyond his contemporary society of the Warring States, later on, also in China, Mozi recommended a more pragmatic sociology, but ethical at base. He is thus considered by many to be the forerunner of sociology, ibn Khaldun, an influential Muslim scholar, described in Muqaddimah, published in 1377, two types of societies, the city or town-dweller and the mobile, nomadic societies. Montesquieu, in The Spirit of Laws, was possibly the first to suggest an explanation for history. Another innovative aspect of Montesquieus thinking was that he included changes in mores and manners as part of his explanation of political, jean-Jacques Rousseau in this time played a significant role in social theory
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Power (philosophy)
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In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. The term authority is used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings, in business, power is often expressed as being upward or downward. With downward power, a companys superior influences subordinates, when a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders. The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force, at one extreme, it closely resembles what an English-speaking person might term influence, although some authors distinguish influence as a means by which power is used. One such example is power, as compared to hard power. The philosopher Michel Foucault saw power as an expression of a complex strategic situation in a given social setting that requires both constraint and enablement. Social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, in a now-classic study, a must draw on the base or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship, to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in As own power. French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, further bases have since been adduced – in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization. Also called positional power, it is the power of an individual because of the relative position, legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of such as a uniform. Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and it is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards a sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country and this is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, the charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power, referent power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect
22.
Truth
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Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Truth may also often be used in modern contexts to refer to an idea of truth to self, the commonly understood opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of language or thought to an independent reality, other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a derivation from the concepts original essence. Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, language and words are a means by which humans convey information to one another and the method used to determine what is a truth is termed a criterion of truth. The English word truth is derived from Old English tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ, Middle English trewþe, cognate to Old High German triuwida, like troth, it is a -th nominalisation of the adjective true. Old Norse trú, faith, word of honour, religious faith, thus, truth involves both the quality of faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity, and that of agreement with fact or reality, in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ. All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a distinction between truth fidelity and truth factuality. To express factuality, North Germanic opted for nouns derived from sanna to assert, affirm, while continental West Germanic opted for continuations of wâra faith, trust, pact. Romance languages use terms following the Latin veritas, while the Greek aletheia, Russian pravda, each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars. However, the theories are not universally accepted. More recently developed deflationary or minimalist theories of truth have emerged as competitors to the substantive theories. Minimalist reasoning centres around the notion that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature. Minimalist reasoning realises truth as a label utilised in general discourse to express agreement, to stress claims, correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs. This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other and it is a traditional model tracing its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to things, Aquinas also restated the theory as, A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality. Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors, for example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages
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Ideology
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Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or society has. An ideology is less encompassing than the ideas expressed in such as worldview, imaginary. Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant class of society such as the elite to all members of society as suggested in some Marxist and critical-theory accounts. In societies that distinguish between public and private life, every political or economic tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is propounded as a system of thought. In the Althusserian sense, ideology is the relation to the real conditions of existence. The term ideology was born during the Great Terror of French Revolution, the word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. The coup that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre saved Tracys life and freed him to pursue his work, assembling the words idea, from Greek ἰδέα and -logy, from -λογία. Tracy reacted to the phase of the revolution by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. He conceived of Ideology a liberal philosophy which provided a defense of individual liberty, property, free markets. He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, Tracy worked this out during the Napoleonic regime, and Napoleon Bonaparte came to view Ideology a term of abuse which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracys Institut National. Karl Marx adopted this negative sense of the term and used it in his writings, in the century after Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. The term ideology has dropped some of its sting, and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions. While Karl Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a part of institutional functioning. There has been analysis of different ideological patterns. This kind of analysis has been described by some as meta-ideology – the study of the structure, form, recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Ideas become ideologies through the subjective ongoing choices that people make, according to most recent analysis, ideologies are neither necessarily right nor wrong. Believers in ideology range from passive acceptance through fervent advocacy to true belief, an excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics and religions. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies, for Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related issues of utopia and historical myth
24.
The Prince
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The Prince is a 16th-century political treatise, by the Italian diplomat and political theorist, Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have distributed in 1513, using a Latin title. However, the version was not published until 1532, five years after Machiavellis death. This was done with the permission of the Medici pope Clement VII, although it was written as if it were a traditional work in the mirrors for princes style, it is generally agreed that it was especially innovative. It was also in conflict with the dominant Catholic and scholastic doctrines of the time concerning politics and ethics. Although it is short, the treatise is the most remembered of Machiavellis works. It even contributed to the negative connotations of the words politics. In terms of matter it overlaps with the much longer Discourses on Livy. The work has a structure, for the most part indicated by the author himself. In the first sentence Machiavelli uses the state in order to neutrally cover all forms of organization of supreme political power, whether republican or princely. More importantly, and less traditionally, he distinguishes new princedoms from hereditary established princedoms and he deals with hereditary princedoms quickly in Chapter 2, saying that they are much easier to rule. For such a prince, unless extraordinary vices cause him to be hated, normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. He thinks Machiavelli may have influenced by Tacitus as well as his own experience. He also ignores the classical distinctions between the good and corrupt forms, for example between monarchy and tyranny, Machiavelli divides the subject of new states into two types, mixed cases and purely new states. To put down the powerful people, not to allow a foreign power to gain reputation. More generally, Machiavelli emphasizes that one should have not only for present problems. One should not “enjoy the benefit of time” but rather the benefit of ones virtue and prudence, in some cases the old king of the conquered kingdom depended on his lords. 16th century France, or in other words France as it was at the time of writing of The Prince, is given by Machiavelli as an example of such a kingdom and these are easy to enter but difficult to hold
25.
Neoliberalism
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Neoliberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism. These market-based ideas and the policies they inspired constitute a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus which lasted from 1945 to 1980, as such, neoliberalism shares many attributes with other contested concepts, including democracy. The definition and usage of the term have changed over time, in the 1960s, usage of the term neoliberal heavily declined. When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochets economic reforms in Chile, once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. By 1994, with the passage of NAFTA and the Zapatistas reaction to development in Chiapas. Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing, the impact of the global 2008–2009 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives. In 1938 at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, the term neoliberalism was proposed, among other terms, the colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving the priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state. To be neoliberal meant advocating an economic policy with state intervention. Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing camp of classical liberals. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his more pro-free market stance. During the military rule under Augusto Pinochet in Chile, opposition scholars took up the expression to describe the economic reforms implemented there, once this new meaning was established among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. Another center-left movement from modern American liberalism that used the term neoliberalism to describe its ideology formed in the United States in the 1970s, according to David Brooks, prominent neoliberal politicians included Al Gore and Bill Clinton of the Democratic Party of the United States. The neoliberals coalesced around two magazines, the New Republic and the Washington Monthly, the godfather of this version of neoliberalism was the journalist Charles Peters who in 1983 published A Neoliberals Manifesto. Neoliberal theory argues that a market will allow efficiency, economic growth, income distribution. Any state intervention to encourage these phenomena will worsen economic performance, yet the handbook argues to view the term as merely a pejorative or radical political slogan is to reduce its capacity as an analytic frame. If neoliberalism is to serve as a way of understanding the transformation of society over the last few decades then the concept is in need of unpacking. Other scholars note that neoliberalism is associated with the policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom. There are several usages of the term that can be identified, As a development model
26.
Noam Chomsky
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Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes described as the father of modern linguistics, Chomsky is also a figure in analytic philosophy. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, born to middle-class Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. At the age of sixteen he began studies at the University of Pennsylvania, taking courses in linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy. From 1951 to 1955 he was appointed to Harvard Universitys Society of Fellows and he is credited as the creator or co-creator of the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a role in the decline of behaviorism. Associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism, while expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the Linguistics Wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later co-wrote an analysis articulating the propaganda model of media criticism, however, his defense of unconditional freedom of speech—including for Holocaust deniers—generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the early 1980s. Following his retirement from teaching, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the War on Terror. One of the most cited scholars in history, Chomsky has influenced an array of academic fields. Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7,1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and his father was William Zev Chomsky, an Ashkenazi Jew originally from Ukraine who had fled to the United States in 1913. Chomskys mother was the Belarusian-born Elsie Simonofsky, a teacher and activist whom William had met while working at Mikveh Israel, Noam was the Chomsky familys first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky, was five years later. The brothers were close, although David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive, as a Jew, Chomsky faced anti-semitism as a child, particularly from the Irish and German communities living in Philadelphia. He was substantially influenced by his uncle who owned a newspaper stand in New York City, whenever visiting his uncle, Chomsky frequented left-wing and anarchist bookstores in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He later described his discovery of anarchism as an accident, because it allowed him to become critical of other far-left ideologies, namely Stalinism. Chomskys primary education was at Oak Lane Country Day School, an independent Deweyite institution that focused on allowing its pupils to pursue their own interests in a non-competitive atmosphere. It was here, at age 10, that he wrote his first article, on the spread of fascism, from the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics
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Antonio Gramsci
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Antonio Francesco Gramsci was an Italian Marxist theorist and politician. He wrote on political theory, sociology and linguistics and he attempted to break from the economic determinism of traditional Marxist thought and so is considered a key neo-Marxist. He was a member and one-time leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3,000 pages of history and his Prison Notebooks are considered a highly original contribution to 20th century political theory. Gramsci drew insights from varying sources - not only other Marxists but also such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Vilfredo Pareto, Georges Sorel. The notebooks cover a range of topics, including Italian history and nationalism. The bourgeoisie in Gramscis view develops a hegemonic culture using ideology rather than violence, economic force, hegemonic culture propagates its own values and norms so that they become the common sense values of all and thus maintain the status quo. Hegemonic power is used to maintain consent to the capitalist order, rather than coercive power using force to maintain order. This cultural hegemony is produced and reproduced by the dominant class through the institutions that form the superstructure, Antonio Francesco Gramsci was born in Ales, on the island of Sardinia, the fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci. The senior Gramsci was an official from Gaeta, who married Giuseppina Marcias. Gramscis father was of distant Arbëreshë descent, though Gramsci mistakenly believed his fathers family left Albania as recently as 1821 and his mother belonged to a local landowning family. The senior Gramscis financial difficulties and troubles with the police forced the family to move about through several villages in Sardinia until they settled in Ghilarza. In 1898 Francesco was convicted of embezzlement and imprisoned, reducing his family to destitution, the young Antonio had to abandon schooling and work at various casual jobs until his fathers release in 1904. As a boy, Gramsci suffered from problems, particularly a malformation of the spine that stunted his growth. Gramsci was also plagued by various internal disorders throughout his life, Gramsci completed secondary school in Cagliari, where he lodged with his elder brother Gennaro, a former soldier whose time on the mainland had made him a militant socialist. However, Gramscis sympathies then did not lie with socialism, but rather with the grievances of impoverished Sardinian peasants, in 1911, Gramsci won a scholarship to study at the University of Turin, sitting the exam at the same time as Palmiro Togliatti. At Turin, he read literature and took a keen interest in linguistics, Gramsci was in Turin as it was going through industrialization, with the Fiat and Lancia factories recruiting workers from poorer regions. Trade unions became established, and the first industrial social conflicts started to emerge, Gramsci frequented socialist circles as well as associating with Sardinian emigrants
28.
Orientalism (book)
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Orientalism is a 1978 book by Edward W. According to Said, orientalism is inextricably tied to the imperialist societies who produced it, as a public intellectual, Edward Said debated Orientalism with historians and scholars of area studies, notably, the historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of Orientalism as anti-Western. For subsequent editions of Orientalism, Said wrote an Afterword and a Preface addressing criticisms of the content, substance, Orientalism is the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western superiority, and the application of clichéd analytical models for perceiving the Oriental world. Therefore, Orientalism was a method of practical and cultural discrimination that was applied to non-European societies and peoples in order to establish European imperial domination, in justification of empire, the Orientalist claims to know more—essential and definitive knowledge—about the Orient than do the Orientals. Orientalism concluded that Western knowledge of the Eastern world, i. e, the Western world had been surprised, by the pro-active and decisive actions of non-Western peoples, whom the ideology of Orientalism had defined as essentially weak societies and impotent countries. The geopolitical reality of their actions, of military and economic warfare, voided the fictional nature of Orientalist representations, attitudes, and opinions about the non-Western Other self. The greatest intellectual impact of Orientalism was upon the fields of literary theory, cultural studies, and the Why. of the cultural representations of “Orientals”, “The Orient”, and “The Eastern world” as presented in the mass communications media of the Western world. In the Afterword to the 1995 edition of Orientalism, Said presented follow-up refutations of the criticisms that the Orientalist, in White Mythologies, Writing History and the West, Robert J. C. Young reported Post-colonial explanations of the How. and the Why. In the field of studies, Orientalism is an extended application of methods of critical analysis developed by the philosopher Michel Foucault. The Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova presented her ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms, the thesis, content, substance, and style were much criticised by Orientalist academics, such as Albert Hourani, Robert Graham Irwin, Nikki Keddie, and Bernard Lewis. I remain in the safety of rhetorical analysis, where criticism is the second-best thing I do, in the book review, The Mightier Pen. Being European is the common trait among such a temporally and stylistically disparate group of literary Orientalists. In The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of Indias Past O. P, in the sociological article, Review, Who is Afraid of Edward Said. S. A university-professor job, and categorical statements, such as, any, are embedded, first, in the language, and then, in the culture, institutions, and political ambience of the representer. Interwoven with a great many things, besides the Truth, which is, itself. Hence, in the article Orients and Occidents, Colonial Discourse Theory, in October 2003, one month after the death of Edward W. S. and that U. S. Middle Eastern Studies were taken over, by Edward Saids postcolonial studies paradigm, postcolonialism Subaltern Lila Abu-Lughod Occidentalism Ornamentalism Imagined geographies Ankerl, Guy Coexsiting Contemporary Civilizations, Arabo-Mulsim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. The Future of the Present, Thinking Through Orientalism, Cultural Dynamics, Vol.10, benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aethetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa, 1880–1930, U. of California Press,2003 Biddick, Kathleen
29.
Humanism
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The term was coined in 1808 by the early nineteenth century German educational reformer and theologian Friedrich Niethammer and gradually adopted into English. Niethammer had wished to introduce into German education the humane values of ancient Greece, the word Humanism is ultimately derived from the Latin concept humanitas, and, like most other words ending in -ism, entered English in the nineteenth century. Those who earnestly desire and seek after these are most highly humanized. For the desire to pursue of that kind of knowledge, and the training given by it, has granted to humanity alone of all the animals. Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and he himself was involved in public affairs. By assigning pride of place to Paideia in his comment on the etymology of humanitas, gelliuss writings fell into obscurity during the middle ages, but during the Italian Renaissance, Gellius became a favorite author. Teachers and scholars of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, during the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany, humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and it is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. The first Humanist Manifesto was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933, signatories included the philosopher John Dewey, but the majority were ministers and theologians. But in the century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of The general love of humanity. A virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call humanism, for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing. The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous philanthropic and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word humanism by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the mere humanity of Christ, i. e. Unitarians and Deists. Human-centered philosophy that rejected the supernatural may also be found circa 1500 BCE in the Lokayata system of Indian philosophy, nasadiya Sukta, a passage in the Rig Veda, contains one of the first recorded assertions of agnosticism. Another instance of ancient humanism as a system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. Zarathustras philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings, dignified with choice, in China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor. Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded, king Wu of Zhou has the famous saying, Humanity is the Ling of the world
30.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
31.
Social construct
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The theory centers on the notions that human beings rationalize their experience by creating models of the social world and share and reify these models through language. A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and it involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, known, and made into tradition by humans. In terms of background, social constructionism is rooted in symbolic interactionism, with Berger and Luckmans The Social Construction of Reality published in 1966, this concept found its hold. More than four decades later, a number of theory. It is a viewpoint that uproots social processes simultaneously playful and serious and it provides a substitute to the Western intellectual tradition where the researcher earnestly seeks certainty in a representation of reality by means of propositions. Rather, there can be multiple realities that compete for truth, Social constructionism understands the fundamental role of language and communication and this understanding has contributed to the linguistic turn and more recently the turn to discourse theory. The majority of social constructionists abide by the belief that language does not mirror reality, rather, a broad definition of social constructionism has its supporters and critics in the organizational sciences. A constructionist approach to organizational and managerial phenomena appear to be more commonplace. Berger and Luckmann give credit to Max Scheler as an influence as he created the idea of Sociology of knowledge which influenced social construction theory. Social construction may mean many things to many people, X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things, Hacking adds that the following claims are also often, though not always, implied by the use of the phrase social construction, X is quite bad as it is. We would be better off if X were done away with. Thus a claim that gender is socially constructed probably means that gender, as understood, is not an inevitable result of biology. In addition, depending on who is making the claim, it may mean that our current understanding of gender is harmful, according to Hacking, social construction claims are not always clear about exactly what isnt inevitable, or exactly what should be done away with. Consider a hypothetical claim that quarks are socially constructed, on one reading, this means that quarks themselves are not inevitable or determined by the nature of things. Hackings distinction is based on metaphysics, with a split between things out in the world, on one hand, and ideas thereof in our minds. Hacking is less advocating a serious, particular metaphysics than he is suggesting a way to analyse claims about social construction. Hacking is much more sympathetic to the second reading than the first, furthermore, he argues that, if the second reading is taken, there need not always be a conflict between saying that quarks are socially constructed and saying that they are real
32.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
33.
Power (social and political)
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In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. The term authority is used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings, in business, power is often expressed as being upward or downward. With downward power, a companys superior influences subordinates, when a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders. The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force, at one extreme, it closely resembles what an English-speaking person might term influence, although some authors distinguish influence as a means by which power is used. One such example is power, as compared to hard power. The philosopher Michel Foucault saw power as an expression of a complex strategic situation in a given social setting that requires both constraint and enablement. Social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, in a now-classic study, a must draw on the base or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship, to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in As own power. French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, further bases have since been adduced – in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization. Also called positional power, it is the power of an individual because of the relative position, legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of such as a uniform. Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and it is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards a sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country and this is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, the charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power, referent power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect
34.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
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Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak is an Indian scholar, literary theorist, and feminist critic. She is University Professor at Columbia University, where she is a member of Institute for Comparative Literature. In 2013, she received the Padma Bhushan, the third highest civilian award given by the Republic of India, Spivak was born Gayatri Chakravorty in Calcutta, India, to Pares Chandra and Sivani Chakravorty. Spivaks great grandfather Pratap Chandra Majumdar had been Sri Ramakrishna’s doctor and her father Paresh Chandra Chakrabarti was initiated by Sri Sarada Devi, and her mother Sivani Chakrabarti, by Swami Shivananda. Spivak attended Cornell University, where she completed her MA in English and was one of the first women to be elected to membership in the Telluride House and she continued to pursue her PhD in comparative literature from Cornell while also teaching at the University of Iowa. Her dissertation, advised by Paul de Man, was on W. B. Yeats and titled Myself Must I Remake, The Life and Poetry of W. B. Yeats. In March 2007, Spivak became a University Professor at Columbia University and she has received numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world. She also came first in Bengali literature among all the students at the university and she lost her father in 1955, and in 1959, upon graduation, secured employment as an English tutor for forty hours a week, in addition to working for her MA at the university. In 1961, she joined the program in English at Cornell University. It is interesting to note that it did not occur to her to declare her mother tongue as a foreign language, at Cornell, she wrote her MA thesis on the representation of innocence in Wordsworth with M. H. She presented a course in the summer of 1963 on “Yeats, in the Fall of 1965, Spivak became an assistant professor in the department of English, University of Iowa. She did not publish her doctoral dissertation, but decided to write a book on Yeats that would be accessible to her undergraduate students without compromising her intellectual positions. The result is her first book, written for adults, Myself I Must Remake, The Life. In 1967, on her attempts at self-improvement, Spivak purchased a book, by an author unknown to her. She decided to translate this brilliant book by an unknown author, in 1974, at the University of Iowa, Spivak founded the MFA in Translation in the department of Comparative Literature. The following year, she became the Director of the Program in Comparative Literature and was promoted to full professorship, in 1978, she was National Humanities Professor at the University of Chicago. In 1978, she moved to the University of Texas at Austin as professor of English, in 1982, she was appointed as the Longstreet Professor in English and Comparative Literature at Emory University. In 1986, she was invited to the University of Pittsburgh as the first Mellon Professor of English, here she established the Cultural Studies program
35.
Sati (practice)
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Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a government official, which states Ahmed, not only seemed to accord an official sanction. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of Sati in Bengal province doubled from 378 to 839, under sustained campaigning against Sati by Christian missionaries such as William Carey and Brahmin Hindu reformer such as Ram Mohan Roy, the provincial government banned Sati in 1829. This was followed up by similar laws by the authorities in the states of India in the ensuing decades. In Nepal, sati was banned in 1920, the Indian Sati Prevention Act from 1988 further criminalised any type of aiding, abetting, and glorifying of sati. Sati is derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father Dakshas humiliation to her husband Shiva, the term sati was originally interpreted as chaste woman. Sati appears in Hindi and Sanskrit texts, where it is synonymous with good wife, Sati designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite, the rite itself having technical names such as sahagamana or sahamarana. Anvarohana is occasionally met, as well as satidaha as terms to designate the process, satipratha is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive. Two other terms related to sati are sativrata and satimata, sativrata, an uncommon and seldom used term, denotes the woman who makes a vow, vrat, to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband. Satimata denotes a venerated widow who committed sati, the Indian Commission of Sati Act,1987 Part I, Section 2 defines sati as the act or rite itself. Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, after about this time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. According to Axel Michaels, the first clear proof of the practice is from Nepal in 464 AD, in India, the earliest of these memorial stones are found in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, the largest collections date from several centuries later and are found in Rajasthan. Those who declined to die were disgraced, in 317 BC Eumenes cosmopolitan army defeated that of Antigonus in the Battle of Paraitakene. Among the fallen was one Ceteus, the commander of Eumenes Indian soldiers, Diodorus writes that Ceteus had been followed on campaign by his two wives, at his funeral the two wives competed for the honour of joining their husband on the pyre. After the older wife was found to be pregnant, Eumenes generals ruled in favour of the younger and she was led to the pyre crowned in garlands to the hymns of her kinsfolk. The whole army then marched three times around the pyre before it was lit, according to Diodorus the practice of sati started because Indians married for love, unlike the Greeks who favoured marriages arranged by the parents. When inevitably many of these marriages turned sour, the woman would often poison the husband and find a new lover
36.
Subaltern (postcolonialism)
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Marxist historians had already been investigating colonial history as told from the perspective of the proletariat, using the concept of social classes as being determined by economic relations. In the 1980s, the scope of enquiry of Subaltern Studies was applied as an intervention in South Asian historiography, the term subaltern is used in the fields of history, anthropology, sociology, human geography, literary criticism, musicology, and art history. In postcolonial theory, the term describes the lower classes and the social groups who are at the margins of a society. In several essays, the postcolonial critic Homi K. Postcolonial theory studies the power, during their initial Oriental explorations, the Europeans mythologies were reinforced, when the travellers returned to Europe with reports of monsters and savage lands. Hence, the discourse of Orientalism is Eurocentric, and does not seek to include the voices of the Oriental peoples, the cultural theorist Stuart Hall argued that the power of discourse created and reinforced Western dominance. The discourses on how Europe described differences between itself and others, used European cultural categories, languages, and ideas to represent The Other, subalterns abandonment of culturally customary ways of thinking and the subsequent adoption of Western ways of thinking are necessary in many situations. The subordinated can be heard by only by speaking the language of the rulers, thus. For example, in Colonial Latin America, non-elites must conform to the culture and use the filters of religion and servitude, in the language. To make their appeals to the effective, slaves and natives would address the rulers in ways that might mask their own ways of speaking. We cannot ascend to a position of dominance over the voice and that is simply another form of discrimination. The power to narrate somebodys story is a task, and we must be cautious. Traditionally, the wants to know about the subalterns experiences of colonialism. Therefore, mainstream development discourse concentrates upon the application of social and political, economic. Bhabha, Homi K. Unsatisfied, notes on vernacular cosmopolitanism, text and Nation, Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities. Columbia, SC, Camden House,1996, 191-207, santos, Boaventura de Sousa Toward a New Legal Common Sense, 2nd ed. particularly pp. 458–493 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Can the Subaltern Speak. in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, urbana, IL, University of Illinois Press,1988, 271-313. Contemporary Postcolonial and Postimperial Literature Can the Subaltern Speak. by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak Subaltern. org, Gayatri Spivak suggests that the subaltern is denied access to both mimetic and political forms of representation. Subaltern studies bibliography Information on purchase of commissions in Georgian times, biography and major publications for Spivak
37.
Cultural identity
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Cultural identity is the identity or feeling of belonging to a group. In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally identical group of members sharing the cultural identity. Modern culture is essential to our understanding of ourselves and our universe, various modern cultural studies and social theories have investigated cultural identity. In recent decades, a new form of identification has emerged which breaks down the understanding of the individual as a coherent whole subject into a collection of various cultural identifiers, as a historical reservoir, culture is an important factor in shaping identity. When considering practical association in international society, states may share an inherent part of their make up that gives common ground, nations provide the framework for culture identities called external cultural reality, which influences the unique internal cultural realities of the individuals within the nation. Also of interest is the interplay between identity and new media. Accordingly, instead of learning behaviour and knowledge from cultural/religious groups, a range of cultural complexities structure the way individuals operate with the cultural realities in their lives. Nation is a factor of the cultural complexity, as it constructs the foundation for individuals identity. Cultural identities are influenced by different factors such as ones religion, ancestry, skin colour, language, class, education, profession, skill, family. These factors contribute to the development of ones identity and it is also noted that an individuals cultural arena, or place where one lives, impacts the culture that that person chooses to abide by. The surroundings, the environment, the people in these places play a factor in how one feels about the culture they wish to adopt, many immigrants find the need to change their culture in order to fit into the culture of most citizens in the country. This can conflict with an immigrants current belief in their culture and might pose a problem, some might be able to adjust to the various cultures in the world by committing to two or more cultures. It is not required to stick to one culture, many people socialize and interact with people in one culture in addition to another group of people in another culture. Thus cultural identity is able to take many forms and can change depending on the cultural area and this plasticity is what allows people to feel like part of society wherever they go. Language develops from the wants of the people who tend to themselves in a common given location over a particular period of time. This tends to allow people to share a way of life that generally links individuals in a culture that is identified by the people of that group. The affluence of communication that comes along with sharing a language promotes connections and roots to ancestors, Language also includes the way people speak with peers, family members, authority figures, and strangers. Language learning process can also be affected by cultural identity via the understanding of words
38.
Consumerism
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Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. In economics, consumerism may refer to policies which emphasise consumption. In this sense, consumerism expresses the idea not of one man, one voice, but of one dollar, one voice, the term consumerism has several definitions. These definitions may not be related to other and confusingly. One sense of the term relates to efforts to support consumers interests, by the early 1970s it had become the accepted term for the field and began to be used in these ways, Consumerism is the concept that consumers should be informed decision makers in the marketplace. Practices such as product testing make consumers informed, Consumerism is the concept that the marketplace itself is responsible for ensuring social justice through fair economic practices. Consumer protection policies and laws compel manufacturers to make products safe, Consumerism refers to the field of studying, regulating, or interacting with the marketplace. The consumer movement is the movement which refers to all actions. While the above definitions were becoming established, other people using the term consumerism to mean high levels of consumption. This definition has gained popularity since the 1970s and began to be used in ways, Consumerism is the selfish and frivolous collecting of products. In protest against this, some people promote anti-consumerism and advocate simple living, Consumerism is a force from the marketplace which destroys individuality and harms society. It is related to globalization and in protest against this some people promote the anti-globalization movement, vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term consumerism from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book The Waste Makers prominently featured the word consumerism in a negative way, the consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. This included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee, these were grown on vast plantations in the Caribbean as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20, critics argue that colonialism was indeed a driver of consumerism, but they would place the emphasis on the supply rather than the demand as the motivating factor. An increasing mass of exotic imports as well as domestic manufactures had to be consumed by the number of people who had been consuming far less than was becoming necessary. That idea was produced later, more or less strategically in order to intensify consumption domestically, marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise, restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield
39.
Soft power
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Soft power is a concept developed by Joseph Nye of Harvard University to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than by coercion, using force or giving money as a means of persuasion. Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal, a defining feature of soft power is that it is noncoercive, the currency of soft power is culture, political values, and foreign policies. In 2012, Nye explained that with power, the best propaganda is not propaganda, further explaining that during the Information Age. Joseph Nye coined the term in a 1990 book, Bound to Lead, The Changing Nature of American Power. ”He further developed the concept in his 2004 book, Soft Power, the term is now widely used in international affairs by analysts and statesmen. And in 2014, Xi announced, We should increase Chinas soft power, give a good Chinese narrative, the top ten is completed by the United States, France, Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Japan, Sweden, Netherlands. According to the 2016 Monocle Soft Power Survey, the United States holds the top spot in soft power, the Elcano Global Presence Report scores the European Union highest for soft presence when considered as a whole, and ranks the United States first by sovereign state. It includes China, Russia, Spain and Italy in the top ten, Joseph Nye introduced the concept of soft power in the late 1980s. For Nye, power is the ability to influence the behavior of others to get the outcomes you want. There are several ways one can achieve this, you can coerce them with threats, you can induce them with payments, or you can attract and this soft power – getting others to want the outcomes you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them. It can be contrasted with hard power, which is the use of coercion, Soft power can be wielded not just by states but also by all actors in international politics, such as NGOs or international institutions. It is also considered the face of power that indirectly allows you to obtain the outcomes you want. A countrys soft power, according to Nye, rests on three resources, its culture, its values, and its foreign policies. In this sense, it is important to set the agenda and attract others in world politics. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes that you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them, Soft power resources are the assets that produce attraction which often leads to acquiescence. Nye asserts that, Seduction is always more effective than coercion, and many values like democracy, human rights, and individual opportunities are deeply seductive. Angelo Codevilla observed that an often overlooked aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are attracted or repelled by different things, ideas, images. Soft power is hampered when policies, culture, or values repel others instead of attracting them, the book identifies three broad categories of soft power, culture, political values, and policies. In The Future of Power, Nye reiterates that soft power is a descriptive, rather than a normative, therefore, soft power can be wielded for nefarious purposes
