1.
University of California
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The University of California is a public university system in the U. S. state of California. The University of California was founded in 1868 and operated temporarily in Oakland until opening its first campus in Berkeley in 1873 and its tenth and newest campus in Merced opened in fall 2005. Nine campuses enroll both undergraduate and graduate students, one campus, UC San Francisco, enrolls only graduate and professional students in the medical and health sciences. In addition, the UC Hastings College of Law, located in San Francisco, is affiliated with UC. The University of Californias campuses have large numbers of distinguished faculty in almost every academic discipline, as of 2016, UC faculty and researchers have won 62 Nobel Prizes. UC campuses are perennially ranked highly by various publications, internationally, UC Berkeley, UCLA, and UC San Diego are respectively ranked 3rd, 12th, and 14th worldwide by Academic Ranking of World Universities. In 1849, the state of California ratified its first constitution, taking advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts, the California Legislature established an Agricultural, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College in 1866. However, it existed only on paper, as a placeholder to secure federal land-grant funds, meanwhile, Congregational minister Henry Durant, an alumnus of Yale, had established the private Contra Costa Academy, on June 20,1853, in Oakland, California. The initial site was bounded by Twelfth and Fourteenth Streets and Harrison, the Colleges trustees, educators, and supporters believed in the importance of a liberal arts education, but ran into a lack of interest in liberal arts colleges on the American frontier. In November 1857, the Colleges trustees began to acquire parcels of land facing the Golden Gate in what is now Berkeley for a future planned campus outside of Oakland. But first, they needed to secure the Colleges water rights by buying a farm to the east. In 1864, they organized the College Homestead Association, which borrowed $35,000 to purchase the land, the Association subdivided the latter parcel and started selling lots with the hope it could raise enough money to repay its lenders and also create a new college town. But sales of new homesteads fell short, at the College of Californias 1867 commencement exercises, where Low was present, Benjamin Silliman, Jr. criticized Californians for creating a state polytechnic school instead of a real university. That same day, Low reportedly first suggested a merger of the already-functional College of California with the state college. The University of Californias second president, Daniel Coit Gilman, opened its new campus in Berkeley in September 1873, earlier that year, Toland Medical College in San Francisco had agreed to become the Universitys Medical Department, it later evolved into UCSF. In 1878, the University established Hastings College of the Law in San Francisco as its first law school, the California Constitution was amended to designate Hastings as the Law Department of the University of California in consideration of a $100,000 gift from Serranus Clinton Hastings. Hastings is the only UC campus not governed by the Regents of the University of California, in August 1882, the California State Normal School opened a second school in Los Angeles to train teachers for the growing population of Southern California. In 1927, it became the University of California at Los Angeles, during the 20th century, UC acquired additional satellite locations which, like Los Angeles, were all subordinate to administrators at the Berkeley campus
2.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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It is managed and operated by the University of California. The laboratory overlooks the University of California, Berkeleys main campus, the laboratory was founded in August 26,1931 by Ernest Lawrence as the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley associated with the Physics Department. It centered physics research around his new instrument, the cyclotron, throughout the 1930s, Lawrence pushed to create larger and larger machines for physics research, courting private philanthropists for funding. The lab moved to its site atop the hill above campus in 1940 as its machines, specifically the 184-inch cyclotron, lawrences lab helped contribute to what has been judged to be the three most valuable technology developments of the war. The cyclotron was finished in November 1946, the Manhattan Project shut down two months later, after the war, Lawrence maintained strong government and military ties at his lab, which became incorporated into the new system of Atomic Energy Commission National Laboratories. For security purposes, classified weapons research was assigned to the isolated locations, the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. Livermore, about an hours drive southeast of Berkeley, was established at a naval air station in 1952 by Lawrence. Weapons-related and collaborative research continued at Berkeley Lab until the 1970s, shortly after the death of Lawrence in August 1958, the UC Radiation Laboratory was renamed the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The Berkeley location became the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1971, although continued to call it the Rad Lab. Gradually, another shortened form came into common usage, LBL and its formal name was amended to Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1995, when National was added to the names of all DOE labs. Ernest Orlando was later dropped to shorten the name, today, the lab is commonly referred to as Berkeley Lab. Over 1700 memos are available on-line, hosted by the Laboratory and it was Lawrence’s belief that scientific research is best done through teams of individuals with different fields of expertise, working together. His teamwork concept is a Berkeley Lab tradition that continues today, about 2,500 scientist-users carry out research at ALS every year. Berkeley Lab is proposing an upgrade of ALS which would increase the coherent flux of soft x-rays by two-three orders of magnitude, the Joint Genome Institute supports genomic research in support of the DOE missions in alternative energy, glocal carbon cycling, and environmental management. The JGIs partner laboratories are Berkeley Lab, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, approximately 1,200 scientist-users take advantage of JGIs capabilities for their research every year. The Molecular Foundry is a multidisciplinary nanoscience research facility that provides users access to cutting-edge instrumentation. Approximately 700 scientist-users make use of facilities in their research every year. The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center is the computing facility that provides large-scale state-of-the-art computing for the DOEs unclassified research programs
3.
Glenn T. Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
4.
Edwin McMillan
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Edwin Mattison McMillan was an American physicist and Nobel laureate credited with being the first-ever to produce a transuranium element, neptunium. For this, he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Glenn Seaborg in 1951, during World War II, he worked on microwave radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory, and on sonar at the Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory. In 1942 he joined the Manhattan Project, the effort to create atomic bombs. He led teams working on the nuclear weapon design. McMillan co-invented the synchrotron with Vladimir Veksler and he returned to the Radiation Laboratory after the war, and built them. In 1954 he was appointed director of the Radiation Laboratory. On the death of Lawrence that year, he became director, McMillan was born in Redondo Beach, California, on September 18,1907, the son of Edwin Harbaugh McMillan and his wife Anna Marie McMillan née Mattison. He had a sister, Catherine Helen. His father was a physician, as was his fathers twin brother, California Institute of Technology was only a mile from his home, and he attended some of the public lectures there. In 1932, McMillan was awarded a National Research Council fellowship, McMillans initial work there involved attempting to measure the magnetic moment of the proton, but Otto Stern and Immanuel Estermann were able to carry out these measurements first. His skill with instrumentation came to the fore, and he contributed improvements to the cyclotron, in particular, he helped develop the process of shimming, adjusting the cyclotron to produce a homogeneous magnetic field. Working with M. Stanley Livingston, he discovered oxygen-15, an isotope of oxygen that emits positrons, to produce it, they bombarded nitrogen gas with deuterons. This was mixed with hydrogen and oxygen to water, which was then collected with hygroscopic calcium chloride. Radioactivity was found concentrated in it, proving that it was in the oxygen and this was followed by an investigation of the absorption of gamma rays produced by bombarding fluorine with protons. In 1935, McMillan, Lawrence and Robert Thornton carried out experiments with deuteron beams that produced a series of unexpected results. Deuterons fused with a nuclei, transmuting the target to a heavier isotope while ejecting a proton. Their experiments indicated a nuclear interaction at lower energies than would be expected from a calculation of the Coulomb barrier between a deuteron and a target nucleus. Berkeley theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer and his graduate student Melba Phillips developed the Oppenheimer–Phillips process to explain the phenomenon, McMillan became an assistant professor in 1936, and an associate professor in 1941
5.
Plutonium
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Plutonium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is a metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states and it reacts with carbon, halogens, nitrogen, silicon and hydrogen. When exposed to moist air, it forms oxides and hydrides that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume and it is radioactive and can accumulate in bones, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous. Plutonium was first produced and isolated on December 14,1940 by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Joseph W. Kennedy, Edwin M. McMillan, wahl by deuteron bombardment of uranium-238 in the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. They first synthesized neptunium-238 which subsequently beta-decayed to form a new element with atomic number 94. Uranium had been named after the planet Uranus and neptunium after the planet Neptune, and so element 94 was named after Pluto, wartime secrecy prevented them from announcing the discovery until 1948. Plutonium is the heaviest element to occur in nature as trace quantities arising similarly from the capture of natural uranium-238. Both plutonium-239 and plutonium-241 are fissile, meaning that they can sustain a chain reaction, leading to applications in nuclear weapons. Plutonium-240 exhibits a high rate of fission, raising the neutron flux of any sample containing it. The presence of plutonium-240 limits a plutonium samples usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel, plutonium-238 has a half-life of 88 years and emits alpha particles. It is a source in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are used to power some spacecraft. Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors, producing plutonium in useful quantities for the first time was a major part of the Manhattan Project during World War II that developed the first atomic bombs. The Fat Man bombs used in the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945, Human radiation experiments studying plutonium were conducted without informed consent, and several criticality accidents, some lethal, occurred after the war. Disposal of plutonium waste from power plants and dismantled nuclear weapons built during the Cold War is a nuclear-proliferation. Other sources of plutonium in the environment are fallout from numerous above-ground nuclear tests, Plutonium, like most metals, has a bright silvery appearance at first, much like nickel, but it oxidizes very quickly to a dull gray, although yellow and olive green are also reported. At room temperature plutonium is in its α form and this, the most common structural form of the element, is about as hard and brittle as gray cast iron unless it is alloyed with other metals to make it soft and ductile. Unlike most metals, it is not a conductor of heat or electricity
6.
Neptunium
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Neptunium is a chemical element with symbol Np and atomic number 93. A radioactive actinide metal, neptunium is the first transuranic element and its position in the periodic table just after uranium, named after the planet Uranus, led to it being named after Neptune, the next planet beyond Uranus. A neptunium atom has 93 protons and 93 electrons, of seven are valence electrons. Neptunium metal is silvery and tarnishes when exposed to air, the element occurs in three allotropic forms and it normally exhibits five oxidation states, ranging from +3 to +7. It is radioactive, poisonous, pyrophoric, and can accumulate in bones, although many false claims of its discovery were made over the years, the element was first synthesized by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in 1940. Since then, most neptunium has been and still is produced by irradiation of uranium in nuclear reactors. The vast majority is generated as a by-product in conventional nuclear power reactors, Neptunium has also been used in detectors of high-energy neutrons. The most stable isotope of neptunium, neptunium-237, is a by-product of nuclear reactors and it, and the isotope neptunium-239, are also found in trace amounts in uranium ores due to neutron capture reactions and beta decay. Neptunium is a hard, silvery, ductile, radioactive actinide metal, in the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide uranium, to the left of the actinide plutonium and below the lanthanide promethium. Neptunium is a metal, having a bulk modulus of 118 GPa. Neptunium metal is similar to uranium in terms of physical workability, when exposed to air at normal temperatures, it forms a thin oxide layer. This reaction proceeds more rapidly as the temperature increases, the boiling point of neptunium is not empirically known and the usually given value of 4174 °C is extrapolated from the vapor pressure of the element. If accurate, this would give neptunium the largest liquid range of any element, Neptunium is found in at least three allotropes. Some claims of a fourth allotrope have been made, but they are so far not proven and this multiplicity of allotropes is common among the actinides. The crystal structures of neptunium, protactinium, uranium, and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are similar to those of the 3d transition metals. α-neptunium takes on a structure, resembling a highly distorted body-centered cubic structure. Each neptunium atom is coordinated to four others and the Np–Np bond lengths are 260 pm and it is the densest of all the actinides and the fifth-densest of all naturally occurring elements, behind only rhenium, platinum, iridium, and osmium. Some allotropes of the other actinides also exhibit similar behaviour, though to a lesser degree, β-neptunium takes on a distorted tetragonal close-packed structure
7.
Nobel Prize
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
8.
Beamline
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This part is either the line in a linear accelerator along which a beam of particles travels, or the path leading from a cyclic accelerator to the experimental endstation. Beamlines usually end in experimental stations that utilize particle beams or synchrotron light obtained from a synchrotron, beamlines are used in experiments in particle physics, materials science, chemistry, and molecular biology. In particle accelerators the beamline is usually housed in a tunnel and/or underground, there are specialized devices and equipment on the beamline that are used for producing, maintaining, monitoring, and accelerating the particle beam. These devices may be in proximity or attached to the beamline and these devices include sophisticated transducers, diagnostics, lenses, collimators, thermocouples, ion pumps, ion gauges, ion chambers, vacuum valves, and gate valves, to mention a few. There are also water cooling devices to cool the dipole and quadrupole magnets, positive pressure, such as that provided by compressed air, regulates and controls the vacuum valves and manipulators on the beamline. It is imperative to have all beamline sections, magnets, etc. aligned by a survey, all beamlines must be within micrometre tolerance. Good alignment helps to prevent beam loss, and beam from colliding with the pipe walls, a typical application for this kind of beamline is crystallography, although many other techniques utilising synchrotron light exist. At a large synchrotron facility there will be many beamlines, each optimised for a field of research. The differences will depend on the type of device, the beam conditioning equipment. A typical beamline at a synchrotron facility will be 25 to 100 m long from the storage ring to the end station. For this reason, a facility is often built in stages, with the first few beamlines opening on day one of operation. The beamline elements are located in radiation shielding enclosures, called hutches, a typical beamline consists of two hutches, an optical hutch for the beam conditioning elements and an experimental hutch, which houses the experiment. Between hutches, the travels in a transport tube. Entrance to the hutches is forbidden when the shutter is open. This is enforced by the use of safety systems with redundant interlocking functions. The safety system will shut down the radiation beam if the door to the hutch is accidentally opened when the beam is on. In this case, the beam is dumped, meaning the beam is diverted into a target designed to absorb. Devices along the beamline which absorb significant power from the beam may need to be cooled by water
9.
Particle accelerator
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A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams. Large accelerators are used in physics as colliders, or as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world, there are two basic classes of accelerators, electrostatic and electrodynamic accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator, a small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set. The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the accelerating field multiple times. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators, because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general. Beams of high-energy particles are useful for both fundamental and applied research in the sciences, and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research and it has been estimated that there are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide. The bar graph shows the breakdown of the number of industrial accelerators according to their applications, for the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many GeV, and the interactions of the simplest kinds of particles, leptons and quarks for the matter, the largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, operating since 2009. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei – of atoms like iron or gold – at energies of several GeV per nucleon, the largest such particle accelerator is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. An example of type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos. A large number of light sources exist worldwide. The ESRF in Grenoble, France has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of trapped in amber. Thus there is a demand for electron accelerators of moderate energy. Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and these low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them
10.
Ernest Lawrence
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Ernest Orlando Lawrence was a pioneering American nuclear scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron. A graduate of the University of South Dakota and University of Minnesota, in 1928, he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the University of California, becoming the youngest full professor there two years later. In its library one evening, Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced high-energy particles and he contemplated how it could be made compact, and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet. The result was the first cyclotron, Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons. His Radiation Laboratory became a department of the University of California in 1936. In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics, Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes, during World War II, Lawrence developed electromagnetic isotope separation at the Radiation Laboratory. It used devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer, a huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which came to be called Y-12. The process was inefficient, but it worked, Lawrence strongly backed Edward Tellers campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence located in Livermore, California. After his death, the Regents of the University of California renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, chemical element number 103 was named lawrencium in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961. Ernest Orlando Lawrence was born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8,1901 and he had a younger brother, John H. Lawrence, who would become a physician, and was a pioneer in the field of nuclear medicine. Growing up, his best friend was Merle Tuve, who would go on to become a highly accomplished nuclear physicist. Lawrence attended the schools of Canton and Pierre, then enrolled at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. He completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1922, and his Master of Arts degree in physics from the University of Minnesota in 1923 under the supervision of William Francis Gray Swann. For his masters thesis, Lawrence built an apparatus that rotated an ellipsoid through a magnetic field. He was elected a member of Sigma Xi, and, on Swanns recommendation, instead of using it to travel to Europe, as was customary at the time, he remained at Yale University with Swann as a researcher. With Jesse Beams from the University of Virginia, Lawrence continued to research the photoelectric effect and they showed that photoelectrons appeared within 2 x 10−9 seconds of the photons striking the photoelectric surface—close to the limit of measurement at the time. Reducing the emission time by switching the light source on and off rapidly made the spectrum of energy emitted broader, in conformance with Werner Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 1926 and 1927, Lawrence received offers of assistant professorships from the University of Washington in Seattle, Yale promptly matched the offer of the assistant professorship, but at a salary of $3,000
11.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
12.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
13.
Synchrotron
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A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator, descended from the cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path. The magnetic field which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, the most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design. The largest synchrotron-type accelerator is the 27-kilometre-circumference Large Hadron Collider near Geneva, Switzerland, the synchrotron principle was invented by Vladimir Veksler in 1944. Edwin McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron in 1945, arriving at the idea independently, the first proton synchrotron was designed by Sir Marcus Oliphant and built in 1952. Several specialized types of machines are used today, A storage ring is a special type of synchrotron in which the kinetic energy of the particles is kept constant. A synchrotron light source is a combination of different electron accelerator types and this radiation is then used in experimental stations located on different beamlines. In addition to the ring, a synchrotron light source usually contains a linear accelerator. The linac and the booster are used to accelerate the electrons to their final energy before they are magnetically kicked into the storage ring. Synchrotron light sources in their entirety are sometimes called synchrotrons, although this is technically incorrect, a cyclic collider is also a combination of different accelerator types, including two intersecting storage rings and the respective pre-accelerators. The synchrotron evolved from the cyclotron, the first cyclic particle accelerator, in a synchrotron, this adaptation is done by variation of the magnetic field strength in time, rather than in space. For particles that are not close to the speed of light, by increasing these parameters accordingly as the particles gain energy, their circulation path can be held constant as they are accelerated. This allows the chamber for the particles to be a large thin torus, rather than a disk as in previous. Also, the profile of the vacuum chamber allowed for a more efficient use of magnetic fields than in a cyclotron. Some important components are given by radio frequency cavities for direct acceleration, dipole magnets for deflection of particles, the maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the maximum strength of the magnetic fields and the minimum radius of the particle path. Thus one method for increasing the limit is to use superconducting magnets. Electron/positron accelerators may also be limited by the emission of synchrotron radiation, the limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle. More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous, lighter particles lose a larger fraction of their energy when deflected. Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, the energy of such accelerators is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost
14.
Synchrocyclotron
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This is in contrast to the classical cyclotron, where this frequency is constant. There are two differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron. In the synchrocyclotron, only one dee retains its classical shape, furthermore, the frequency of oscillating electric field in a synchrocyclotron is decreasing continuously instead of kept constant so as to maintain cyclotron resonance for relativistic velocities. One terminal of the electric potential varying periodically is applied to the dee. The protons or deuterons to be accelerated are made to move in circles of increasing radius, the acceleration of particles takes place as they enter or leave the dee. At the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed with the aid of electrostatic deflector and it was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV α-particles with the first synchrocyclotron. This makes the assumption that the particle is classical, and doesnt experience relativistic phenomena such as length contraction and these effects start to become significant when v, the velocity of the particle greater than ≈ c 3. To correct for this, the mass is used instead of the rest mass, thus, a factor of γ multiplies the mass, such that ω = q B m γ. This is then the frequency of the field applied to the particles as they are accelerated around the synchrocyclotron. The chief advantage of the synchrocyclotron is that there is no need to restrict the number of revolutions executed by the ion before its exit, as such, the potential difference supplied between the dees can be much smaller. Thus only one dee can be used instead of two, the end of the oscillating voltage supply being connected to earth. The magnetic pole pieces can be closer, thus making it possible to increase greatly the magnetic flux density. The frequency valve oscillator is able to function with greater efficiency. Thus the machine produces high energy ions, though with low intensity. Isochronous cyclotrons are capable of producing much greater beam current than synchrocyclotrons, as a result, isochronous cyclotrons became more popular in the research field. Synchrocyclotrons are attractive for use in therapy because of the ability to make compact systems using high magnetic fields. Medical physics companies Ion Beam Applications and Mevion Medical Systems have developed superconducting synchrocyclotrons that can fit comfortably into hospitals
15.
Electronvolt
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In physics, the electronvolt is a unit of energy equal to approximately 1. 6×10−19 joules. By definition, it is the amount of energy gained by the charge of an electron moving across an electric potential difference of one volt. Thus it is 1 volt multiplied by the elementary charge, therefore, one electronvolt is equal to 6981160217662079999♠1. 6021766208×10−19 J. The electronvolt is not a SI unit, and its definition is empirical, like the elementary charge on which it is based, it is not an independent quantity but is equal to 1 J/C √2hα / μ0c0. It is a unit of energy within physics, widely used in solid state, atomic, nuclear. It is commonly used with the metric prefixes milli-, kilo-, in some older documents, and in the name Bevatron, the symbol BeV is used, which stands for billion electronvolts, it is equivalent to the GeV. By mass–energy equivalence, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass and it is common in particle physics, where units of mass and energy are often interchanged, to express mass in units of eV/c2, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. It is common to express mass in terms of eV as a unit of mass. The mass equivalent of 1 eV/c2 is 1 eV / c 2 = ⋅1 V2 =1.783 ×10 −36 kg. For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of 0.511 MeV/c2, the proton has a mass of 0.938 GeV/c2. In general, the masses of all hadrons are of the order of 1 GeV/c2, the unified atomic mass unit,1 gram divided by Avogadros number, is almost the mass of a hydrogen atom, which is mostly the mass of the proton. To convert to megaelectronvolts, use the formula,1 u =931.4941 MeV/c2 =0.9314941 GeV/c2, in high-energy physics, the electronvolt is often used as a unit of momentum. A potential difference of 1 volt causes an electron to gain an amount of energy and this gives rise to usage of eV as units of momentum, for the energy supplied results in acceleration of the particle. The dimensions of units are LMT−1. The dimensions of units are L2MT−2. Then, dividing the units of energy by a constant that has units of velocity. In the field of particle physics, the fundamental velocity unit is the speed of light in vacuum c. Thus, dividing energy in eV by the speed of light, the fundamental velocity constant c is often dropped from the units of momentum by way of defining units of length such that the value of c is unity
16.
TRIUMF
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TRIUMF is Canadas national laboratory for particle and nuclear physics and accelerator-based science. TRIUMF is considered Canadas premier physics laboratory, and is regarded as one of the leading subatomic physics research centers on the international level. TRIUMF houses the worlds largest cyclotron, a source of 520 MeV protons, TRIUMFs accelerator-focused activities involve particle physics, nuclear physics, nuclear medicine, materials science, and detector and accelerator development. There are over 500 scientists, engineers, technicians, tradespeople, administrative staff, postdoctoral fellows, the lab attracts over 1000 national and international researchers every year and has generated over $1B in economic impact activity over the last decade. TRIUMF scientists and university-based physicists develop and implement Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council’s long-range plan for subatomic physics, TRIUMF uses these plans to develop its own priorities. TRIUMF has over 50 international agreements for scientific research. TRIUMFs cyclotron infrastructure has enabled the laboratory’s proton therapy cancer treatment centre – the only one of its kind in Canada, TRIUMFs proton therapy centre is operated in conjunction with the British Columbia Cancer Agency and the University of British Columbia Department of Ophthalmology. Asteroid 14959 TRIUMF is named in honour of the laboratory, TRIUMF was founded in 1968 by Simon Fraser University, the University of British Columbia, and the University of Victoria in order to meet research needs that no single university could provide. The original acronym, stemming from the name TRI University Meson Facility, was dropped and is no longer used to reflect TRIUMFs current state as a consortium of 19 universities, TRIUMF currently has 19 member and associate universities from across Canada. Since its inception as a university facility, TRIUMF has evolved into a national laboratory while still maintaining strong ties to the research programs of Canadian universities. The science program has expanded from nuclear physics to include physics, molecular and materials science, nuclear medicine. TRIUMFs 520 MeV cyclotron was officially commissioned on February 9,1976 by Pierre Trudeau, at the commissioning ceremony, he said I dont really know what a cyclotron is, but I am certainly very happy Canada has one. Before the Riken SRC was built, TRIUMF was the worlds largest cyclotron in terms of weight, the Riken SRC is now heavier than the TRIUMF cyclotron, but TRIUMF has the largest beam radius and the largest vacuum tank. The Riken magnetic field covers from 3.5 m to 5.5 m radius with the beam radius of about 5 metres. The TRIUMF field goes from 0 to about 320 inches radius with the beam radius of 310 inches. This is because it require a lower magnetic field to reduce EM stripping, since its inception, TRIUMF has had eight directors overseeing its operations. Erich Vogt becomes an Officer of the Order of Canada, Jack Sample becomes director of TRIUMF1977 – Medium-resolution spectrometer MRS in operation, the facility is organized into four divisions that focus on varying aspects of research and operations. The Accelerator Division has operational, maintenance, and required upgrade responsibility for all of the 520 MeV Cyclotron, ISAC, the division also has responsibility for the design, construction, and commissioning of future accelerators on-site, and it provides support for external accelerator projects
17.
University of British Columbia
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The University of British Columbia, commonly referred to as UBC, is a public research university with campuses and facilities in British Columbia, Canada. Founded in 1908 as the McGill University College of British Columbia and it is British Columbias oldest institution of higher learning and has over 60,000 students at its Vancouver and Okanagan Valley campuses. Most students are enrolled in five faculties, Arts, Science, Applied Science, UBC Faculty of Medicine. UBCs 4.02 km2 Vancouver campus is within the University Endowment Lands, the 2.09 km2 Okanagan campus, acquired in 2005, is in Kelowna. UBCs admission standards is the 2nd most rigorous in Canada with the average of 89. 95% high school GPA for all incoming domestic students in 2015 for the Vancouver Campus. According to the annual rankings compiled by Macleans and U. S. News, in 2015 U. S. News and World Report and Times Higher Education ranked UBC among the 20 best public universities worldwide. With an annual research budget valued at $600 million, UBC funds 8,442 projects as of 2014, the university has also educated three Canadian prime ministers, most recently Justin Trudeau, the current prime minister. One of the largest research libraries in Canada, the UBC Library system has over 9.9 million volumes among its 21 branches, since 1968, UBC is home to TRIUMF, Canadas national laboratory for particle and nuclear physics which houses the worlds largest cyclotron. In 1877, only six years after British Columbia joined Canada, the provincial legislature passed An Act Respecting the University of British Columbia in 1890, but disagreements arose over whether to build the university on Vancouver Island or the mainland. The British Columbia University Act of 1908 formally called a university into being. The president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and to perform institutional leadership, the Act constituted a twenty-one member senate with Francis Carter-Cotton of Vancouver as Chancellor. Before the University Act, there had been attempts at creating a degree-granting university with help from the Universities of Toronto. Building on an affiliation between Vancouver and Victoria high schools with McGill University, Henry Marshall Tory helped establish the McGill University College of British Columbia. From 1906 to 1915, McGill BC operated as an institution providing the first few years toward a degree at McGill University or elsewhere. The Henry Marshall Tory Medal was established in 1941 by Tory, founding President of the University of Alberta and of the National Research Council of Canada, and a co-founder of Carleton University. In the meantime, appeals were made to the government to revive the legislation for a provincial institution, leading to the University Endowment Act in 1907. In 1910 the Point Grey site was chosen, and the government appointed Dr. Frank Fairchild Wesbrook as President in 1913, on the first day of lectures was September 30,1915, the new independent university absorbed McGill University College. The University of British Columbia awarded its first degrees in 1916, World War I dominated campus life, and the student body was decimated by enlistments for active service, with three hundred UBC students in Company D alone
18.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
19.
Radionuclide
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A radionuclide is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. During those processes, the radionuclide is said to undergo radioactive decay, the unstable nucleus is more stable following the emission, but will sometimes undergo further decay. Radioactive decay is a process at the level of single atoms. However, for a collection of atoms of an element the decay rate. The range of the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known limits, Radionuclides occur naturally and are artificially produced in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators. There are about 730 radionuclides with half-lives longer than 60 minutes, with the longest half lives are the 32 primordial radionuclides that have survived from the creation of the Solar System. Over 60 further radionuclides are detectable in nature, either as daughters of these, more than 2400 radionuclides have half-lives less than 60 minutes. Most of those are produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. For comparison, there are about 254 stable nuclides, even the lightest element, hydrogen, has a well-known radionuclide, tritium. Elements heavier than lead, and the elements technetium and promethium, unplanned exposure to radionuclides generally has a harmful effect on living organisms including humans, although low levels of exposure occur naturally without harm. However, radionuclides with suitable properties are used in medicine for both diagnosis and treatment. An imaging tracer made with radionuclides is called a radioactive tracer, a pharmaceutical drug made with radionuclides is called a radiopharmaceutical. On Earth, naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories, primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides, and cosmogenic radionuclides, Radionuclides are produced in stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova explosions along with stable nuclides. Most decay quickly but can still be observed astronomically and can play a part in understanding astronomic processes, primordial radionuclides, such as uranium and thorium, exist in the present time because their half-lives are so long they have not yet completely decayed. It is possible decay may be observed in other nuclides adding to this list of primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides and they arise in the decay chain of the primordial isotopes thorium-232, uranium-238 and uranium-235. Examples include the natural isotopes of polonium and radium, cosmogenic isotopes, such as carbon-14, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays. Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare
20.
Arc converter
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The arc converter used an electric arc to convert direct current electricity into radio frequency alternating current. It was used as a transmitter from 1903 until the 1920s when it was replaced by vacuum tube transmitters. One of the first transmitters that could generate continuous sinusoidal waves and it is on the list of IEEE Milestones as a historic achievement in electrical engineering. Elihu Thomson discovered that a carbon arc shunted with a tuned circuit would sing. This singing arc was probably limited to audio frequencies, Bureau of Standards credits William Duddell with the shunt resonant circuit around 1900. The English engineer William Duddell discovered how to make a resonant circuit using an arc lamp. Duddells musical arc operated at frequencies, and Duddell himself concluded that it was impossible to make the arc oscillate at radio frequencies. Valdemar Poulsen, who had demonstrated the Telegraphone at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, poulsens arc could generate frequencies of up to 200 kilohertz and was patented in 1903. After a few years of development the arc technology was transferred to Germany and Great Britain in 1906 by Poulsen, his collaborator Peder Oluf Pedersen, in 1909 the American patents as well as a few arc converters were bought by Cyril F. Elwell. Later the US Navy also adopted the Poulsen system, only the arc converter with passive frequency conversion was suitable for portable and maritime use. This made it the most important mobile radio system for about a decade until it was superseded by vacuum tube systems, in 1922, the Bureau of Standards stated, the arc is the most widely used transmitting apparatus for high-power, long-distance work. It is estimated that the arc is now responsible for 80 per cent of all the energy actually radiated into space for radio purposes during a given time, unlike the existing radio transmitter of the time, the spark-gap transmitter, the arc converter produces undamped or continuous waves. This was an important feature as the use of damped waves resulted in lower efficiency and communications effectiveness. This more refined method for generating continuous-wave radio signals was initially developed by Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen, there are three cases for an arc oscillator. In the first case, the AC current in the condenser i0 is much smaller than the DC supply current i1, the Duddell arc is an example of the first case, but the first case is not practical for RF transmitters. In the second case, the condenser AC discharge current is enough to extinguish the arc. This second case is the Poulsen arc, in the third case, the arc extinguishes but may reignite when the condenser current reverses. The third case is a spark gap and produces damped oscillations
21.
Federal Telegraph Company
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The Federal Telegraph Company was a United States communications company that played a pivotal role in the 20th century in the development of radio communications. Founded in Palo Alto, California in 1909 by Cyril Frank Elwell, in 1911-13, Lee De Forest and two assistants worked at FTC on the first vacuum tube amplifier and oscillator, which De Forest called the Oscillaton after his earlier Audion. Cyril Frank Elwell - Pioneer of American and European Wireless Communications, Talking Pictures, Elwell Limited 1922-1925 by Ian L. Sanders. Published by Castle Ridge Press,2013
22.
M. Stanley Livingston
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He built cyclotrons at the University of California, Cornell University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. During World War II, he served in the research group at the Office of Naval Research. He was Associate Director of the National Accelerator Laboratory from 1967 to 1970, milton Stanley Livingston was born in Brodhead, Wisconsin, on May 25,1905, the son of McWhorter Livingston, a minister of religion, and his wife Sarah Jane. Sarah was a member of the Ten Eyck family, an influential New York family whose Dutch origins date back to the 1640s, the family moved to California when Livingston was five years old, and he grew up in Burbank, Pomona and San Dimas. His father became a school teacher and principal. His mother died when he was 12 years old, and his father later remarried, tileston, to take physics courses as well. He received his Bachelor of Arts in 1926, with a major in physics. Tileston arranged for him to then enter Dartmouth College with a teaching fellowship and he was awarded his Master of Arts in 1928, studying x-ray diffraction, and stayed on for another year as an instructor. During that year, Livingston applied to schools for teaching fellowships. He accepted the latter and returned to California, stanleys task was to verify if this would work. In January 1931, Stanley managed to do just that, using a voltage of 1 kV to accelerate ions to 80 keV. At Lawrences prompting, Stanley quickly wrote up his thesis and submitted it in April 1931 so that he would be eligible for an instructorship the following year and his oral exam proved more difficult. Nonetheless, Lawrence managed to persuade the examiners to award Livingston his doctorate, in what would be become a recurring pattern, as soon as there was the first sign of success, Lawrence started planning a new, bigger machine, which became known as a cyclotron. Lawrence and Livingston drew up a design for an $800 27-inch cyclotron in early 1932, Lawrence then found a massive 80-ton magnet that had originally been built to power a transatlantic radio link during World War I, but was now rusting in a junkyard in Palo Alto. This allowed them to build a 27-inch cyclotron, in the cyclotron, they had a powerful scientific instrument, but this did not translate into scientific discovery. In April 1932, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton at the Cavendish laboratory in England announced that they had bombarded lithium with protons, the energy required turned out to be quite low—well within the capability of the 11-inch cyclotron. On learning about it, Lawrence wired the Berkeley and asked for Cockcroft and it took the team until September to do so, mainly due to lack of adequate detection apparatus. Livingston therefore accepted an offer of an assistant professorship from Cornell University in 1934 and he built a 2 MeV cyclotron at Cornell with an $800 grant and the help of graduate students and the departmental shop, the first one to be built outside Berkeley
23.
Linear particle accelerator
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The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928 at the RWTH Aachen University. The design of a linac depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated, linacs range in size from a cathode ray tube to the 3. 2-kilometre-long linac at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in Menlo Park, California. A linear particle accelerator consists of the elements, The particle source. The design of the source depends on the particle that is being moved, electrons are generated by a cold cathode, a hot cathode, a photocathode, or radio frequency ion sources. Protons are generated in an ion source, which can have different designs. If heavier particles are to be accelerated, an ion source is needed. A high voltage source for the injection of particles. The length will vary with the application, if the device is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long. If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may be about ten meters long, if the device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several thousand meters long. Within the chamber, electrically isolated cylindrical electrodes are placed, whose length varies with the distance along the pipe, likewise, because its mass is so small, electrons have much less kinetic energy than protons at the same speed. One or more sources of radio energy, used to energize the cylindrical electrodes. A very high power accelerator will use one source for each electrode, the sources must operate at precise power, frequency and phase appropriate to the particle type to be accelerated to obtain maximum device power. If electrons are accelerated to produce X-rays then a water cooled tungsten target is used, various target materials are used when protons or other nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific investigation. For particle-to-particle collision investigations the beam may be directed to a pair of storage rings, the beams may then be extracted from the storage rings to create head on particle collisions. This accelerates the particle, imparting energy to it in the form of increased velocity, at speeds near the speed of light, the incremental velocity increase will be small, with the energy appearing as an increase in the mass of the particles. In portions of the accelerator where this occurs, the tubular electrode lengths will be almost constant, additional magnetic or electrostatic lens elements may be included to ensure that the beam remains in the center of the pipe and its electrodes. Very long accelerators may maintain an alignment of their components through the use of servo systems guided by a laser beam. The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions
24.
Betatron
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A betatron is a type of cyclic particle accelerator. It is essentially a transformer with a vacuum tube as its secondary coil. An alternating current in the primary coils accelerates electrons in the vacuum around a circular path, the betatron was the first machine capable of producing electron beams at energies higher than could be achieved with a simple electron gun. Subsequent development occurred in the United States through Donald Kerst in the 1940s, in other words, the magnetic field at the orbit must be half the average magnetic field over its circular cross section, ⇔ H0 =12 θ0 π r 02. This condition is often called Widerøes condition, the name betatron was chosen during a departmental contest. Betatrons were historically employed in particle physics experiments to provide high-energy beams of electrons—up to about 300 MeV. If the electron beam is directed at a plate, the betatron can be used as a source of energetic x-rays or gamma rays. The Radiation Center, the first private medical center to treat patients with a betatron, was opened by Dr. O. Arthur Stiennon in a suburb of Madison. The maximum energy that a betatron can impart is limited by the strength of the field due to the saturation of iron. The next generation of accelerators, the synchrotrons, overcame these limitations
25.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
26.
George Gamow
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George Gamow, born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov, was a theoretical physicist and cosmologist. He was an advocate and developer of Lemaîtres Big Bang theory. In his middle and late career, Gamow focused more on teaching and wrote books on science. Some of his books are still in print, more than a half-century after their original publication, Gamow was born in Odessa, Russian Empire. His father taught Russian language and literature in high school, and his mother taught geography, in addition to Russian, Gamow learned to speak some French from his mother and German from a tutor. Gamow learned fluent English in his years and later. Most of his publications were in German or Russian. He was educated at the Institute of Physics and Mathematics in Odessa, Gamow studied under Alexander Friedmann for some time in Leningrad, until Friedmanns early death in 1925. He aspired to do his thesis under Friedmann, but had to change dissertation advisors. At the University, Gamow made friends with three students of theoretical physics, Lev Landau, Dmitri Ivanenko, and Matvey Bronshtein. The four formed a group known as the Three Musketeers, which met to discuss and he later used the same phrase to describe the Alpher, Herman, and Gamow group. On graduation, he worked on theory in Göttingen, where his research into the atomic nucleus provided the basis for his doctorate. He then worked at the Theoretical Physics Institute of the University of Copenhagen, from 1928 to 1931, with a break to work with Ernest Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. He continued to study the nucleus, but also worked on stellar physics with Robert Atkinson. In 1931 Gamow was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR at age 28 – one of the youngest in the history of this organization. During the period 1931–1933, Gamow worked in the Physical Department of the Radium Institute headed by Vitaly Khlopin, under the guidance and direct participation of Igor Kurchatov, Lev Mysovskii and Gamow, Europes first cyclotron was designed. In 1932, Gamow and Lev Mysovskii submitted a design for consideration by the Academic Council of the Radium Institute. The cyclotron was not completed until 1937, in the early 20th century, radioactive materials were known to have characteristic exponential decay rates, or half-lives
27.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
28.
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg is a college town situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. At the 2015 census, its population was 156,257, located about 78 km south of Frankfurt, Heidelberg is the fifth-largest city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Heidelberg is part of the densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germanys oldest and one of Europes most reputable universities. A scientific hub in Germany, the city of Heidelberg is home to internationally renowned research facilities adjacent to its university. Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl and the Gaisberg mountains, the Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters, the Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, Heidelberg is on European walking route E1. Alongside the Philosophenweg on the side of the Old Town. There is a population of African rose-ringed parakeets, and a wild population of Siberian swan geese. Heidelberg is an authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. The Rhein-Neckar Triangle became a European metropolitan area in 2005, Heidelberg consists of 15 districts distributed in six sectors of the town. The new district will have approximately 5, 000–6,000 residents, Heidelberg has an oceanic climate, defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the nearby Upper Rhine Plain, Heidelbergs position in the leads to more frequent easterly winds than average. The hillsides of the Odenwald favour clouding and precipitation, the warmest month is July, the coldest is January. Temperatures often rise beyond 30 °C in midsummer, according to the German Meteorological Service, Heidelberg was the warmest place in Germany in 2009
29.
Walther Bothe
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Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe was a German nuclear physicist, who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954 with Max Born. In 1913, he joined the newly created Laboratory for Radioactivity at the Reich Physical and Technical Institute, where he remained until 1930, the latter few years as the director of the laboratory. He served in the military during World War I from 1914, in 1930 he became a full professor and director of the physics department at the University of Giessen. In 1932, he director of the Physical and Radiological Institute at the University of Heidelberg. He was driven out of position by elements of the deutsche Physik movement. To preclude his emigration from Germany, he was appointed director of the Physics Institute of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg, there, he built the first operational cyclotron in Germany. Furthermore, he became a principal in the German nuclear energy project, also known as the Uranium Club, in 1946, in addition to his directorship of the Physics Institute at the KWImf, he was reinstated as a professor at the University of Heidelberg. From 1956 to 1957, he was a member of the Nuclear Physics Working Group in Germany and its main building was later named Bothe laboratory. Bothe was born to Friedrich Bothe and Charlotte Hartung, from 1908 to 1912, Bothe studied at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität. In 1913, he was Max Plancks teaching assistant and he was awarded his doctorate, in 1914, under Planck. In 1913, Bothe joined the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, where he stayed until 1930, Hans Geiger had been appointed director of the new Laboratory for Radioactivity there in 1912. In May 1914, Bothe volunteered for service in the German cavalry and he was taken prisoner by the Russians and incarcerated in Russia for five years. While there, he learned the Russian language and worked on theoretical physics problems related to his doctoral studies and he returned to Germany in 1920, with a Russian bride. On his return from Russia, Bothe continued his employment at the PTR under Hans Geiger in the Laboratory for Radioactivity there, in 1924, Bothe published on his coincidence method. Then and in the years, he applied this method to the experimental study of the nuclear reactions, the Compton effect. Bothes coincidence method and his applications of it earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954, in 1927, Bothe began the study of the transmutation of light elements through bombardment with alpha particles. From a joint investigation with H. Fränz and Heinz Pose in 1928, Bothe, in 1929, in collaboration with Werner Kolhörster and Bruno Rossi who were guests in Bothes laboratory at the PTR, Bothe began the study of cosmic rays. The study of radiation would be conducted by Bothe for the rest of his life
30.
Heereswaffenamt
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Waffenamt was the German Army Weapons Agency. It was the centre for research and development of Germany and also during the Third Reich for weapons, ammunition and army equipment to the German Reichswehr and it was founded 8 November 1919 as Reichwaffenamt, and 5 May 1922 the name was changed to Heereswaffenamt. The task of overseeing Germanys gigantic World War II rearmament process was given to the Heeresabnahmestelle, later, in the middle of 1944, approximately 8,000 of these Abnahme inspectors were freed for service at the front. The Heeres-Abnahmewesen was responsible for the testing and acceptance of all weapons, equipment, in preparation for their new duties they were given a four-week course at the Heereswaffenmeisterschule. The course ended with a test for Technical Inspector which raised the rank of each applicant to that of Oberleutnant. Waffenamt code is the German inspection proof mark, a Short History of the Heereswaffenamt
31.
Electrode
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An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit. The word was coined by William Whewell at the request of the scientist Michael Faraday from the Greek words elektron, meaning amber, and hodos, an electrode in an electrochemical cell is referred to as either an anode or a cathode. The anode is now defined as the electrode at which electrons leave the cell and oxidation occurs, each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the direction of current through the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell, a primary cell is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode, the cell can be discharged but not recharged. A secondary cell, for example a rechargeable battery, is a cell in which the reactions are reversible. When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive and this is also the case in an electrolytic cell. When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a cell, with the anode as the negative. In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity the anode is the positive electrode, the electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e. g. base, gate, control grid. In a three-electrode cell, an electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite. In arc welding an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes, for an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode. Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to them in numerous ways. These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation
32.
Vacuum chamber
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A vacuum chamber is a rigid enclosure from which air and other gases are removed by a vacuum pump. This results in an environment within the chamber, commonly referred to as a vacuum. A vacuum environment allows researchers to conduct physical experiments or to test mechanical devices which must operate in space or for processes such as vacuum drying or vacuum coating. Chambers are typically made of metals which may or may not shield applied external magnetic fields depending on thickness, frequency, resistivity. Only some materials are suitable for vacuum use, chambers often have multiple ports, covered with vacuum flanges, to allow instruments or windows to be installed in the walls of the chamber. In low to medium-vacuum applications, these are sealed with elastomer o-rings, in higher vacuum applications, the flanges have hardened steel knives welded onto them, which cut into a copper gasket when the flange is bolted on. Vacuum chambers can be constructed of many materials, metals are arguably the most prevalent vacuum chamber materials. The strength, pressure, and permeability are considerations for selecting chamber material, to assure a bubble-free mold when mixing resin and silicone rubbers and slower-setting harder resins, a vacuum chamber is required. A small vacuum chamber is needed for de-airing for materials prior to their setting, the casting or molding material is mixed according to the manufacturers directions. The material container is placed into the vacuum chamber, a vacuum pump is connected and turned on. Once the vacuum reaches 29 inches of mercury, the material will begin to rise, when the material falls, it will plateau and stop rising. The vacuuming is continued for another 2 to 3 minutes to make all of the air has been removed from the material. Once this interval is reached, the pump is shut off. The vacuum chamber is opened, the material is removed and is ready to pour into the mold, though a maximum vacuum one can theoretically achieve at sea level is 29.921 inches of mercury this will vary significantly as altitude increases. For example, for a mold making in Denver, Colorado, which sits at 5280 feet above sea level, one can only achieve a vacuum on the mercury scale of 24.896 Hg in their vacuum chamber. To keep the material air-free, it must be poured in a high and narrow stream starting from the corner of the mold box, or mold. Usually, this method will not introduce any new bubbles into the vacuumed material, water and other liquids may accumulate on a product during the production process. Vacuum is often employed as a process for removing bulk and absorbed water from a product, combined with heat, vacuum can be an effective method for drying
33.
Magnet
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A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet, a force that pulls on other materials, such as iron. A permanent magnet is a made from a material that is magnetized. An everyday example is a refrigerator used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic. These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare-earth metals, ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically soft materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically hard materials, which do. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a magnetic field must be applied. Hard materials have high coercivity, whereas soft materials have low coercivity, an electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of soft material such as steel. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization. Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones, which are naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore, the word magnet in Greek meant stone from Magnesia, a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses, the earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago. The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia, by the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, the Arabian Peninsula and elsewhere. The magnetic flux density is a vector field, the magnetic B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two properties, Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle. Its magnitude, which is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction, in SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas. A magnets magnetic moment is a vector that characterizes the overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the moment points from the magnets south pole to its north pole. In SI units, the moment is specified in terms of A·m2
34.
High frequency
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High frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves between 3 and 30 MHz. It is also known as the band or decameter wave as its wavelengths range from one to ten decameters. Frequencies immediately below HF are denoted medium frequency, while the band of higher frequencies is known as the very high frequency band. The HF band is a part of the shortwave band of frequencies. The band is used by shortwave broadcasting stations, aviation communication, government time stations, weather stations, amateur radio and citizens band services. By this method HF radio waves can travel beyond the horizon, around the curve of the Earth and it depends on the angle of incidence of the waves, it is lowest when the waves are directed straight upwards, and is higher with less acute angles. This means that at longer distances, where the waves graze the ionosphere at a blunt angle. The lowest usable frequency depends on the absorption in the layer of the ionosphere. This absorption is stronger at low frequencies and is stronger with increased solar activity. When all factors are at their optimum, worldwide communication is possible on HF, at many other times it is possible to make contact across and between continents or oceans. At worst, when a band is dead, no communication beyond the limited groundwave paths is possible no matter what powers, on such an open band, interference originating over a wide area affects many potential users. These issues are significant to military, safety and amateur radio users of the HF bands, other standards development such as STANAG5066 provides for error free data communications through the use of ARQ protocols. Noise, especially man-made interference from devices, tends to have a great effect on the HF bands. In recent years, concerns have risen among certain users of the HF spectrum over broadband over power lines Internet access and this is due to the frequencies on which BPL operates and the tendency for the BPL signal to leak from power lines. Some BPL providers have installed notch filters to block out certain portions of the spectrum, other electronic devices including plasma televisions can also have a detrimental effect on the HF spectrum. In aviation, HF communication systems are required for all trans-oceanic flights and these systems incorporate frequencies down to 2 MHz to include the 2182 kHz international distress and calling channel. The upper section of HF shares many characteristics with the part of VHF. The parts of this section not allocated to radio are used for local communications
35.
Voltage
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Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against an electric field to move the test charge between two points. This is measured in units of volts, voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points in a system, often a reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy or lost, used, given two points in space, x A and x B, voltage is the difference in electric potential between those two points. Electric potential must be distinguished from electric energy by noting that the potential is a per-unit-charge quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in potential, i. e. the voltage, is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the two ends of a path is the energy required to move a small electric charge along that path. Mathematically this is expressed as the integral of the electric field. In the general case, both an electric field and a dynamic electromagnetic field must be included in determining the voltage between two points. Historically this quantity has also called tension and pressure. Pressure is now obsolete but tension is used, for example within the phrase high tension which is commonly used in thermionic valve based electronics. Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to push it against the electric field. This is the case within any electric power source, for example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The electric field is not the only factor determining charge flow in a material, the electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of voltage can be found instead in the concept of Fermi level, in this case the voltage between two bodies is the thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them
36.
Electromagnet
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An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off, electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy objects such as scrap iron. Danish scientist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents create magnetic fields, british scientist William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824. His first electromagnet was a piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire. The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings, when a current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron, when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven ounces, however, Sturgeons magnets were weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns. Beginning in 1830, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and popularized the electromagnet, the first major use for electromagnets was in telegraph sounders. A portative electromagnet is one designed to just hold material in place, a tractive electromagnet applies a force and moves something. The solenoid is a coil of wire, and the plunger is made of a such as soft iron. Applying a current to the solenoid applies a force to the plunger, the plunger stops moving when the forces upon it are balanced. For example, the forces are balanced when the plunger is centered in the solenoid, the maximum uniform pull happens when one end of the plunger is at the middle of the solenoid. For units using inches, pounds force, and amperes with long, slender, solenoids, for example, a 12-inch long coil with a long plunger of 1-square inch cross section and 11,200 ampere-turns had a maximum pull of 8.75 pounds. The maximum pull is increased when a stop is inserted into the solenoid. The stop becomes a magnet that will attract the plunger, it adds little to the pull when the plunger is far away
37.
Magnetic field
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A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude, as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units of amperes per meter in the SI, B is measured in teslas and newtons per meter per ampere in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges, Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin. In quantum physics, the field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields are used throughout modern technology, particularly in electrical engineering. The Earth produces its own field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are used in electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits, noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points poles in analogy to Earths poles. He also clearly articulated the principle that magnets always have both a north and south pole, no matter how finely one slices them, almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet. Published in 1600, Gilberts work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science, in 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square law. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the north and south poles cannot be separated, building on this force between poles, Siméon Denis Poisson created the first successful model of the magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic poles, three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it, then in 1820, André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered the Biot–Savart law in 1820, extending these experiments, Ampère published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. This has the benefit of explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Also in this work, Ampère introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism, in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field
38.
Lorentz force
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In physics the Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. A particle of charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E, the first derivation of the Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in 1889, although other historians suggest an earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk Maxwell. Hendrik Lorentz derived it a few years after Heaviside, the force F acting on a particle of electric charge q with instantaneous velocity v, due to an external electric field E and magnetic field B, is given by, where × is the vector cross product. More explicitly stated, F = q in which r is the vector of the charged particle, t is time. The term qE is called the force, while the term qv × B is called the magnetic force. According to some definitions, the term Lorentz force refers specifically to the formula for the magnetic force and this article will not follow this nomenclature, In what follows, the term Lorentz force will refer only to the expression for the total force. The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. In that context, it is called the Laplace force. For a continuous distribution in motion, the Lorentz force equation becomes. If both sides of this equation are divided by the volume of this piece of the charge distribution dV. Rather than the amount of charge and its velocity in electric and magnetic fields, see Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism for more details. The above-mentioned formulae use SI units which are the most common among experimentalists, technicians, in cgs-Gaussian units, which are somewhat more common among theoretical physicists, one has instead F = q c g s. where c is the speed of light. Where ε0 is the permittivity and μ0 the vacuum permeability. In practice, the subscripts cgs and SI are always omitted, early attempts to quantitatively describe the electromagnetic force were made in the mid-18th century. It was proposed that the force on magnetic poles, by Johann Tobias Mayer and others in 1760, however, in both cases the experimental proof was neither complete nor conclusive. It was not until 1784 when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, using a balance, was able to definitively show through experiment that this was true. Soon after the discovery in 1820 by H. C, in all these descriptions, the force was always given in terms of the properties of the objects involved and the distances between them rather than in terms of electric and magnetic fields. J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from Maxwells field equations the electromagnetic forces on a charged object in terms of the objects properties
39.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
40.
Electric charge
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Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
41.
Mass in special relativity
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Mass in special relativity incorporates the general understandings from the concept of mass–energy equivalence. Roche states that about 60% of modern authors just use rest mass, for a discussion of mass in general relativity, see mass in general relativity. For a general discussion including mass in Newtonian mechanics, see the article on mass, the term mass in special relativity usually refers to the rest mass of the object, which is the Newtonian mass as measured by an observer moving along with the object. The invariant mass is another name for the rest mass of single particles, the more general invariant mass loosely corresponds to the rest mass of a system. Under such circumstances the invariant mass is equal to the relativistic mass, the concept of invariant mass does not require bound systems of particles, however. As such, it may also be applied to systems of particles in high-speed relative motion. Because of this, it is employed in particle physics for systems which consist of widely separated high-energy particles. If such systems were derived from a particle, then the calculation of the invariant mass of such systems. It is often convenient in calculation that the invariant mass of a system is the energy of the system in the COM frame. As with energy and momentum, the invariant mass of a system cannot be destroyed or changed, the term relativistic mass is also sometimes used. This is the sum total quantity of energy in a body or system, as seen from the center of momentum frame, the relativistic mass is also the invariant mass, as discussed above. For other frames, the relativistic mass includes a contribution from the net energy of the body. Thus, unlike the invariant mass, the relativistic mass depends on the frame of reference. However, for given single frames of reference and for isolated systems, although some authors present relativistic mass as a fundamental concept of the theory, it has been argued that this is wrong as the fundamentals of the theory relate to space–time. There is disagreement over whether the concept is pedagogically useful, the notion of mass as a property of an object from Newtonian mechanics does not bear a precise relationship to the concept in relativity. Roche suggests that mass is only an artifact. If a stationary box contains many particles, it more in its rest frame. Any energy in the box adds to the mass, so that the motion of the particles contributes to the mass of the box
