1.
Air Combat Command
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Air Combat Command is one of ten Major Commands in the United States Air Force, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force at the Pentagon. ACC is headquartered at Langley Field, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia and its commander is General Herbert Hawk Carlisle, with Major General Jerry D. Harris Jr. as Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Steve K. McDonald as the Command Chief Master Sergeant, in addition, ACC augments the forces of the United States European Command, United States Pacific Command and United States Central Command when needed. Air Combat Command consists of approximately 98,000 active duty members, in 2015, responsibility for the B-1 Lancer bomber fleet was also transferred from ACC to AFGSC. Air Combat Command was created 1 June 1992 after the inactivation of the Tactical Air Command, Strategic Air Command, furthermore, ACC had some KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling tankers and C-130 tactical airlift aircraft in its composite, reconnaissance, and certain other combat wings. In 1993, control of the ICBM force was transferred to the Air Force Space Command until transferred again to Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 Dec 2009. S, Air Force and the U. S. Navy. Historically, combat command was an air unit designation. During 1941 and early 1942, the air units of the War Department, formerly known as the GHQ Air Force. The AFCC was dissolved in the reorganization of the United States Army, effective 9 March 1942, not long after activation, ACC underwent organizational and mission changes. The first such change was the transfer of the combat search. With the realigning of search and rescue units, ACC gained additional resources, the formal transfer took place on 1 February 1993, when the Air Rescue Service was assigned to ACC. On 2 July of the year, the ARS was disestablished. The USAF Combat Rescue School was subsequently assigned to the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB, one of the most significant changes for Air Combat Command resulted from an overhaul of flying training responsibilities. Following its activation, ACC was responsible for aircrew training, including initial weapon system. On 1 July 1993, the 58th and 325th Fighter Wings—F-16 and F-15 training units transferred from ACC to Air Education and Training Command. Concurrently, Luke AFB, Arizona, and Tyndall AFB, Florida, for which those respective wings were the host units, however, on 1 October 2012, both Tyndall AFB and the 325th Fighter Wing returned to the control of ACC. The next major change resulted from a fine-tuning of aerial refueling. From its activation, Air Combat Command had assumed ownership of some C-130 Hercules theater airlift assets and KC-10 Extender, there was historical precedent for the reassignment of C-130s to Air Combat Command
2.
Tucson, Arizona
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Tucson is a city and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, and home to the University of Arizona. The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116, the Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area, with a total population of 1,010,025 as of the 2010 Census. Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix, both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor, the city is located 108 miles southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi north of the U. S. –Mexico border. Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 53rd largest metropolitan area in the United States, Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. Communities in the vicinity of Tucson include Casas Adobes, Catalina Foothills, Flowing Wells, Midvale Park, Tanque Verde, Tortolita, towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast, Catalina and Oracle to the north, and Green Valley to the south. The Spanish name of the city, Tucsón, is derived from the Oodham Cuk Ṣon, meaning base of the black, Tucson is sometimes referred to as The Old Pueblo. Tucson was probably first visited by Paleo-Indians, known to have been in southern Arizona about 12,000 years ago, recent archaeological excavations near the Santa Cruz River have located a village site dating from 2100 BC. The floodplain of the Santa Cruz River was extensively farmed during the Early Agricultural Period and these people constructed irrigation canals and grew corn, beans, and other crops while gathering wild plants and hunting. The Early Ceramic period occupation of Tucson saw the first extensive use of vessels for cooking. The groups designated as the Hohokam lived in the area from AD600 to 1450 and are known for their vast irrigation canal systems and their red-on-brown pottery. Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino visited the Santa Cruz River valley in 1692, a separate Convento settlement was founded downstream along the Santa Cruz River, near the base of what is now A mountain. Hugo OConor, the father of the city of Tucson, Arizona authorized the construction of a military fort in that location, Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón. During the Spanish period of the presidio, attacks such as the Second Battle of Tucson were repeatedly mounted by Apaches, eventually the town came to be called Tucson and became a part of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. Tucson was not included in the Mexican Cession and Cookes road through Tucson became one of the important routes into California during the California Gold Rush, Arizona, south of the Gila River, was obtained via treaty from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase on June 8,1854. Tucson became a part of the United States of America, although the American military did not formally take control until March 1856. In 1857, Tucson became a station on the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line. The Overland Mail Corporation attempted to continue running, however, following the Bascom Affair, devastating Apache attacks on the stations, from August 1861 to mid-1862, Tucson was the western capital of the Confederate Arizona Territory, the eastern capital being Mesilla. In 1862, the California Column drove the Confederate forces out of Arizona, Tucson and all of what is now Arizona were part of New Mexico Territory until 1863, when they became part of the new Arizona Territory
3.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
4.
355th Fighter Wing
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The 355th Fighter Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Combat Commands Twelfth Air Force. It is stationed at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona, the wings mission is to provide close air support, air interdiction, forward air control, combat search and rescue, ground based tactical air control, and airbase operations. Originally equipped with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts, the group began using North American P-51 Mustangs in Spring,1944, the group was under the command of the 65th Fighter Wing of the VIII Fighter Command, Eighth Air Force. The aircraft group identification was white spinners and cowling bands, the group also flew fighter sweeps, area patrols, and bombing missions, striking such targets as air parks, locomotives, bridges, radio stations, and armoured cars. The 355th quickly gained acclaim as the Steeple Morden Strafers, a reference to its base in England, the fighter group destroyed or damaged 1,500 enemy planes, making it the top strafing outfit in the VIII Fighter Command during World War II. The group provided cover for Allied forces landing in Normandy on 6 June 1944. Hit fuel dumps, locomotives, and other targets in support of forces during the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July. The 355th Fighter Group flew its last combat mission on 25 April 1945, on 3 July the group transferred to Gablingen, Germany for duty with United States Air Forces in Europe as part of the army of occupation. Transferred, without personnel and equipment, to Mitchel Field New York on 1 August 1946, the group replaced the 516th Air Defense Group and assumed its mission, personnel and equipment at McGhee Tyson Airport, near Knoxville Tennessee. The group served as the United States Air Force host organization for active duty units at McGhee Tyson and was assigned a number of maintenance, the 354th and 469th Squadrons both flew the radar equipped and Mighty Mouse rocket armed North American F-86D Sabre. The group focused on defending the Oak Ridge atomic plant and Alcoa aluminum production site, in July 1957 the 355th was reduced to a single fighter squadron when the 469th was inactivated. On 13 April 1962 the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing was established and activated at George AFB, California, after a period of organization at George, the wing was assigned to McConnell AFB, Kansas, becoming the host unit at the base. The unit transferred to the Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand in 1965, during the next five years, it flew more than 101,000 sorties over North Vietnam, dropping 202,596 tons of bombs and destroying 12,675 targets. The wings pilots were credited with twenty airborne kills of MiG aircraft, nicknamed PACAFs Pride, the unit received three Presidential Unit Citations and three Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards with the combat V device. It is also noteworthy that, of the twelve airmen awarded the Medal of Honor in the Vietnam War, the 355th was inactivated at Takhli on 10 December 1970 as part of the drawdown of US Forces in Southeast Asia in the early 1970s. The 355th was reactivated at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in 1971, initially, the wing had four squadrons equipped with the new A-7D Corsair II ground air support aircraft. It achieved operationally-ready status in 1972, withdrawing from Thailand in 1974, the wing began to send its Corsairs to the Air National Guard, and transitioning to the new A-10 Thunderbolt II. By 1979, the wing had completely transitioned to the A-10, in 1984 the 355th Fighter Group was consolidated with the Wing, giving the 355th Tactical Training Wing the history, honors and lineage of the World War II and Cold War organization
5.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
6.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
9.
Asphalt concrete
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Asphalt concrete is a composite material commonly used to surface roads, parking lots, airports, as well as the core of embankment dams. It consists of mineral aggregate bound together with asphalt, laid in layers, the process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U. S. immigrant Edward de Smedt. The abbreviation AC is sometimes used for asphalt concrete but can also denote asphalt content or asphalt cement, mixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 °F for virgin asphalt and 330 °F for polymer modified asphalt, and the asphalt cement at 200 °F. Paving and compaction must be performed while the asphalt is sufficiently hot, in many countries paving is restricted to summer months because in winter the compacted base will cool the asphalt too much before it is able to be packed to the required density. HMAC is the form of asphalt concrete most commonly used on high traffic pavements such as those on major highways, racetracks and it is also used as an environmental liner for landfills, reservoirs, and fish hatchery ponds. Superpave, short for superior performing asphalt pavement, is a pavement system designed to provide longer lasting roadways, key components of the system are careful selection of binders and aggregates, volumetric proportioning of ingredients, and evaluation of the finished product. Warm mix asphalt concrete is produced by adding either zeolites, waxes, asphalt emulsions and this allows significantly lower mixing and laying temperatures and results in lower consumption of fossil fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols and vapors. The usage of additives in hot mixed asphalt may afford easier compaction. Use of warm mix is rapidly expanding, a survey of US asphalt producers found that nearly 25% of asphalt produced in 2012 was warm mix, a 416% increase since 2009. Cold mix asphalt concrete is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with soap prior to mixing with the aggregate, while in its emulsified state the asphalt is less viscous and the mixture is easy to work and compact. The emulsion will break after enough water evaporates and the mix will, ideally. Cold mix is used as a patching material and on lesser trafficked service roads. Cut-back asphalt concrete is a form of cold mix asphalt produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum prior to mixing with the aggregate, while in its dissolved state the asphalt is less viscous and the mix is easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down the lighter fraction evaporates, because of concerns with pollution from the volatile organic compounds in the lighter fraction, cut-back asphalt has been largely replaced by asphalt emulsion. Mastic asphalt concrete or sheet asphalt is produced by heating hard grade blown bitumen in a green cooker until it has become a liquid after which the aggregate mix is then added. Mastic asphalt concrete is laid to a thickness of around 3⁄4–1 3⁄16 inches for footpath and road applications. HMAC layers are used both in reinforcement operations and in the construction of new reinforcements for medium and heavy traffic, in base layers, they tend to exhibit a greater capacity of absorbing tensions and, in general, better fatigue resistance. In addition to the asphalt and aggregate, additives, such as polymers, Asphalt concrete pavements—especially those at airfields—are sometimes called tarmac for historical reasons, although they do not contain tar and are not constructed using the macadam process
10.
Mile
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The mile is an English unit of length of linear measure equal to 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards, and standardised as exactly 1,609.344 metres by international agreement in 1959. The Romans divided their mile into 5,000 feet but the importance of furlongs in pre-modern England meant that the statute mile was made equivalent to 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread to the British-colonized nations who continue to employ the mile, the US Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes but legacy data from its 1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separate US survey mile continues to see some use. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated as mph, mpg. The modern English word mile derives from Middle English myl and Old English mīl, the present international mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified term mile. When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, in British English, the statute mile may refer to the present international miles or to any other form of English mile since the 1593 Act of Parliament which set it as a distance of 1,760 yards. Under American law, however, the statute mile refers to the US survey mile, the mile has been variously abbreviated—with and without a trailing period—as m, M, ml, and mi. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi in order to avoid confusion with the SI metre and millilitre. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated in the United States, United Kingdom, the BBC style holds that There is no acceptable abbreviation for ‘miles’ and so it should be spelt out when used in describing areas. The Roman mile consisted of a thousand paces as measured by every other step—as in the distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times. The ancient Romans, marching their armies through uncharted territory, would push a carved stick in the ground after each 1000 paces. Well-fed and harshly driven Roman legionaries in good weather thus created longer miles, the distance was indirectly standardised by Agrippas establishment of a standard Roman foot in 29 BC, and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet, surveyors and specialized equipment such as the decempeda and dioptra then spread its use. In modern times, Agrippas Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,481 metres in length, in Hellenic areas of the Empire, the Roman mile was used beside the native Greek units as equivalent to 8 stadia of 600 Greek feet. The mílion continued to be used as a Byzantine unit and was used as the name of the zero mile marker for the Byzantine Empire. The Roman mile also spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units below, also arising from the Roman mile is the milestone. All roads radiated out from the Roman Forum throughout the Empire –50,000 miles of stone-paved roads, at every mile was placed a shaped stone, on which was carved a Roman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the center of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one knew how far one was from Rome
11.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
12.
Kilometre
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The kilometre or kilometer is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousand metres. K is occasionally used in some English-speaking countries as an alternative for the kilometre in colloquial writing. A slang term for the kilometre in the US military is klick, there are two common pronunciations for the word. It is generally preferred by the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, many scientists and other users, particularly in countries where the metric system is not widely used, use the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable. The latter pronunciation follows the pattern used for the names of measuring instruments. The problem with this reasoning, however, is that the meter in those usages refers to a measuring device. The contrast is more obvious in countries using the British rather than American spelling of the word metre. When Australia introduced the system in 1975, the first pronunciation was declared official by the governments Metric Conversion Board. However, the Australian prime minister at the time, Gough Whitlam, by the 8 May 1790 decree, the Constituent assembly ordered the French Academy of Sciences to develop a new measurement system. In August 1793, the French National Convention decreed the metre as the length measurement system in the French Republic. The first name of the kilometre was Millaire, although the metre was formally defined in 1799, the myriametre was preferred to the kilometre for everyday use. The term myriamètre appeared a number of times in the text of Develeys book Physique dEmile, ou, Principes de la de la nature. French maps published in 1835 had scales showing myriametres and lieues de Poste, the Dutch, on the other hand, adopted the kilometre in 1817 but gave it the local name of the mijl. It was only in 1867 that the term became the only official unit of measure in the Netherlands to represent 1000 metres. In the US, the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 prohibits the use of highway funds to convert existing signs or purchase new signs with metric units. Although the State DOTs had the option of using metric measurements or dual units, all of them abandoned metric measurements, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices since 2000 is published in both metric and American Customary Units. Some sporting disciplines feature 1000 m races in major events, but in other disciplines, even though records are catalogued
13.
Twelfth Air Force
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The Twelfth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Air Combat Command. It is headquartered at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, the command serves as a primary conventional fighter and bomber warfighting headquarters trained and ready for worldwide employment of airpower. It is responsible for the readiness of 10 active-duty wings. These subordinate commands operate more than 520 combat aircraft with more than 42,000 uniformed and civilian Airmen. It takes part in a multitude of operations in the United States Southern Command area of focus alongside partner nations in Central and South America, ensuring a safe, secure, and stable region. Established on 20 August 1942 at Bolling Field, District of Columbia and it engaged in operations in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and Western Europe. As a result of the Global War on Terrorism, most 12th Air Force units have operated in the United States Central Command AOR. Since 1987, Twelfth Air Force trains, equips, and prepares assigned units from Air Combat Command and also serves as the air, Twelfth Air Force serves as a primary conventional fighter and bomber WFHQ trained and ready for worldwide employment of airpower. It is responsible for the readiness of seven active-duty wings. The command is also leading the way in bringing the Chief of Staff of the Air Forces Warfighting Headquarters concept to life, the WFHQ is composed of a command and control element, an Air Force forces staff and an Air Operations Center. Operating as a WFHQ since June 2004, Twelfth Air Force has served as the Air Force model for the future of Combined Air and Space Operations Centers and WFHQ Air Force forces. 12 AF command is responsible for the operational readiness of 13 Twelfth Air Force-gained wings and other units of the Air Force Reserve. These units include more than 220 aircraft and 18,900 Total Force Airmen, the mission of AFSOUTH is to conduct Air Force, joint and combined air and space operations in addition to information operations in the USSOUTHCOM Area of Responsibility. To fulfill these responsibilities AFSOUTH employs a full spectrum of Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance, intra-theatre airlift, in addition the AOC is responsible for developing strategy and plans to execute air and space operations in support of USSOUTHCOM objectives. The AOC also provides command and control of all AFSOUTH air, Twelfth Air Force is also responsible for the combat readiness of one of five Falconer AOC weapons systems in the Air Force. Typically, the 12 AF/CC and his command and control organization form the core of the AFSOUTH command section. Unlike the 12 AF/CC, who reports to COMACC and has only a training mission, AFSOUTH has no organic assets, but draws on forces provided to it by CDRUSSOUTHCOM. Currently, AFSOUTH manages four rotational Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard C-130s based out of Muniz Air National Guard Base, the SOUTHCOM JFACC is a warfighting commander who reports to CDRUSSOUTHCOM and directs air and air defence forces provided to him for tasking by CDRUSSOUTHCOM
14.
Air Force Materiel Command
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Air Force Materiel Command is a major command of the United States Air Force. AFMC was created on July 1,1992 through the amalgamation of the former Air Force Logistics Command, AFMC is headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The commander of AFMC is General Ellen M. Pawlikowski and the commander is Major General Warren D. Berry. AFMC is one of ten Air Force Major Commands and has a workforce of approximately 80,000 military and it is the Air Force’s largest command in terms of funding and second in terms of personnel. AFMC’s operating budget represents 31 percent of the total Air Force budget, the command develops, acquires and sustains the aerospace power needed to defend the United States and its interests for today and tomorrow. This is accomplished through research, development, testing, evaluation, acquisition, maintenance and program management of existing and future USAF weapon systems and their components. In 1947, AMC bases were transferred to the newly established United States Air Force, with such as the storage depot in Maywood. The material procurement role was transferred, Air Force Materiel Command was activated on July 1,1992 as part of a post-Cold War, USAF-wide reorganization that resulted in the merger of AFLC and AFSC into a single major command. Following the establishment of AFMC, subsequent Base Realignment and Closure actions also saw significant reductions in AFMC infrastructure, AFMC Commanders, General Ronald W. Yates, 1992-1995 General Henry Viccellio Jr. June 1995-May/June 1997 General George T. Babbitt, Jr. May 1997 –2000 General Lester Lyles, May 2000 - October 2003 General Gregory S. Martin,2003 -2005 General Bruce A. Carlson,2005 -2008 General Donald J. Hoffman,2008 -2012 General Janet C. Wolfenbarger,2012 -2015 General Ellen M, from cradle-to-grave, AFMC provides the work force and infrastructure necessary to ensure the United States remains the worlds most respected Air and Space Force. AFMC headquarters is the unit located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 2012, there was a reorganization and several new centers were organized. The center is located at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
15.
309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group
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AMARG takes care of more than 4,400 aircraft, which makes it the largest aircraft storage and preservation facility in the world. An Air Force Materiel Command unit, the group is under the command of the 309th Maintenance Wing at Hill Air Force Base, AMARG was established in 1946 as the 4105th Army Air Force Base Unit to house B-29 and C-47 aircraft. Davis-Monthan Air Force Base was chosen because of Tucsons low humidity, infrequent rainfall, alkaline soil and high altitude of 2,550 feet, reducing rust, the hard soil makes it possible to move aircraft around without having to pave the storage areas. In 1948, after the Air Forces creation as a separate service, in 1965, the depot was renamed the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center, and tasked with processing aircraft for all the US armed forces. The U. S. Navy had operated its own boneyard at Naval Air Station Litchfield Park at Goodyear, Arizona, for Navy, Marine, in February 1965, some 500 aircraft were moved from Litchfield Park to Davis-Monthan AFB. NAS Litchfield Park was finally closed in 1968, in the 1990s, in accordance with the START I treaty, the center was tasked with eliminating 365 B-52 bombers. The progress of this task was to be verified by Russia via satellite, initially, the B-52s were chopped into pieces with a 13, 000-pound guillotine winched by a steel cable, supported by a crane. Later on, the tool of choice became K-12 rescue saws and this more precise technique afforded AMARG with salvageable spare parts. In May 2007, command of AMARG was transferred to the 309th Maintenance Wing, constituted on 7 October 1964 as The Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center Activated on 1 February 1965 Redesignated Aerospace Maintenance & Regeneration Center c. The 2,600 acres facility is adjacent to the base, for every $1 the federal government spends operating the facility, it saves or produces $11 from harvesting spare parts and selling off inventory. Congressional oversight determines what equipment may be sold to which customer, an aircraft going into storage undergoes the following treatments, All guns, ejection seat charges, and classified hardware are removed. All Navy aircraft are washed with fresh water, to remove salty water environment residue. The fuel system is protected by draining it, refilling it with lightweight oil and this leaves a protective oil film. The aircraft is sealed from dust, sunlight, and high temperatures and this is done using a variety of materials, including a high tech vinyl plastic compound that is sprayed on the aircraft. The plane is then towed by a tug to its storage position. There is much scrutiny over who can buy what kinds of parts, at times, these sales are canceled. AMARG is a site, and is off-limits to anyone not employed there without the proper clearance. The only access for non-cleared individuals is via a bus tour which is conducted by the nearby Pima Air & Space Museum, bus tours are on Monday to Friday
16.
Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II
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The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is a single-seat, twin turbofan engine, straight wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic for the United States Air Force. Commonly referred to by its nicknames Warthog or Hog, its name comes from the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The A-10 was designed for air support of friendly ground troops, engaging armored vehicles and tanks. It entered service in 1976 and is the only aircraft that has served in the USAF that was designed solely for CAS. Its secondary mission is to forward air controller – airborne support. Aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA-10, the A-10 was intended to improve on the performance of the A-1 Skyraider and its poor firepower. The A-10 was designed around the 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger rotary cannon and its short takeoff and landing capability permits operation from airstrips close to the front lines, and its simple design enables maintenance with minimal facilities. The A-10 served in the Gulf War, the American intervention against Iraqs invasion of Kuwait, the A-10 also participated in other conflicts such as Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, the Balkans, Afghanistan, Iraq, and against ISIL in the Middle East. The A-10A single-seat variant was the version produced, though one pre-production airframe was modified into the YA-10B twin-seat prototype to test an all-weather night capable version. In 2005, a program was started to upgrade remaining A-10A aircraft to the A-10C configuration with modern avionics for use of precision weaponry. The U. S. Air Force had stated the F-35 would replace the A-10 as it entered service, but this remains highly contentious within the Air Force and in political circles. With a variety of upgrades and wing replacements, the A-10s service life may be extended to 2040, post-World War II development of conventionally armed attack aircraft in the United States had stagnated. Design efforts for tactical aircraft focused on the delivery of nuclear weapons using high-speed designs like the F-101 Voodoo, designs concentrating on conventional weapons had been largely ignored, leaving their entry into the Vietnam War led by the Korean War-era Douglas A-1 Skyraider. While a capable aircraft for its era, with a large payload and long loiter times. The U. S. Air Force and Marine Corps lost 266 A-1s in action in Vietnam, the A-1 Skyraider also had poor firepower. The lack of conventional attack capability prompted calls for a specialized attack aircraft. The former became the Tactical Fighter Experimental, or TFX, which emerged as the F-111 and it was also expensive to buy and operate, with a flyaway cost of $2 million in FY1965, and operational costs over $900 per hour. After a broad review of its force structure, the U. S. Air Force decided to adopt a low-cost aircraft to supplement the F-4
17.
Consolidated PBY Catalina
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The Consolidated PBY Catalina, also known as the Canso in Canadian service, was an American flying boat, and later an amphibious aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s produced by Consolidated Aircraft. It was one of the most widely used seaplanes of World War II, Catalinas served with every branch of the United States Armed Forces and in the air forces and navies of many other nations. During World War II, PBYs were used in warfare, patrol bombing, convoy escorts, search and rescue missions. The PBY was the most numerous aircraft of its kind and the last active military PBYs were not retired from service until the 1980s. In 2014, nearly 80 years after its first flight, the continues to fly as a waterbomber in aerial firefighting operations all over the world. In accordance with contemporary British naming practice of naming seaplanes after coastal towns, Royal Canadian Air Force examples were named Canso. The Royal Air Force used the name Catalina and the US Navy adopted this name in 1942, the United States Army Air Forces and later the United States Air Force used the designation OA-10. US Navy Catalinas used in the Pacific against the Japanese for night operations were painted black overall, and as a result were sometimes referred to locally as Black Cats. The PBY was originally designed to be a bomber, an aircraft with a long operational range intended to locate. Flying boats had the advantage of not requiring runways, in effect having the entire ocean available, several different flying boats were adopted by the Navy, but the PBY was the most widely used and produced. Although slow and ungainly, Catalinas distinguished themselves in World War II, Allied forces used them successfully in a wide variety of roles for which the aircraft was never intended. They are remembered for their role, in which they saved the lives of thousands of aircrew downed over water. Catalina airmen called their aircraft the Cat on combat missions and Dumbo in air-sea rescue service, Naval doctrine of the 1930s and 1940s used flying boats in a wide variety of roles that today are handled by multiple special-purpose aircraft. The U. S. Navy had adopted the Consolidated P2Y and Martin P3M models for this role in 1931, Consolidated and Douglas both delivered single prototypes of their new designs, the XP3Y-1 and XP3D-1, respectively. Although the Douglas aircraft was a design, the Navy opted for Consolidateds because the projected cost was only $90,000 per aircraft. Consolidateds XP3Y-1 design had a wing with external bracing struts. Wingtip stabilizing floats were retractable in flight to form streamlined wingtips and had licensed from the Saunders-Roe company. The two-step hull design was similar to that of the P2Y, cleaner aerodynamics gave the Model 28 better performance than earlier designs
18.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
19.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
20.
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
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The INF Treaty eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers and 1, 000–5,500 km. The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles, by May 1991,2,692 missiles were eliminated, followed by 10 years of on-site verification inspections. Whereas the SS-4 and SS-5 were seen as weapons, the SS-20 was seen as a potential offensive system. Leslie H. Gelb, the US Assistant Secretary of State, on 12 December 1979, following European pressure for a response to the SS-20, Western foreign and defense ministers meeting in Brussels made the NATO Double-Track Decision. The ministers argued that the Warsaw Pact had developed a large and growing capability in nuclear systems that directly threaten Western Europe, theater nuclear systems. The ministers also attributed the situation to the deployment of the Soviet Tupolev Tu-22M strategic bomber. To address these developments, the ministers adopted two policy tracks, formal talks began on 30 November 1981, with the US then led by President Ronald Reagan and the Soviet Union by Leonid Brezhnev. Additionally, the US insisted that a sufficient verification regime be in place, paul Nitze, a longtime hand at defense policy who had participated in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, led the US delegation after being recruited by Secretary of State Alexander Haig. Though Nitze had backed the first SALT treaty, he opposed SALT II and had resigned from the US delegation during its negotiation, Nitze was also then a member of the Committee on the Present Danger, a firmly anti-Soviet group composed of neoconservatives and conservative Republicans. Yuli Kvitsinsky, the well-respected second-ranking official at the Soviet embassy in West Germany, on 18 November 1981, shortly before the beginning of formal talks, Reagan made the Zero Option proposal. The plan called for a hold on US deployment of GLCM and Pershing II systems, reciprocated by Soviet elimination of its SS-4, SS-5, there appeared to be little chance of the Zero Option being adopted, but the gesture was well received in the European public. Opinion within the Reagan administration on the Zero Option was mixed, Richard Perle, then the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs, was the architect of the plan. Reagan later recounted that the zero option sprang out of the realities of nuclear politics in Western Europe. The Soviet Union rejected the plan shortly after the US tabled it in February 1982, specifically, Soviet negotiators proposed that the number of INF missiles and aircraft deployed in Europe by one side be capped at 600 by 1985 and 300 by 1990. Between 1981 and 1983, US and Soviet negotiators gathered for six rounds of talks, the US delegation was composed of Nitze, General William F. Colonel Norman Clyne, a SALT participant, served as Nitzes chief of staff, there was little convergence between the two sides over these two years. Nitze later said that his and Kvitsinskys goal was to agree to certain concessions that would allow for a summit meeting meeting Brezhnev, Nitzes offer to Kvitsinsky was that the US would forego deployment of the Pershing II and continue deployment of GLCMs, but limited to 75 missile launchers. The Soviet Union, in return, would also have to limit itself to 75 intermediate-range missile launchers in Europe and 90 in Asia, while Kvitsinsky was skeptical that the plan would be well received in Moscow, Nitze was optimistic about its chances in Washington
21.
New START
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New START is a nuclear arms reduction treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation with the formal name of Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. It was signed on 8 April 2010 in Prague, and, after ratification and it is expected to last at least until 2021. New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow, which was due to expire in December 2012, under terms of the treaty, the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers will be reduced by half. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism and it does not limit the number of operationally inactive stockpiled nuclear warheads that remain in the high thousands in both the Russian and American inventories. According to a Reuters report on February 9,2017, in US President Donald Trumps first 60-minute telephone call with Russian President Vladimir Putin, Putin inquired about extending New START. President Trump denounced the treaty, after asking his aides what it was, under the terms of the treaty, the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers will be reduced by half. The total number of deployed warheads, however, could exceed the 1,550 limit by a few hundred because per bomber only one warhead is counted regardless of how many it actually carries. The number of deployed ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments is limited to 700, the treaty allows for satellite and remote monitoring, as well as 18 on-site inspections per year to verify limits. These obligations must be met within seven years from the date the treaty enters into force, the treaty will last ten years, with an option to renew it for up to five years upon agreement of both parties. The treaty entered force on 5 February 2011, when the United States and Russia exchanged instruments of ratification, following approval by the U. S. Senate. However, the United States began implementing the reductions even before the treaty was ratified, documents made available to the U. S. While four of 24 launchers on each of the 14 ballistic missile nuclear submarines would be removed, none would be retired. The treaty places no limits on tactical systems, such as the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, the treaty does not cover rail-mobile ICBM launchers because neither party currently possesses such systems. The New START treaty is the successor to the START I, the START II was signed, but not ratified. The START III negotiating process was not successful, the drafting of the treaty commenced in April 2009 immediately after the meeting between the presidents of the two countries, Barack Obama and Dmitry Medvedev, in London. Preliminary talks were held in Rome on 27 April, although it was originally planned to have them held in the middle of May. Prolonged talks were conducted by U. S. and Russian delegations, the Russian delegation was headed by Anatoly Antonov, director of security and disarmament at the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The document listed the intention of both parties to reduce the number of nuclear warheads to 1, 500–1,675 units, presidents Obama and Medvedev announced on 26 March 2010 that they had reached an agreement, and they signed the treaty on 8 April 2010 in Prague
22.
55th Electronic Combat Group
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The 55th Electronic Combat Group, Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, provides combat-ready EC-130H Compass Call aircraft, crews, maintenance and operational support to combatant commanders. The group is a geographically separated unit that falls under the command of the 55th Wing at Offutt AFB, the group also plans and executes information operations, including information warfare and electronic attack, in support of theater campaign plans. The 41st Electronic Combat Squadron was activated at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in July 1980, the unit’s combat mission is to support tactical air, ground and naval operations by confusing the enemy’s defenses and disrupting its command and control capabilities. However, they each have a different area of responsibility, both squadrons operate the EC-130H aircraft, a specially configured version of the Air Force’s proven C-130 transport. Modifications made to the aircraft vary between the two squadrons, to each squadron meet its specific mission-oriented needs. Since coming to D-M, the 41 &43 ECS have played a role during several successful contingency. The 42d Electronic Combat Squadron provides the 55th Electronic Combat Group with combat ready EC-130H COMPASS CALL trained aircrews, maintains quality control for all aspects of contracted aircrew training and manages courseware development for 17 Air Combat Command-verified syllabi. Provides the group with support for both continuation and initial qualification training. The 755th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron provides war-fighting commanders with combat ready EC-130H Compass Call aircraft to expeditiously execute information warfare and they also conduct all maintenance training, aircrew debriefing and supply functions. The 755th Operations Support Squadron supports 55th Electronic Combat Group combat missions,55 ECG Public Webpage 55th ECG Factsheet
23.
55th Wing
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The 55th Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to Air Combat Command. The 55 WG is the only Air Force wing with continuous operations, maintenance, the wings mission is to provide worldwide reconnaissance, real-time intelligence, command and control, information warfare and combat support to U. S. leaders and commanders. One of the units, the 55th Operations Group, operates 46 aircraft. It is the largest wing in Air Combat Command and flies the most diverse number of aircraft, 55th Communications Group Provides worldwide command, control, communications and computer systems, information management and combat support to warfighting and national leadership. It also provides technology and support to the 55th Wing and 44 tenant units. 55th Electronic Combat Group Provides combat-ready EC-130H Compass Call aircraft, crews, maintenance, 55th Medical Group Serves 50K beneficiaries with extensive outpatient clinic capabilities and ancillary support. 55th Operations Group ACCs largest group, has control over 12 squadrons. It employs 46 aircraft, including 13 models of seven different types, since its inception, the unit has operated around the world, flying a wide variety of aircraft. From 1950 to 1954 the Wings task was to perform reconnaissance, charting photography, precise electronic geodetic mapping. In 1952, the moved to Forbes Air Force Base, Kansas. The United States protested the attack, stating the plane was on a reconnaissance flight over international waters,25 miles from the Kamchatka Peninsula. The Soviets responded by saying the plane was intercepted over their territory near Cape Krestovoi, a little more than three months later, on 29 July 1953 an RB-50 of the wings 343d Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron was shot down by Soviet fighters about ninety miles south of Vladivostok. The Soviet Union did not deny the planes location was over water, but claimed that the bomber had flown over Soviet territory and fired on their MiGs. The wing formally assumed a strategic reconnaissance mission in 1954. The Wing was deployed at Ben Guerir Air Base, in what was then French Morocco and it also carried out weather reconnaissance operations until June 1963, and photographic reconnaissance missions until May 1964. The 55 SRW moved to Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska and that same year the 55th’s 38th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron assumed responsibility for SAC’s airborne command and control system. The 2d Airborne Command and Control Squadron inherited this mission after activation in April 1970, the Wing flew reconnaissance operations during the U. S. military operations in Grenada in 1983 and Libya in 1986. On 1 March 1986, the 55 SRW became the host unit at Offutt after the inactivation of the 3902d Air Base Wing, the Wing ended nearly twenty-five years of continuous Airborne Command Post operations in 1990, assumed a modified alert posture, and continued worldwide reconnaissance
24.
Offutt Air Force Base
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Offutt Air Force Base is a U. S. Air Force installation near Omaha, and lies adjacent to Bellevue in Sarpy County, Nebraska. It is the headquarters of the U. S. Strategic Command, the Air Force Weather Agency, and the 55th Wing of the Air Combat Command, aviation use at Offutt began in September 1918 during World War I as an Army Air Service balloon field. It was renamed in honor of World War I pilot and Omaha native 1st Lt. Jarvis Offutt in 1924. S. in case of war during the Cold War. The population was 8,901 at the 2000 census, Offutt Air Force Base is the host station for the 55th Wing, the largest wing of the United States Air Forces Air Combat Command. One of the units, the 55th Operations Group, operates 46 aircraft. The group consists of approximately 3,200 personnel and it employs 46 aircraft, including 13 models of seven different types. It consists of 5 squadrons,3 flying squadrons,1 support squadron and 1 maintenance squadron, all 3 flying squadrons utilize various models of the EC-130 aircraft. It also provides technology and support to the 55th Wing and 44 tenant units. 55th Medical Group The 55th Medical Group serves 28K enrolled patients with extensive outpatient clinic capabilities, Offutt AFB is the headquarters of United States Strategic Command which is one of the nine Unified Combatant Commands of the United States Department of Defense. USSTRATCOM was established in 1992 as a successor to Strategic Air Command, the 557th Weather Wing, formerly the Air Force Weather Agency, is headquartered at Offutt AFB. It is the weather center of the United States Air Force. For over a century, Offutt AFB has played a key role in American military history, from its beginnings as Fort Crook in the late 19th century, Offutt has adapted to the defense needs of the United States. The historical significance of Offutt is a source of pride for military, Offutt AFB is named in honor of First Lieutenant Jarvis Jennes Offutt. The first native of Omaha to become a casualty in World War I, Lieutenant Offutt died of injuries sustained when his SE-5 fighter crashed during a flight near Valheureux. The airfield portion of Fort Crook was designated Offutt Field on 10 May 1924, offutts great heritage began with the commissioning by the War Department in 1890 of Fort Crook. Located some 10 miles south of Omaha and two miles west of the Missouri River, the fort was constructed between 1894 and 1896, the forts namesake was Major General George Crook, a Civil War veteran and Indian fighter. It was first used as a point for Indian conflicts on the Great Plains. Troops from Fort Crook fought during the Spanish–American War when the 22nd Regiment under Charles A. Wikoff was dispatched to Cuba, the regiment suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of El Caney
25.
Lockheed EC-130
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The EC-130E ABCCC aircraft were retired in 2002 and the mission was migrated to the E-8 JSTARS and E-3 AWACS fleets. The EC-130E Commando Solo was a version of a U. S. This airframe served during the first Gulf War, Operation Uphold Democracy, the EC-130E was eventually replaced by the EC-130J Commando Solo and retired in 2006. Based on a C-130H airframe, the EC-130H Compass Call is an airborne communications jamming platform operated by the Air Combat Commands 55th Electronic Combat Group at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. The EC-130 Compass Call aircraft attempts to disrupt enemy command and control communications, the Compass Call system employs offensive counterinformation and electronic attack capabilities in support of U. S. and Coalition tactical air, surface, and special operations forces. The EC-130H was used extensively in the Gulf War and Operation Iraqi Freedom and it has also been used in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. The EC-130J Commando Solo is a modified C-130J Hercules used to conduct operations and civil affairs broadcast missions in the standard AM, FM, HF, TV. Missions are flown at the maximum possible to ensure optimum propagation patterns. The EC-130J flies during either day or night scenarios with equal success, a typical mission consists of a single-ship orbit which is offset from the desired target audience. The targets may be military or civilian personnel. The 193 AOW is based at the Harrisburg Air National Guard Base at Harrisburg International Airport in Middletown, navys current TACAMO platform, the Boeing 707-based E-6 Mercury. The EC-130E Commando Solo entered service in 1978 as the EC-130E Coronet Solo with the Tactical Air Command, in 1983 the Coronet Solos mission was transferred to the Military Airlift Command and redesignated the EC-130E Volant Solo. With the formation of Air Force Special Operations Command, the mission was transferred to AFSOC, Operations were consolidated under a single-AFSOC gained unit, the 193d Special Operations Wing of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard. In the early 1990s the aircraft were upgraded and designated Commando Solo II, the EC-130E variants were replaced with new EC-130J Commando Solo III aircraft built by Lockheed Martin beginning in 2003. Highly specialized modifications have made to the latest version of the EC-130J. Secondary missions include command and control communications countermeasures and limited intelligence gathering, the three variants are EC-130 ABCCC, EC-130E Commando Solo, and the EC-130J Commando Solo. The version currently in service is the EC-130J, as the last EC-130E was retired from service in 2006, the EC-130 was originally modified by using the mission electronic equipment from the EC-121S Coronet Solo. In 1990 the EC-130 joined the newly formed Air Force Special Operations Command and has since been designated Commando Solo, more recently, in 1994, Commando Solo was utilized to broadcast radio and television messages to the citizens and leaders of Haiti during Operation Uphold Democracy
26.
563d Rescue Group
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The 563d Rescue Group is a United States Air Force unit stationed at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. The group also controls the rescue squadrons at Nellis Air Force Base and it is assigned to the 23d Wing at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia. The group directs flying operations dedicated to personnel recovery and is part of Air Combat Command, the group was activated under its current designation at Davis-Monthan in 2003 to command rescue units in the western United States. The group was first activated during World War II as the 3d Emergency Rescue Squadron at Keesler Field, after the war, the squadron moved to Japan, where it became part of the occupation forces, and was located there when the Korean War began. It again served in combat, expanding to become the 3d Air Rescue Group in 1952, the group was inactivated in 1957, when Air Rescue Service eliminated its groups and assigned its squadrons directly to its regional rescue centers. The group was organized again at Tan Son Nhut Airport in 1966 as the 3d Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group, to command United States Air Force rescue units engaged in the War in Vietnam. When the United States withdrew from Vietnam, the group moved its headquarters to Thailand and, after participating in the evacuations of Phnom Penh, the 563d Rescue Group directs flying operations dedicated to personnel recovery and is part of Air Combat Command. During combat rescue operations, they use various fixed and rotary wing aircraft for insertion and extraction, the squadrons provide survivor contact, treatment, and extraction during combat rescue operations. They provide combat and humanitarian search, rescue, and medical assistance, the 55th Rescue Squadron operates the Sikorsky HH-60G Pave Hawk and deploys combat rescue forces worldwide. It employs its helicopter and aircrews in hostile environments to recover downed aircrew and isolated personnel during day, night, the squadron also conducts civil search and rescue, disaster relief, international aid, emergency medical evacuation, and counter-drug activities. The 66th Rescue Squadron is a geographically separated unit of the 563 RQG located at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada and its mission is similar to the 55th Rescue Squadron. The squadron also meets HH-60G logistical and maintenance requirements for the USAF Weapons School. The 79th Rescue Squadron operates the HC-130J Combat King II and provides combat rescue forces to theater commanders worldwide and it conducts helicopter air refueling, airdrop, and landing of pararescue personnel on unimproved runways, and equipment to recover combat personnel. Its crews fly low-level operations and perform these missions day or night, the 563d Operations Support Squadron supports the training and employment of the 563d Rescue Groups six combat and support squadrons. It provides support functions, including weapons and tactics, current operations, intelligence, training, life support and it manages programmed flying hours to insure that operational and training requirements are met within parameters set by higher headquarters. It is also responsible for implementing contingency and theater war plans, the 563d Maintenance Squadron maintains, services, and inspects eight HH-60G Pave Hawk and six HC-130J Hercules aircraft. It also plans, schedules, and directs both scheduled and unscheduled maintenance to maintain mission ready status. The squadron performs all launch and recovery operations and it rapidly generates, mobilizes, deploys, and employs forces to provide combat and peacetime search and rescue
27.
23d Wing
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The 23d Wing is a front-line United States Air Force Air Combat Command wing currently assigned to Moody Air Force Base, Georgia. The mission of the 23d Wing is to organize, train and employ combat-ready A-10, HC-130 and HH-60, as well as pararescuemen, the 23d Fighter Group was assigned as the operational group under the new 23d Fighter Wing. The wing was assigned to Far East Air Forces, the 23ds mission on Guam was to provide air defense of the island. The 23d Fighter Group was assigned the 74th, 75th and 76th Fighter Squadrons, the 23d Fighter Wing was reassigned to Howard Air Force Base, Canal Zone, in April 1949, where it also acquired a squadron of Lockheed RF-80 Shooting Stars. The 23d Fighter Wing conducted air defense of the Canal Zone under the Caribbean Air Command until it was inactivated on 24 September 1949. The 23 FIW was inactivated 6 February 1952 along with the 23d Fighter-Interceptor Group, the 23 TFW was activated to replace the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at McConnell after its deployment to Korat RTAFB, Thailand. When Southeast Asian camouflaged, the squadrons carried the following codes,561 TFS MD,562 TFS ME,563 TFS MF. Flying the Republic Aviation F-105D/G Thunderchief aircraft, the mission of the 23 TFW at McConnell was to provide training for Thud pilots prior to their deployment to Southeast Asia. The 560th acted as a training squadron, while the other three squadrons began rotational TDY deployments to Southeast Asia beginning in November 1964. In February 1965, when the 23 TFW deployed three squadrons to Southeast Asia for combat, these units were initially under the control of the 2d Air Division. Later, the 6441 TFW was activated at Takhli RTAFB in July 1965 and it was during this five-month tour that the 563d TFS lost 10 of its 18 F-105s deployed and was awarded two Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards with Combat V for Valor. In addition to the deployments to Thailand, detachments of the 561 TFS also deployed to Da Nang Air Base RVN for operations within the borders of the Republic of Vietnam. On 1 August 1967, the 4519th Combat Crew Training squadron was added to the 23 TFW, and the 560 TFS was inactivated on 25 September 1968. For the dual role it played from June 1970 to June 1971 as both an operational and a unit, the wing received the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award in March 1971. Two of its squadrons, the 562d and 563d, also received the award for their duty in Vietnam during 1965, but with the combat V added. For its participation in Linebacker I and Linebacker II during 1972 the 561st received the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat V, during combat operations in Southeast Asia, the 562 TFS lost three aircraft, while the 563 TFS lost eleven aircraft. On 1 July 1972 the 23 TFW was transferred to England AFB Louisiana, the 23d Tactical Fighter Wing moved on paper without people or equipment to England Air Force Base, Louisiana,1 July 1972 and took over the assets and personnel of the 4403d Tactical Fighter Wing. All 23 TFW aircraft carried the EL tail code at England AFB, on 5 July 1973, the 74 TFS deployed to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, on temporary duty with the 354 TFW from Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina
28.
Moody Air Force Base
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Moody Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation located in Lowndes and Lanier counties, approximately 9 miles northeast of Valdosta, Georgia, United States. The host unit, the 23d Wing, carries out worldwide close air support, force protection, Major Moody earned his military wings in 1930 and flew U. S. airmail as a member of the United States Army Air Corps in 1934. He was killed on 5 May 1941 while flight-testing a Beechcraft AT-10 Wichita advanced two-engine training aircraft at Wichita Army Airfield, the AT-10 was later used extensively at Moody AAF during World War II. Also located at the base is Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide, Moody Campus, the base had its beginning in 1940 when a group of concerned Valdosta and Lowndes County citizens began searching for a way to assist the expanding defense program. A committee was formed to obtain a military airfield for their community, in October 1940, the committee sent a letter to Maxwell AAF inviting the Air Corps to consider the Valdosta area. When engineers arrived, they rejected the existing Valdosta Municipal Airport because of excessive grading costs, the Air Corps found an acceptable site 11.5 miles NNE of Valdosta near the small settlement of Bemis. The site was located on the Lakeland Flatwoods Project, a 9,300 acres tract of sub-marginal land, the United States Department of Agriculture, which owned the land, was experimenting at that time with forest grazing at the project. The Air Corps approved to locate the base on the tract in March 1941, two months later, on 14 May, the Department of Agriculture transferred ownership of the property to the War Department. Construction got underway on 28 July 1941 for an advanced training base with accommodations for 4,100 men. The $3.4 million projects 160 buildings included 72 barracks and 16 supply rooms, also provided in the original contract were four 5, 000-foot runways, two asphalt and two concrete, plus a spur of the Georgia and Florida Railroad. Moody Army Airfield was activated on 26 June 1941, advanced Twin Engine training was designed to train cadets to fly transports and bombers. One of the problems encountered with the switchover from single-engine to two-engine training was the instructors lack of experience with twin-engined aircraft. In September 1944, Moody began replacing the AT-10 with the TB-25 Mitchell, as a result of the demands of training with the B-25 and a lessened need for pilots, the Army extended the flight syllabus by an additional five weeks on 16 October 1944. The extended program added 30 additional flight hours and five hours in the Link Trainer. Meanwhile, a Bombardier Navigator Replacement Pool had been established on 24 July 1943, the Army also built four additional runways at Moody during 1943 for a total of eight. In November 1943,490 German POWs arrived at the base from Camp Blanding, due to reduced demands for new pilots during the early months of 1945, The Army Air Force announced that Moody would be transferred to the First Air Force on 30 April 1945. Under First Air Force, Moody trained replacement combat pilots as a Combat Crew Training Station for the Douglas A-26 Invader light bomber, following the end of the war, activity at Moody diminished to the point that 24 of the 93 A-26s had to be placed in flyable storage. The airfield was transferred back to Army Air Forces Training Command on 1 November 1945 after World War II ended, in August 1946, the AAF inactivated Moody placing it on standby status
29.
943d Rescue Group
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The 943d Rescue Group is a reserve component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to Tenth Air Force under the Air Force Reserve Command and is based in Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, when mobilized, Air Combat Command directs group assets into theater to support wartime tasking and other operations, like humanitarian relief. The group and its squadrons are assigned to the 920th Rescue Wing based at Patrick Air Force Base. The group is equipped with six Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base to support worldwide combat rescue operations, upon mobilization, the 943d would come under the control of the Air Combat Command. After May 1959, the reserve flying force consisted of 45 troop carrier squadrons assigned to 15 troop carrier wings. The squadrons were not all located with their parent wings, but were spread over thirty-five Air Force, Navy, communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. However, under this concept, all organizations were located with the wing headquarters. Although this was not a problem when the wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron. This weakness was demonstrated in the mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. To resolve this, at the start of 1962, Continental Air Command and this reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed. Along with group headquarters, a Combat Support Squadron, Materiel Squadron, the group was equipped with Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars for Tactical Air Command airlift operations. The group was one of four C-119 groups assigned to the 452d Troop Carrier Wing in 1963, the others were the 942d and 944th Troop Carrier Groups, also at March, and the 945th Troop Carrier Group at Hill Air Force Base, Utah. The group flew routine tactical airlift missions in the western states and it then was moved east to Charleston Air Force Base, South Carolina, where it was updated to the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter heavy intercontinental transport. Inactivated in 1973 as part of an Air Force Reserve reorganization, reactivated at March Air Force Base in 1985 with Lockheed C-130 Hercules transports. Inactivated in 1993 when the 302d Tactical Airlift Wing was moved to Norton Air Force Base, the 943d Rescue Group was reactivated in the Air Force Reserve on 12 February 2005 at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. afhra. af. mil/. Citizen Airmen, a History of the Air Force Reserve, 1946-1994, Air Force History and Museums Program. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Air Force Bases, Vol. I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
30.
920th Rescue Wing
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The 920th Rescue Wing is part of the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. The wing is assigned to the Tenth Air Force of the Air Force Reserve Command, if mobilized to active duty with the Regular Air Force, the 920 RQW is operationally gained by the Air Combat Command. Headquartered at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, the 920th Rescue Wing is the Air Force Reserve Commands premier combat search, the wing consists of over 1,500 Airmen, trained and equipped to locate and recover U. S. Armed Forces personnel during both peacetime and wartime military operations, while many CROs and PJs enter the 920 RQW from the active duty Air Force, others are accessed directly into the Air Force Reserve. CRO and PJ Candidates must pass a physical assessment test which has about 15% success rate, an average of eighty people Air Force-wide enter the 2-year training program each year. Communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings, continental Air Command s plan called for placing Air Force Reserve units at fifty-nine installations located throughout the United States. Although this dispersal was not a problem when the wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron. This reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed, however, as this plan was entering its implementation phase, another partial mobilization occurred for the Cuban missile crisis, with the units being released on 22 November 1962. The formation of troop carrier groups occurred in January 1963 for units that had not been mobilized, along with group headquarters, a Combat Support Squadron, Materiel Squadron and a Tactical Infirmary were organized to support the 702d. The group was equipped with Fairchild C-123 Providers for Tactical Air Command airlift operations, the group continued training with Providers at Memphis until it was inactivated in 1965. In January 1993, the 301st Rescue Squadron moved from its base at Homestead Air Force Base. In one day in March 1993, the group saved 93 elderly residents from rising waters at their Tampa area retirement community. The 920th routinely searches the Caribbean for downed aircraft and retrieves critically ill sailors from ships hundreds of miles out in the Atlantic. In 2005, the wings HC-130 and HH-60 flight crews recorded more than 1,000 lives saved during disaster operations along the Louisiana/Mississippi/Alabama Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. The wings flight crews fly in weather conditions which often test man, Coast Guards HH-60J and MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters. In 2004, the wings Regular Air Force associated command was reassigned from Air Combat Command to Air Force Special Operations Command. Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. 920 RQW Home Page Official 920 RQW Facebook Page Official 920 RQW Twitter Feed
31.
Patrick Air Force Base
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Patrick Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation located between Satellite Beach and Cocoa Beach, in Brevard County, Florida, in the United States. It was named in honor of Major General Mason Patrick, USAAC, an Air Force Space Command base, it is home to the 45th Space Wing. In addition to its host wing responsibilities at Patrick AFB, the 45 SW controls and operates Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and it was originally opened and operated from 1940-1947 as Naval Air Station Banana River, a U. S. Navy airfield. It was then deactivated as an installation in 1947 and placed in caretaker status until it was transferred to the Air Force in late 1948. Additional tenant activities at Patrick AFB include the 920th Rescue Wing, the Air Force Technical Applications Center, there are 13,099 military, dependents, civilian employees and contractors on base. The base is a place and had a resident population of 1,222 at the 2010 census. The host wing for Patrick AFB is the 45th Space Wing, whose officers, previously an activity of the Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency, AFTAC is now a subordinate unit of 25th Air Force and the Air Combat Command. AFTAC is the sole Department of Defense agency operating and maintaining a network of nuclear event detection sensors. The 920th Rescue Wing, part of Air Force Reserve Command, is another tenant command headquartered at Patrick AFB and is the only military flying unit. The 920 RQW is a participant in the Air Forces Air. Under this concept, the bulk of the deployed to Iraq in 2003 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Subsequent AETF deployments have included Djibouti and Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, the U. S. State Departments Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Air Wing helps foreign countries combat drugs and narcotics criminals. The Navy bought 1,900 acres of land south of Cocoa Beach. With the advent of war with Japan and Germany in December 1941, PBMs returned to training duty in March 1942 when replaced on patrol by OS2U Kingfisher seaplanes. Landing strips were constructed in 1943, thereby allowing for concurrent operation of shore based aircraft, Officers of the Free French Naval Air Service also trained in PBMs at NAS Banana River at this time. NAS Banana River hosted and an aircraft repair and maintenance facility. Later in the war, a detachment of German POWs from Camp Blanding worked at NAS Banana River on cleanup details. At its peak, the base complement included 278 aircraft,587 civilian employees, when the flight failed to return to home station, a search and rescue operation was undertaken by multiple air and naval units
32.
Alkali soil
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Alkali, or alkaline, soils are clay soils with high pH, a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the presence of sodium carbonate. They derive their name from the metal group of elements, to which sodium belongs. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as sodic soils, alkaline soils are basic, but not all basic soils are alkaline. The causes of soil alkalinity can be natural or man-made, The natural cause is the presence of soil minerals producing sodium carbonate, coal-fired boilers / power plants, when using coal or lignite rich in limestone, produce ash containing calcium oxide. CaO readily dissolves in water to form slaked lime–Ca2–and carried by water to rivers / irrigation water. Lime softening process precipitates Ca and Mg ions / removes hardness in the water, Sodium carbonates further reacts with the remaining Ca and Mg in the water to remove / precipitate the total hardness. Also water-soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the content in water. The global coal consumption is 7700 million tons in the year 2011, thus river water is made devoid of Ca and Mg ions and enhanced Na by coal-fired boilers. Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium sulphate, Sodium hydroxide, Sodium hypochlorite and these salts are mainly produced from Sodium chloride. All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity, the total global consumption of sodium chloride is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the load in the mighty Amazon River. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total load of all the rivers. Huge capacity cooling towers are installed in oil refineries, petrochemical complexes, fertilizer plants, chemical plants, nuclear & thermal power stations, centralized HVAC systems, the drift / fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which would deposit on the vicinity areas. The man-made cause is the application of softened water in irrigation containing relatively high proportion of sodium bicarbonates, alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production. Due to the low capacity, rain water stagnates on the soil easily and, in dry periods, cultivation is hardly possible without copious irrigated water. Agriculture is limited to crops tolerant to surface waterlogging and the productivity is low, notes, Water is partly dissociated into H3O+ and OH– ions
33.
355th Operations Group
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The 355th Operations Group is a United States Air Force unit, assigned to the 355th Wing. It is stationed at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, the 355th Operations Group consists of six squadrons and over 450 personnel employing 75 A/OA-10 aircraft and an AN/TPS-75 radar system. It provides war-fighters with forces for close air support, air interdiction, forward air control, combat search and rescue, ground based tactical air control and it also conducts all formal course directed aircraft initial qualification/requalification training. 357th Fighter Squadron Trains pilots in the A-10 and OA-10 Thunderbolt II, the squadron trains pilots to plan, coordinate, execute, and control day and night close air support, air interdiction and battlefield surveillance and reconnaissance. The squadron prepares pilots for combat mission ready upgrade, 358th Fighter Squadron Trains pilots in the A-10 and OA-10 Thunderbolt II. The squadron trains pilots to plan, coordinate, execute, and control day and night close air support, air interdiction, the squadron prepares pilots for combat mission ready upgrade. This squadron was inactivated in February 2014 and it provided war-fighters with forces for close air support, air interdiction, forward air control, ground based tactical air control, and airbase operations. From 1992-2002, the trained and provided electronic combat capabilities and airborne command. For a brief period from Mar-Oct 2003 until the squadrons realigned under the 563d Rescue Group, it maintained a combat search and it also conducted all formal course directed aircraft initial qualification/requalification training for the A-10. In Oct 2003 and again in Nov 2005, the group deployed A-10s in support of operations in Afghanistan. Established as 355th Operations Group, and activated, on 1 May 1992. afhra. af. mil/
34.
AN/TPS-75
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The AN/TPS-75 is a transportable 3-dimensional passive electronically scanned array air search radar produced in the United States. It was originally designated the TPS-43E2, although the antenna is a radically new design from the TPS-43, the radar van itself, which houses the transmitter, receiver processors, and displays is very similar to the older TPS-43E2. It is produced in the United States originally by Westinghouse Defense and Electronic Division, the AN/TPS-75 is the primary transportable Aerospace Control And Warning radar used by the United States Air Force. The TPS-75 is capable of transmitting 5-Megawatts of power and this radar was developed as an upgrade of the AN/TPS-43, which entered US service in 1970, it incorporates new electronics and a new Ultra Low Side Lobe Antenna. About 67 TPS-43 radars were upgraded to TPS-75 standard starting in FY88, the entire system can be broken down and packed onto two M939 trucks for road transport and mobile air transport by planes such as the C-130 Hercules or bigger. The entire radar system can be torn down and ready for transport in just a few hours and this varies greatly with amount of personnel, their level of training, and method of transport. A typical convoy package would consist of one 5-ton truck pulling the radar van with the antenna in the bed of the truck. The support truck would hold some spare parts, fuel tank, camouflage netting, the heat exchanger and -18 environmental control unit are normally loaded into and transported within the radar van. There are many add-ons for the TPS-75, one of which allows the AN/TPS-75 to be tilted back to see into the atmosphere assisting in detection of long range ballistic missiles
35.
Close air support
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The requirement for detailed integration because of proximity, fires or movement is the determining factor. CAS may need to be conducted during shaping operations with Special Operations Forces, if the mission requires detailed integration with the fire, the term battlefield air interdiction is not currently used in U. S. joint doctrine. Close air support requires excellent coordination with ground forces, in advanced modern militaries, this coordination is typically handled by specialists such as Joint Fires Observers s, Joint Terminal Attack Controllers s, and Forward Air Controllers s. The use of aircraft in the air support of ground forces dates back to World War I. By that point, the startling and demoralizing effect that attack from the air could have on the troops in the trenches had been made clear, at the Battle of the Somme,18 British armed reconnaissance planes strafed the enemy trenches after conducting surveillance operations. The success of this improvised assault spurred innovation on both sides, in 1917, following the Second Battle of the Aisne the British debuted the first ground-attack aircraft, a modified F. E 2b fighter carrying 20-lb bombs and mounted machine-guns. After exhausting their ammunition the planes returned to base for refuelling and rearming, other modified planes used in this role were the Airco DH.5 and Sopwith Camel—the latter was particularly successful in this role. Aircraft support was first integrated into a plan on a large scale at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai. British doctrine at the time came to two forms of air support, trench strafing, and ground strafing —attacking tactical ground targets away from the land battle. As well as strafing with machine-guns, the planes were modified with bomb racks, the Germans were also quick to adopt this new form of warfare and were able to deploy aircraft in a similar capacity at Cambrai. While the British used single-seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier two-seaters with a machine gunner in the aft cockpit. The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover CL. II and built the first purpose built ground attack aircraft, during the 1918 Spring Offensive the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta, of ground attack fighters and were able to achieve some initial tactical success. The British later deployed the Sopwith Salamander as a ground attack aircraft. It was during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of 1918 that Close Air Support was first proven to be an important factor in ultimate victory, combined with a ground assault led by General Edmund Allenby, three Turkish armies soon collapsed into a full rout. In the words of the squadrons official report, No 1 Squadron made six heavy raids during the day. The panic and slaughter beggared description, the close air support doctrine was further developed in the interwar period. Most theorists advocated the adaptation of fighters or light bombers into the role, during this period, airpower advocates crystallized their views on the role of air-power in warfare. Aviators and ground officers developed largely opposing views on the importance of CAS, the inter-war period saw the use of CAS in a number of conflicts, including the Russo-Polish War, the Spanish Civil War, colonial wars in the Middle East and the Gran Chaco War
36.
Artificial intelligence
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Artificial intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. Colloquially, the artificial intelligence is applied when a machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning. As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition, for instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a routine technology. AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of a tool or towards satisfying particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, general intelligence is among the fields long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI, Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, the field was founded on the claim that human intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly, while thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity, the idea of actually trying to build a machine to perform useful reasoning may have begun with Ramon Llull. With his Calculus ratiocinator, Gottfried Leibniz extended the concept of the calculating machine, since the 19th century, artificial beings are common in fiction, as in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein or Karel Čapeks R. U. R. The study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity, in the 19th century, George Boole refined those ideas into propositional logic and Gottlob Frege developed a notational system for mechanical reasoning. Around the 1940s, Alan Turings theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 and this insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church–Turing thesis. Along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, the first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts 1943 formal design for Turing-complete artificial neurons. The field of AI research was born at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956, attendees Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Arthur Samuel became the founders and leaders of AI research. At the conference, Newell and Simon, together with programmer J. C, shaw, presented the first true artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist. This spurred tremendous research in the domain, computers were winning at checkers, solving problems in algebra, proving logical theorems. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U. S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AIs founders were optimistic about the future, Herbert Simon predicted, machines will be capable, within twenty years, Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. The problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved and they failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks
37.
Forward air control
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Forward air control is the provision of guidance to close air support aircraft intended to ensure that their attack hits the intended target and does not injure friendly troops. This task is carried out by an air controller. A primary forward air control function is ensuring the safety of troops during close air support. Enemy targets in the front line are often close to friendly forces, the danger is twofold, the bombing pilot cannot identify the target clearly, and is not aware of the locations of friendly forces. Camouflage, a changing situation and the fog of war all increase the risk. Present day doctrine holds that Forward Air Controllers are not needed for air interdiction, a secondary concern of forward air controllers is the avoidance of harm to noncombatants in the strike area. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the troops, they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, another method of communication was for the pilot to drop messages in a weighted container, and to swoop in and pick up messages hung out by ground troops on a clothesline between poles. The objective was aerial reconnaissance and air attack, using these various methods, the Marine pilots combined the functions of both FAC and strike aircraft, as they carried out their own air attacks on the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1927. The commonality of pilots and ground troops belonging to the service led to a close air support role similar to that sought by use of FACs. On 27 October 1927, a Marine patrol used cloth panels to direct an air strike—arguably the first forward air control mission and this distinctive U. S. Marine doctrine of interaction between Marine infantry and aviation would persist, recurring in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. French colonial operations in the Rif War from 1920–1926 used air power similarly to the Marines in Nicaragua against the Sandinistas but in a different environment, the desert. The French Mobile Groups of combined arms not only used aircraft for scouting and air attack and these aerial observers called in artillery fire via radio. The German military noted close air support operations in the Spanish Civil War, by 1939, they had forward air control teams called Ground Attack Teams attached to every headquarters from regiment level upwards. These Teams directed air strikes flown by Luftwaffe close air support units, extensive coordinated training by air and ground troops had raised this system to state of the art by the beginning of World War II. The Air Ground Control Parties functions were to regulate bombing and artillery in close conjunction with the ground troops and they were thus the first of similar units to try to fulfill the functions of the FAC without being airborne. However, these units were plagued by turf wars and cumbersome communications between the respective armies and air forces involved. As a result, it could take hours for an air strike requested by ground troops to show up
38.
Combat search and rescue
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Combat search and rescue are search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones. A CSAR mission may be carried out by a force of helicopters, ground-attack aircraft, aerial refueling tankers. The USAF HC-130, which was introduced in 1965, has served in the two roles. The First World War was the background for the development of combat search and rescue doctrine, especially in the more fluid theaters of war in the Balkans. When trench warfare made this impossible the cars were transferred to other theatres, in 1915, during the First World War, Squadron Commander Richard Bell-Davies of the British Royal Naval Air Service performed the first combat search and rescue by aircraft in history. He used his single-seat aeroplane to rescue his wingman who had shot down in Bulgaria. Like the search and rescue efforts of the future, Davies action sprang from the fervent desire to keep a compatriot from capture or death at the hands of the enemy. It was during the Mesopotamian campaign that British and Commonwealth forces began to use similar tactics on a larger scale, shot down aviators in hostile Bedouin territory were often located by search parties in the air and rescued. During World War II, the Luftwaffe operated armed camouflaged air-sea rescue aircraft, during the Vietnam War the costly rescue of Bat 21 led the US military to find a new approach to high-threat search and rescue. As a result of the Vietnam CSAR experience, the US military also improved the capability of helicopters. During the Vietnam War, U. S. SAR forces saved 3,883 lives at the cost of 71 rescuers and 45 aircraft, on 21 April 1917, Captain Richard Williams of the Australian Flying Corps landed behind enemy lines to rescue a downed comrade. He eluded capture by North Vietnamese forces until his rescue 11½ days later, during the rescue operation, five US military aircraft supporting the CSAR effort were shot down, eleven US servicemen were killed and two men were captured. The rescue operation was the largest, longest, and most complex search-and-rescue operation during the entire Vietnam War and it has been the subject of two books and the largely fictionalized film Bat*21. The United States Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron was involved in the 1993 Battle of Mogadishu, timothy Wilkinson, a Pararescueman, was awarded the Air Force Cross for his heroic actions during the battle. During the opening moments of Operation Desert Storm, an MH-53 Pave Low crew from the 20th Special Operations Squadron recovered an F-14 Tomcat pilot who was shot down over Iraq. On June 2,1995, a USAF F-16C was shot down by a Bosnian Serb Army SA-6 surface-to-air missile near Mrkonjić Grad, Bosnia, the American pilot, Scott OGrady, ejected safely and was rescued six days later. The operation became known as the Mrkonjić Grad incident, in 1999, members of the United States Air Force Pararescue unit successfully rescued the pilot of an F-117 stealth attack aircraft who was shot down over Yugoslavia while on a NATO-led mission. The pilot was retrieved 6 hours after the incident, joint Personnel Recovery Agency Non-combatant evacuation operation United States Air Force Pararescue Leave No Man Behind, The Saga of Combat Search and Rescue
39.
354th Fighter Squadron
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The 354th Fighter Squadron is part of the 355th Fighter Wing at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. It operates A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft conducting close air support missions, the squadron conducts Close Air Support, Air Interdiction, Forward Air Control – Airborne, and Combat Search and Rescue for theater commanders worldwide. It conducted combat training from, 1971–1982 and forward air control training since 1991. In February 2015, the squadron was deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, twelve A-10s and approximately 300 airmen were deployed. The unit will train alongside NATO allies and deploy to locations in Eastern European NATO nations to further enhance interoperability, cornett, Lloyd H, Johnson, Mildred W. A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization,1946 -1980, peterson AFB, CO, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
40.
357th Fighter Squadron
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The 357th Fighter Squadron is part of the 355th Fighter Wing at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. It operates Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft training pilots for air support missions. The squadron was first activated during World War II as a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fighter squadron, after training in the United States the unit deployed to the European Theater of Operations. The unit entered combat operations in the summer of 1943, continuing in combat until April 1945 and it earned a Distinguished Unit Citation for carrying out a difficult attack in April 1944. The squadron moved to Germany, where it was part of the occupation forces before returning to the United States where it was inactivated in November 1945. The 357th conducts all formal course directed aircraft transition, day and night weapons and tactics employment, day and night air refueling, the squadron trains pilots to plan, coordinate, execute, and control day and night close air support, air interdiction and battlefield surveillance and reconnaissance. The 355th Fighter Squadron was first activated in late 1942 at Orlando Army Air Base, the unit also performed air defense in the Philadelphia area in mid-1943. The 357th deployed to the European Theater of Operations, where it became part of the 65th Fighter Wing of VIII Fighter Command, later the squadron served primarily as an escort for Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses and Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bombers of VIII Bomber Command during missions into Germany. It provided fighter cover for Allied forces landing in Normandy on 6 June 1944, the unit hit fuel dumps, locomotives, and other targets in support of ground forces during the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July. The squadron remained in combat until 25 April 1945 and it moved to Occupied Germany as part of the United States Air Forces in Europe for occupation duty at AAF Station Gablingen, Germany, later moving to AAF Station Schweinfurt. The squadron transferred, without personnel and equipment, to Mitchel Field New York on 1 August 1946 and it was inactivated on 20 November at Mitchel. The squadron was reactivated as the 357th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron under Air Defense Command ADC at Portland International Airport, the squadron took over the personnel, mission and F-86F Sabres of the federalized 123d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron of the Oregon Air National Guard which was returned to state control. A little more than three months later, ADC formed Air Defense Groups at its dispersed fighter bases and the became the operational element of the new 503d Air Defense Group. Th unit received new Mighty Mouse rocket armed and airborne intercept radar equipped F-86D Sabre interceptors in early 1955, the unit remained in North Africa until 1960 when it was inactivated as SAC withdrew from its Morocco bases. After a period of organization at George, the moved to McConnell Air Force Base. The squadron remained in Thailand engaged in operations over Indochina until 1970. Its combat actions earned it a Presidential Unit Citation and three Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards with Combat V and it was inactivated at Takhli on 10 December 1970 as part of the drawdown of US Forces in Southeast Asia in the early 1970s. It achieved operationally-ready status in 1972, in late 1972, the unit deployed its Corsairs to Korat RTAFB and was attached to the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing, which had deployed to Korat from Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina
41.
358th Fighter Squadron
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The 358th Fighter Squadron is part of the 495th Fighter Group at Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri. The squadron was reactivated there in 2015, the squadron was activated on 12 November 1942 as a Republic P-47D Thunderbolt Fighter Squadron of the 355th Fighter Group. While in training, it served in an air defense role over large cities, the squadron deployed to the European Theater of Operations in July 1943, where it became part of VIII Fighter Command in England. The squadrons primary mission was to escort Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bombers to and on the flights over Occupied Europe. It engaged in air battles on an almost daily basis with Luftwaffe day interceptor aircraft while escorting the heavy bombers. On 20 December the squadron became the 56th Reconnaissance Squadron, Weather Scouting, in April 1946 the squadron returned to the United States and inactivated on 20 November. The squadron was reactivated in 1951 as the 56th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron in Japan during the Korean War and it replaced the 512th Reconnaissance Squadron, assuming its personnel and aircraft. The squadron flew Boeing WB-29 Superfortress weather reconnaissance aircraft over North Korea in highly hazardous, the squadron operated the Boeing WB-50 Superfortress in 1956, continuing operations from Japan, and later Guam with the RB-50s until 1962. Part of their duties involved high-altitude atmospheric sampling and radiation detection work in support of nuclear test monitoring, over the next decade the RB-57Fs were flown on a worldwide basis at very high altitudes at high speeds. Stress cracks began appearing in the spars and ribs of the RB-57Fs after a few years of service. Some were sent to General Dynamics for repairs, by 1971 the aircraft were basically worn out and they were flown to Davis-Monthan for storage. The squadron was inactivated in early 1972. The squadron returned to the United States and was re-united with its World War II parent organization, the squadron was given the name the Lobos, after Col. Ryans German shepherd, and re-equipped with new LTV A-7D Corsair II ground attack aircraft. After training and becoming operationally ready, the squadron was deployed to Thailand after the end of United States combat in Indochina and its mission was the defense of Thai airspace, and to intervene in Indochina if the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Treaty were broken. The squadron remained in Thailand until early 1974 when it returned to the United States, the squadron engaged in TAC training, exercises and deployments, being upgraded to the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft in 1979. The 358th FS was inactivated in a ceremony held at Davis-Monthan AFB on Friday,21 February 2014 as part of the USAFs Total Force Integration policy, the squadron was reactivated on 18 October 2015 as part of the 495th Fighter Group at Whiteman Air Force Base. The squadron is attached to the 442nd Fighter Wing, lieutenant Colonel Jeremiah Parvin took command of the squadron on 21 June 2016. afhra. af. mil/. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
42.
McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base
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McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base is a joint military facility located at McGhee Tyson Airport. It is located approximately 10 miles south of the business district of Knoxville, near Alcoa, Blount County, Tennessee. It was the site of McGhee Tyson Air Force Base from 1952 until 1960, McGhee Tyson ANGB is the home of the 134th Air Refueling Wing of the Tennessee Air National Guard, an Air Mobility Command gained unit which functions as the host wing for the installation. Other tenants of the include the 119th Command and Control Squadron the I. G. The announcement that the United States Air Force would build an air base at McGhee-Tyson Airport was made on January 26,1951, initial construction was estimated at $5.5 million. The military facilities built on the northwest side of the airfield have remained separate from the civilian airport, the base officially opened on August 9,1952 as McGhee Tyson Air Force Base, but air defense alert operations began there much sooner. The federalized Tennessee Air National Guard Detachment 1, 105th Fighter Interceptor Squadron was assigned to the base while on duty during the Korean War. Assigned to Air Defense Command and flying F-47D Thunderbolts, the 105th FIS was headquartered at Berry Field in Nashville, with it were the 516th Air Base Squadron, 516th Materiel Squadron, and the 516th Infirmary. Between 1200 and 1400 airmen, with a then-$1.5 million annual payroll, were assigned to the base, in 1953, the 460th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron became a second F-86D squadron at the base. The 460th was reassigned to Portland Airport, Oregon in 1955, the 516th Air Defense Group was redesignated as the 355th Fighter Group on 18 August 1955. The 354 FIS was activated with F-86Ds to become the second FIS, on August 29,1957 the Air Force announced that the base, by then worth $7.75 million in then-current dollars, would close. About 4,000 active duty Air Force personnel left the area, regular Air Force operations at McGhee Tyson Airport ended on January 8,1958 and the 354 FIS was inactivated on that date. The 355 FIS remained until 1 July 1960 when it was inactivated along with the F-86 interceptor squadrons, the 134 ARW, which is operationally gained by the Air Mobility Command, operates KC-135R Stratotankers for both air mobility and aerial refueling of military aircraft. McGhee Tyson ANGB is also home to the I. G, brown Air National Guard Training and Education Center and its associated Academy of Military Science. The AMS program was merged into the Officer Training School organization at Maxwell AFB, Aerospace Defense Command Fighter Squadrons This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II, washington, DC, U. S. Government Printing Office 1961. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946 -1980, by Lloyd H. Cornett and Mildred W. Johnson, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Winkler, David F
43.
924th Fighter Group
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The 924th Fighter Group is a group of the United States Air Force Reserve. On 1 October 2012, the 924 FG was reassigned to the 944th Fighter Wing at Luke Air Force Base, the 924th flies the A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft and is gained by Air Combat Command when mobilized. After May 1959, the reserve flying force consisted of 45 troop carrier squadrons assigned to 15 troop carrier wings. The squadrons were not all located with their parent wings, but were spread over thirty-five Air Force, Navy, communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. However, under this concept, all organizations were located with the wing headquarters. Although this was not a problem when the wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron. This weakness was demonstrated in the mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. To resolve this, at the start of 1962, Continental Air Command and this reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed. Along with group headquarters, a Combat Support Squadron, Materiel Squadron, the 924th retired their C-119 Flying Boxcars in 1967, upgrading to the newer Lockheed C-130A Hercules. The 924th ferried C-130s to Taiwan in 1966 and to Southeast Asia from 1968-1970, at Bergstrom, the unit became the first Air Force Reserve unit assigned, and was upgraded to the newer C-130B. In 1981, the 924th was transferred back to TAC and realigned as the 924th Tactical Fighter Group, with the mission change, the 924th was reassigned to the Air Force Reserves 301st Tactical Fighter Wing at Carswell Air Force Base, while the 924th remained at Bergstrom. The 924th trained with the F-4D throughout the 1980s, being upgraded to the F-4E in 1989, the 924th was the last USAF F-4E Phantom II organization in Air Force Reserve service. Most of the 924ths F-16s were reassigned to the California Air National Guards 144th Fighter Wing, in 2011, the unit was reactivated as the 924th Fighter Group at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. As part of the Air Force Reserve Command, the 924th was assigned to the 442d Fighter Wing at Whiteman Air Force Base, the 924th currently flies the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II close air support aircraft. afhra. af. mil/. Citizen Airmen, a History of the Air Force Reserve, 1946-1994, Air Force History and Museums Program. Maurer, Maurer, ed. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Air Force Bases, Vol. I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History
44.
944th Fighter Wing
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The 944th Fighter Wing is an Air Reserve component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to Tenth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at Luke Air Force Base, the 944th is an associate unit of the 56th Fighter Wing of Air Education and Training Command and if mobilized the wing is gained by AETC. The mission of the 944th Fighter Wing is to train and provide combat ready airmen, additionally, approximately 100 reservists were mobilized in direct support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Noble Eagle. The unit reports to headquarters, Tenth Air Force at Naval Air Station Fort Worth Joint Reserve Base Carswell, within the active Air Force, the wing was previously gained by the former Tactical Air Command and its successor, the Air Combat Command. It is currently gained by Air Education and Training Command, the unit has an authorized strength of 1,050 personnel. Roughly one-quarter of assigned personnel are full-time Air Reserve Technicians who provide continuity between weekend training periods, the annual payroll comes to almost $22 million. The value of unit resources, weapon systems, capital assets, the unit maintains facilities housing over 207,300 square feet. The squadrons were not all located with their parent wings, but were spread over thirty-five Air Force, Navy, communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. However, under this concept, all organizations were located with the wing headquarters. Although this was not a problem when the wing was called to active service, mobilizing a single flying squadron. This weakness was demonstrated in the mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. To resolve this, at the start of 1962, Continental Air Command and this reorganization would facilitate mobilization of elements of wings in various combinations when needed. Along with group headquarters, a Combat Support Squadron, Materiel Squadron, the group was equipped with Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars for Tactical Air Command airlift operations. The group was one of four C-119 groups assigned to the 452d Troop Carrier Wing in 1963, the others were the 942d and 943d Troop Carrier Groups, also at March, and the 945th Troop Carrier Group at Hill Air Force Base, Utah. The group flew routine tactical airlift missions in the western states, the 944th Fighter Wing is one of more than 50 flying units in the U. S. Air Force Reserve. The unit was activated at Luke on 1 July 1987, the wing flies the General Dynamics F-16C Fighting Falcon and F-16DD. The unit is funded and manned for fifteen F-16 aircraft. The 944th was the first Air Force Reserve fighter unit to fly missions with the coalition task force over Northern Iraq in support of Provide Comfort II in 1992-1993
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