1.
History of the Ottoman Empire
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The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I. As sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453, the state grew into a mighty empire, the empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat by the ] in World War I. The empire was dismantled by the Allies after the war ended in 1918, with the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities, one of the beyliks was led by Osman I, from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the known as Osmans Dream. According to his dream the tree, which was Osmans Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile, additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Atlas and the Balkan ranges. During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire, in this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean, Osmans son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia, the important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective, the Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, the capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a war that lasted from 1402 to 1413. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army to attack the Turks, the son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the Adriatic Sea, such as in Albania Veneta, during this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military, and on the sea, the state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia
2.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
3.
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in c. 1299, and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29,1453. For this reason, this period in the history has been described as the Proto-Imperial Era. Throughout most of period, the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region. The cause of Ottoman success cannot be attributed to any single factor, the earlier part of this period, the fourteenth century, is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources. Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I, the Ottomans, furthermore, did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century, more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe. At the beginning of the thirteenth century Anatolia was divided between two powerful states, the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Anatolian Seljuks in the central plateau. Mongol pressure pushed nomadic Turkish tribes to migrate westward, into the now poorly-defended Byzantine territory, the power of these groups was largely dependent upon their ability to attract military manpower. Western Anatolia was then a hotbed of raiding activity, with warriors switching allegiance at will to whichever chief seemed most able to provide them opportunities for plunder. The Ottoman dynasty is named after the first independent ruler of the Ottoman polity, according to later Ottoman tradition, he was descended from a Turkic tribe which migrated out of Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol Conquests. As evidenced by coins minted during his reign, Osmans father was named Ertuğrul, the origins of the Ottoman dynasty thus remain obscure, shrouded in myth and legend, and the identity of Osmans tribe and ancestors is not known for certain. Likewise, nothing is known about how Osman first established his principality as the sources, none of contemporary, provide many different. Osmans principality was initially supported by the manpower of nomadic Turkish groups. This Ottoman tribe was based not on blood-ties, but on political expedience, thus it was inclusive of all who wished to join, including people of Byzantine origin. The Ottoman enterprise came to be led by several great families, at least one of which was of Greek Christian origin. Nevertheless, Islam played a role in Ottoman self-identity from the start, as evidenced by a land grant issued by Osmans son Orhan in 1324. Such a war was known as gaza, and a fighting in it was called a gazi. Beginning in the 1980s, historians began to criticize Witteks thesis. Scholars now recognize that the terms gaza and gazi did not have religious connotations for the early Ottomans
4.
Ottoman Interregnum
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The Interregnum lasted for 11 years until the Battle of Çamurlu on 5 July 1413, when Mehmed Çelebi emerged as victor in the strife, crowned himself sultan Mehmed I, and restored the empire. Civil war broke out among the sons of Sultan Bayezid I upon his death in 1403 and his oldest son, Süleyman, with his capital at Edirne, ruled northern Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Thrace. The second son, İsa Çelebi, established himself as an independent ruler at Bursa, War broke out between Mehmed and İsa, and following the battles of Ermeni-beli and Ulubad, Isa fled to Constantinople and Mehmed occupied Bursa. The subsequent battle at Karasi between Mehmed and Isa resulted in a victory for Mehmed and Isa fleeing to Karaman, Isa was later killed in a bath by agents of Mehmed. Following Isas death, Süleyman crossed the straits with a large army and he invaded Anatolia, capturing Bursa and Ankara later that year. During the stalemate in Anatolia, which lasted from 1405-1410, Mehmed sent Musa across the Black Sea to Thrace with a force to attack Suleymans territories in south-eastern Europe. This maneuver soon recalled Suleyman to Thrace, where a short, at first Suleyman had the advantage, winning the battle of Kosmidion in 1410, but in 1411 his army defected to Mûsa at Edirne and Suleyman was executed on the orders of Musa. Mûsa was now the ruler of the Ottoman dominions in Thrace, manuel II Palaiologos, the Byzantine emperor, had been the ally of Suleyman, Mûsa therefore besieged Constantinople. Manuel called on Mehmed to protect him, and Mehmeds Ottomans now garrisoned Constantinople against Musas Ottomans of Thrace, Mehmed made several unsuccessful sallies against his brothers troops, and was obliged to re-cross the Bosporus to quell a revolt that had broken out in his own territories. Mûsa now pressed the siege of Constantinople, Mehmed returned to Thrace, and obtained the assistance of Stefan Lazarevic, the Serbian Despot. The armies of the rival Ottoman brothers met on the plain of Chamurli, Hassan, the Agha of the Janissaries of Mehmed, stepped out before the ranks and tried to get the troops to change sides. Mûsa rushed towards Hassan and killed him, but was wounded by an officer who had accompanied Hassan. Mûsas Ottomans fought well, but the battle was won by Mehmed, Mûsa fled, was later captured and strangled. With Mûsa dead, Mehmed was the surviving son of the late Sultan Bayezid I. The Interregnum was a example of the fratricide that would become common in Ottoman successions. During the Interregnum, only Mehmed Celebi minted coins titling himself Sultan and his brother Suleymans coins called himself, Emir Suleyman b. Bayezid, while Musas coins stated, Musa b, no coins of Isas have survived. The Late Medieval Balkans, A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press
5.
Fall of Constantinople
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The Fall of Constantinople was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by an invading army of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by the then 21-year-old Mehmed the Conqueror, the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. The conquest of Constantinople followed a 53-day siege that had begun on 6 April 1453, the capture of Constantinople marked the end of the Roman Empire, an imperial state that had lasted for nearly 1,500 years. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople also dealt a blow to Christendom. After the conquest, Sultan Mehmed II transferred the capital of the Ottoman Empire from Edirne to Constantinople. The conquest of the city of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire was a key event in the Late Middle Ages, which also marks, for some historians, Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. In the following centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once. The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remaining empire splintered into a number of Byzantine successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and they fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne. The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261, thereafter there was little peace for the much-weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians, and, most importantly, the Ottoman Turks. The Black Plague between 1346 and 1349 killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople, the Empire of Trebizond, an independent successor state that formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, also survived on the coast of the Black Sea. This optimism was reinforced by friendly assurances made by Mehmed to envoys sent to his new court, but Mehmeds actions spoke far louder than his mild words. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church, nominal union had been negotiated in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors had since been received into the Latin church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, finally, the attempted Union failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the hierarchy of the Roman church. Although some troops did arrive from the city states in the north of Italy. Some Western individuals, however, came to defend the city on their own account. One of these was a soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani. A specialist in defending walled cities, he was given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople
6.
Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire
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The territory of the Ottoman Empire greatly expanded, and led to what some historians have called the Pax Ottomana. The process of centralization undergone by the prior to 1453 was brought to completion in the reign of Mehmed II. The Ottoman Empire of the Classical Age experienced dramatic territorial growth, the period opened with the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II in 1453. Mehmed II went on to consolidate the position in the Balkans and Anatolia, conquering Serbia in 1454-5, the Peloponnese in 1458-9, Trebizond in 1461. Many Venetian territories in Greece were conquered during the 1463-79 Ottoman-Venetian War, by 1474 the Ottomans had conquered their Anatolian rival the Karamanids, and in 1475 conquered Kaffa on the Crimean Peninsula, establishing the Crimean Khanate as a vassal state. In 1480 an invasion of Otranto in Italy was launched, the reign of Bayezid II was one of consolidation after the rapid conquests of the previous era, and the empires territory was expanded only marginally. In 1484 Bayezid led a campaign against Moldavia, subjecting it to status and annexing the strategic ports of Kilia. Major Venetian ports were conquered in Greece and Albania during the 1499-1503 war, most significantly Modon, Koron, however, by the end of his reign, Ottoman territory in the east was coming under threat from the newly established Safavid Empire. Rapid expansion resumed under Selim I, who defeated the Safavids in the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, annexing much of eastern Anatolia, in 1516 he led a campaign against the Mamluk Sultanate, conquering first Syria and then Egypt the following year. Under Selims reign the territory expanded from roughly 341,100 sq mi to 576,900 sq mi. Lacking a king, Hungary descended into war over the succession. When their rivals the Habsburgs began to achieve the upper hand, Suleiman directly intervened by again conquering Buda, elsewhere, Suleiman led major campaigns against Safavid Iran, conquering Baghdad in 1534 and annexing Iraq. Ottoman rule was extended with the incorporation of much of North Africa, the conquest of coastal Yemen in 1538. Additional conquests were marginal, and served to shore up the Ottoman position, Ottoman control over Hungary was expanded in a series of campaigns, and a second Hungarian province was established with the conquests of Temeşvar in 1552. By the end of Suleimans reign the territory had expanded to approximately 877,888 sq mi. The conquest of Constantinople allowed Mehmed II to turn his attention to Anatolia, Mehmed II recovered the Ottoman power on other Turkish states. These conquests allowed him to push further into Europe, another important political entity which shaped the Eastern policy of Mehmed II was the White Sheep Turcomans. He led a campaign against Uzun Hasan in 1473 which resulted with the decisive victory of the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Otlukbeli
7.
Ottoman Old Regime
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The history of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century has classically been described as one of stagnation and reform. In analogy with 18th-century France, it is known as the Ancien Régime or Old Regime, contrasting with the New Regime of the Nizam-i Cedid. The period characterized as one of decentralization in the Ottoman political system, in light of this, the empires history during this period is now generally viewed in more neutral terms, eschewing concepts such as decline and stagnation. The Old Regime was brought to an end not by a dramatic event. Although Selim himself was deposed, his reforms were continued by his successors into the nineteenth century, of crucial importance for this period in Ottoman history was the institution of malikāne, or life-term tax farm. This system provided the Ottoman government with a more stable source of revenue. However, the impact of malikāne extended far beyond its original economic and it facilitated a new style of government in the Ottoman Empire, which has been characterized as one of decentralization. Malikāne contracts were split into shares and privately traded on an ever-expanding market and these state assets were traded among numerous social groups, including but not limited to military and religious officials, rural gentry, urban notables, and janissaries. This provided provincial figures with new ways to interact with the Ottoman state, the institution of malikāne continued largely undisturbed until 1793, when Selim III began to phase it out as part of his general reform effort, known as the New Order. As malikāne contracts expired they were transferred to the New Order treasury and this attempt at centralization was opposed by provincial figures who by then had a vested interest in the continuation of malikāne, and contributed to Selim IIIs overthrow in 1807. Malikāne contracts thus continued to be sold and traded until the 1840s, the last effort of a militarily active sultan to personally control the entire government of the empire was undone in the 1703 rebellion known as the Edirne incident, in which Mustafa II was deposed. Major governmental offices were no longer located within the imperial palace, by the 1790s the central bureaucracy had grown to number some 1, 500-2,000 scribes, representing a significant increase over the 183 who were serving in 1593. Ottoman rule in the provinces was predicated upon maintaining the loyalty of local interest groups, state authority was represented by the provincial governor and the judge, the latter carrying out most of the day-to-day administration of the province. Representing local interests were figures known as notables, ayan came from diverse backgrounds, what distinguished them was their entrenched local status. Unlike Ottoman state officials, they did not generally migrate from position to position across the empire, ayan utilized patronage networks to wield significant influence within their local city or region, and their cooperation was essential in order for Ottoman provincial administration to function. During the eighteenth century, ayan were tied to the state through the institution of malikāne. By purchasing malikāne, ayan were able to consolidate their control over their region of influence. The central government and provincial power-holders thus remained interdependent, and the latter did not seek independence from the Ottoman Empire, during the seventeenth century provincial governors had been appointed for unspecified periods of time, producing a significant degree of uncertainty among them with regard to security of office
8.
Tulip period
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The Tulip Period or Tulip Era is a period in Ottoman history from the Treaty of Passarowitz on 21 July 1718 to the Patrona Halil Revolt on 28 September 1730. This was a peaceful period, during which the Ottoman Empire began to orient itself towards Europe. The name of the period derives from the tulip craze among the Ottoman court society, cultivating this culturally ambiguous emblem had become a celebrated practice. The Tulip Period illustrated the conflicts brought by early modern culture and was a shared material symbolism. During this period the elite and high-class society of the Ottoman period had established an immense fondness for the tulip, Tulips defined nobility and privilege, both in terms of goods and leisure time. The Grand Vizier was himself very fond of tulip bulbs, setting an example for Istanbul’s elite who started to cherish the tulip’s endless variety in paint, the Ottoman standard of dress and its commodity culture incorporated their passion for the tulip. Within Istanbul, one could find tulips from the markets to the plastic arts to silks. Tulip bulbs could be everywhere, the demand grew within the elite community where they could be found in homes. Therefore, the tulip is a symbol with mythical appeal, which can be found from Ottoman palaces to their clothing, the tulip can be seen as a romantic monument representing the wealthy and elite, and the fragility of despotic rule. The Tulip period saw a flowering of arts, culture and architecture, generally the style of architecture and decoration became more elaborate, being influenced by the Baroque period in movement. A classic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III in front of Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, the architectural style is a fusion of classical Islamic elements with baroque European ones, making it into distinct Ottoman architecture of the 18th century. The tulip was also praised in poetry and motifs used in paintings, to this day in modern Turkey the tulip is still considered the embodiment of perfection and beauty. Turkish Airlines decorates its planes with a painting of a tulip on its fuselage and these albums that Levni painted were called Tulip albums which mirrored the structure of the states itself, ranking distinguished members of the regime according to horticultural achievements. Tulip prices began to rise in the last decades of the 17th century and this reflected the demand for the inflated value of the rare bulbs and escalating demands for flowers in the elite’s palaces and gardens. Tulip mania demonstrated the power to regulate the economy by increasing the prices for bulbs. Courtiers at the time forwarded a petition to denounce the practice of flower sellers and this led to the process of issuing inventories of flowers and price lists to the judge of Istanbul for enforcement. Tulip mania – during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century Derinsular. com – During and After the Tulip Era Enfal. de – Lale Devri Encyclopædia Britannica Online – Abdülcelil Levnî Yılmaz, Nalan. Ottoman Studies Online – Levni, one of the last Ottoman miniaturists Abdulcelil Levni Culture of the Ottoman Empire Jean-Baptiste van Mour Salzmann, the Age of Tulips Confluence and Conflict in Early Modern Consumer Culture
9.
Nizam-i Djedid
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The term later came to refer to the new Nizam-i Djedid Army established under the reform program. Nizam-i Djedid is a Persian phrase meaning New Order, the -i part is a Persian ezāfe sign. Both Nizām and Jadīd, in turn, are originally Arabic words borrowed by Persian in older times, using the Persian ezāfe constructions was common in Ottoman Turkish. Between 1829 and 1855 the new army was constantly being improved under the sight of military advisors, the troops of the Nizam-i Djedid corps were equipped with European-style uniforms and educated in European military strategy. Sultan Abdülmecid I even claimed that, if the campaign of 1829 against the Russians was fought over again in 1855, the result would be very different
10.
Tanzimat
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The Tanzimât, literally meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the ethnic groups of the Empire. Though many changes were made to improve civil liberties, many Muslim residents of the empire saw this as foreign influence on the world of Islam and this perception complicated reformist efforts made by the state. Most of the changes, such as uniforms, were aimed at changing the mindset of imperial administrators. Many of the officials that were affiliated with the government were encouraged to wear a western style of dress. Many of the reforms were attempts to adopt successful European practices, the reforms were heavily influenced by the Napoleonic Code and French law under the Second Empire as a direct result of the increasing number of Ottoman students being educated in France. This policy officially began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839, the ambitious project was launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and its strength weaken in comparison to the European powers. There were internal as well as reasons for the reforms. Internally, the Ottoman Empire hoped that, by getting rid of the millet system and this change was also meant to increase the legitimacy of Ottoman rule. Another major hope was that by being open to various demographics. There was fear of internal strife between Muslims and non-Muslims, and allowing more freedom to all was supposed to diminish this threat. Giving more rights to the Christians was considered likely to reduce the danger of intervention on their behalf. Externally, the Ottomans were growing scared of an intervention of the European powers in Ottoman affairs. After the Crimean War, which was caused by Russias incursion into the Ottoman Empire in the 1850s and they thought that the Great Powers would accept the Tanzimat as long as reforms were ongoing, leaving them to act as enforcers of these goals. The Tanzimât reforms began under Sultan Mahmud II, on November 3,1839, Sultan Abdülmecid issued a hatt-i sharif or imperial edict called the Edict of Gülhane or Tanzimât Fermânı. This was followed by several statutes enacting its policies, in the edict the Sultan stated that he wished to bring the benefits of a good administration to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire through new institutions. Noble Decree or Imperial Rescript of Gülhane, was the first major reform in the Tanzimat reforms under the government of sultan Abdulmecid, the decree, named after the rosehouse on the grounds of the Topkapi Palace, abolished tax farming. It also created a system of taxation with salaried tax collectors
11.
First Constitutional Era
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These Young Ottomans were dissatisfied by the Tanzimat and instead pushed for a constitutional government similar to that in Europe. The constitutional period started with the dethroning of Sultan Abdülaziz, abdulhamid II took his place as Sultan. The era ended with the suspension of the Ottoman parliament and the constitution by sultan Abdülhamid II, the first constitutional era did not include any party system. At the time, the Ottoman parliament was seen as the voice of the people but not as a venue for the formation of political parties, the elections for parliament were held in accordance with the provisional electoral regulations. The parliament was composed in two stages, the lower house of the bicameral legislature was the Chamber of Deputies, while the upper house was the Senate. The initial selection of deputies was made by councils in the provinces. After the establishment of the General Assembly in the provinces, the selected the deputies from within the assembly to form the Chamber of Deputies in the capital. The Chamber had 115 members and reflected the distribution of the millets in the empire, in the second elections, there were 69 Muslim millet representatives and 46 representatives of other millets. The second body was the Senate, and the members were selected by the sultan, the Senate had only 26 members. It was designed to replace the porte, and the Grand Vizier become the speaker of Senate, the two elections happened between 1877 and 1878. The members reactions to the war were very strong. The life of the term of the parliament was merely a few days, as after the initial speeches by the members from Balkan vilayets, Abdülhamid II closed the parliament. Mehmed Rushdi Pasha Hussein Avni Pasha Midhat Pasha Suleiman Pasha Constitutional history of Turkey Elections in the Ottoman Empire The Ottomans, Europes Muslim Emperors Second Constitutional Era
12.
Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
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The period of defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire began with the Second Constitutional Era with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two stage electoral system under the Ottoman parliament, the constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions and dissolve inter-communal tensions. Instead, this became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. The Ottoman entry into World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of Smyrna mobilized the Turkish national movement which ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence, the formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1922. The Sultan was declared persona non grata from the lands that the Ottoman Dynasty ruled since 1299, the 19th century saw the rise of nationalism in the Balkans which resulted in the establishment of an independent Greece in 1821, Serbia in 1835 and Bulgaria and liberation in 1877-8. Most of the local Muslims in these countries suffered, many died during the conflicts, with the rise of nationalism in Europe it became dominated by nation states. The Ottoman Empire differed in that its ruling class made no attempt to integrate conquered peoples culturally, the Porte had no official policy of converting the non-Muslims of the Balkans or Anatolia into Islam or converting them into a single nation. Phanariots, who were members of the prominent Greek families came to occupy major positions in the Empire. The Empire never integrated its conquests economically and therefore never established a link with its subjects. During its decline the Empire tried to catch up with the industrialization, Ottomanism surged as a concept its proponents believed could solve the Empires social issues. Ottomanism was strongly influenced by such as Montesquieu and Rousseau. The idea originated among the Young Ottomans as an acceptance of all separate ethnicities, major changes were introduced into the structure of the Empire. The essence of the Millet system was not dismantled, but secular organizations, primary education and Ottoman conscription were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike. When the Capitulations were first established it was supposed that foreign assistance could benefit the Empire, the capitulations stipulated that the privileges were based on religion. On 10 September 1915, the Minister of Interior Talat Pasha abolished the Capitulations, the total pre-war debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had 60 percent of the total, Germany was 20 percent, the debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank. The Ottoman Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the Empire, the Council had power over financial affairs
13.
Second Constitutional Era
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The parliament and the constitution of First Constitutional Era had been suspended by Abdul Hamid in 1878 after only two years of functioning. A series of elections during this period resulted in the ascendance of the Committee of Union. The second largest party, with which the CUP was involved in a 2-year power struggle, was the Freedom, the period survived an attempt by reactionaries to re-institute absolutism. The last meeting on 18 March 1920 produced a letter of protest to the Allies, the legal framework was that of Kanûn-ı Esâsî of the First Constitutional Era that had prevailed in 1876. As in 1876, the revived Ottoman Parliament consisted of two chambers, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies was elected by the people, in the ratio of one member for every 50,000 males of the population over the age of 25 who paid taxes. Senators, on the hand, were nominated for life by the Sultan, had to be over 40 years of age. General elections were to place every four years. The general population did not, however, vote directly for the Deputy that he desired to represent him in the Parliament, moreover, the administration of territories was entrusted to these delegates in the elected Administrative Councils. Thus, these Councils were elected and served not only as an electoral college, the parliament convened after the revolution only briefly and rather symbolically. The only task they performed was to call a new election, in the first Parliament, the president of the Chamber of Deputies was a Deputy from Jerusalem, Yusif Dia Pasha Al Khalidi. The new parliament comprised 142 Turks,60 Arabs,25 Albanians,23 Greeks,12 Armenians,5 Jews,4 Bulgarians,3 Serbs and 1 Vlach in the elections of 1908, the CUP could count on the support of about 60 deputies. The CUP, the driving force behind the revolution, managed to gain the upper hand against the Liberal Union. LU was liberal in outlook, bearing a strong British imprint, CUP come as the biggest party among a fragmented parliament by only 60 of the 275 seats. It was about how the government would deal with what these deputies called lacking of the law and order, the rise of assassinations and armed assaults, ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire was costing both lives and resources. This was an important event as the established system was passing the first test regarding the proper parliamentary conduct. There were members of diplomatic missions among the audience. The new constitution secured the freedom of the press, newspapermen, the first section of the protocol achieved
14.
Middle-Eastern theatre of World War I
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The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I saw action between 29 October 1914 and 30 October 1918. There were five main campaigns, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, there were also several minor campaigns, the Senussi Campaign, Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign. Both sides used local asymmetrical forces in the region, in addition, the Assyrians joined the Allies following the Assyrian genocide, instigating the Assyrian war of independence. The Turkish Ottomans had the support of Kurds, Turcomans, Circassians, Chechens, the theatre covered the largest territory of all theatres in the war. The Armenians attended the Trabzon Peace Conference which resulted in the Treaty of Batum on 4 June 1918. The Ottomans accepted the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers through the secret Ottoman-German Alliance, which was signed on 2 August 1914. Success in this region would force the Russians to divert troops from the Polish, German advisors with the Ottoman armies supported the campaign for this reason. From an economic perspective, the Ottoman, or rather German, Germany established an Intelligence Bureau for the East on the eve of World War I. The bureau was involved in intelligence-gathering and subversive missions to Persia and Egypt, if these nations were to be removed from Western influence, Enver envisioned a cooperation between these newly established Turkic states. Envers project conflicted with European interests which played out as struggles between several key imperial powers, the Ottomans also threatened Britains communications with India and the East via the Suez Canal. The Germans hoped to seize the Canal for the Central Powers, the British feared that the Ottomans might attack and capture the Middle East oil fields. The British Royal Navy depended upon oil from the deposits in southern Persia. Marriott summarizes the British debates on strategy for the Near East and Balkan theatre, The War in that presents many problems. The Russians viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front and they feared a campaign into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars which had been taken from the Ottoman Empire during the Russo-Turkish War, and the port of Batum. The Russian Imperial government planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia, the Armenian national liberation movement sought to establish an Armenian state within the Armenian Highlands. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation achieved this goal later in the war, none of these entities were long lasting. The Caucasus Campaign extended from the Caucasus to eastern Asia Minor, reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Mush, the warfare on land was accompanied by actions undertaken by the Russian Navy in the Black Sea region of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire and German Empire fought each other at Batumi after the arrival of the German Caucasus Expedition whose prime aim was to secure oil supplies
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Partition of the Ottoman Empire
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The partition of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I and the occupation of Constantinople by British, French and Italian troops in November 1918. The partitioning was planned in several made by the Allies early in the course of World War I. As world war loomed, the Ottoman Empire sought protection but was rejected by Britain, France, and Russia, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. The Ottoman Empire had been the leading Islamic state in geopolitical, cultural and ideological terms. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire led to the rise in the Middle East of Western powers such as Britain and France and brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. Resistance to the influence of these came from the Turkish national movement. The Ottoman Empires possessions in the Arabian Peninsula became the Kingdom of Hejaz, which was annexed by the Sultanate of Nejd, and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The Empires possessions on the shores of the Persian Gulf were variously annexed by Saudi Arabia, or remained British protectorates. After the Ottoman government collapsed completely it signed the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, however, the Turkish War of Independence forced the European powers to return to the negotiating table before the treaty could be ratified. The Europeans and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey signed and ratified the new Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, superseding the Treaty of Sèvres and solidifying most of the territorial issues. One unresolved issue, the dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over the province of Mosul was later negotiated under the League of Nations in 1926. The British and French partitioned the eastern part of the Middle East, also called Greater Syria, other secret agreements were concluded with Italy and Russia. The Balfour Declaration encouraged the international Zionist movement to push for a Jewish homeland in the Palestine region, while a part of the Triple Entente, Russia also had wartime agreements preventing it from participating in the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after the Russian Revolution. The Treaty of Sèvres formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the region, the independence of Yemen, the Western powers had long believed that they would eventually become dominant in the area claimed by the weak central government of the Ottoman Empire. These powers disagreed over their contradictory post-war aims and made several dual, Syria and Lebanon became a French protectorate. French control was met immediately with armed resistance, and, in order to combat Arab nationalism, France divided the Mandate area into Lebanon, Greater Lebanon was the name of a territory created by France. It was the precursor of modern Lebanon and it existed between 1 September 1920 and 23 May 1926. France carved its territory from the Levantine land mass in order to create a haven for the Maronite Christian population
16.
Ottoman decline thesis
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The Ottoman Decline Thesis or Ottoman Decline Paradigm refers to a now-obsolete historical narrative which had once been used to explain the history of the Ottoman Empire. This thesis was used throughout most of the century as the basis of both Western and Republican Turkish understanding of Ottoman history. However, by 1978, historians had begun to reexamine the fundamental assumptions of the Decline Thesis, the Decline Thesis has been criticized as teleological, regressive, Orientalist, simplistic, and one-dimensional, and described as a concept which has no place in historical analysis. Scholars have thus learned better than to discuss, the idea of decline first emerged among the Ottomans themselves. Beginning much earlier, but greatly expanding during the century, was the literary genre of nasihatname. This genre had a history, appearing in earlier Muslim empires such as those of the Seljuks. This was often expressed through the concept of the Circle of Justice, in this conception, the provision of justice by the ruler to his subjects would allow those subjects to prosper, strengthening the ruler in turn. Should this break down, society would cease to properly function and these writers viewed the changes which the empire had undergone as an inherently negative corruption of an idealized Suleimanic past. However, it is now recognized that rather than simply describing objective reality, for instance, Mustafa Âlis belief that the empire was declining was in large part motivated by frustration at his own failure to achieve promotions and court patronage. The primary goal of the writers, then, may have simply been to protect their own personal or class status in a rapidly changing world. Internal decline was thought of as an appropriate means of explaining the Ottomans external military defeats. The trope of a declining Ottoman Empire was thus used as a foil for Western Civilization, such views were perpetuated during the mid-twentieth century by the works of H. A. R. Gibb and Harold Bowen, and particularly Bernard Lewis and it was from this point that skepticism of the Decline Thesis began to grow. The most prominent writer on Ottoman Decline is the historian Bernard Lewis and he laid out his views in the 1958 article, Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire, which developed into the mainstream opinion of Orientalist scholars of the mid-twentieth century. However, the article is now highly criticized and no longer considered accurate by modern historians, faulty leadership at the top led to decay in all branches of government, the bureaucracy ceased to function effectively, and the quality of their records worsened. The Ottoman military lost its strength and began to experience defeats on the battlefield and they ceased to keep up with the advances of European military science, and consequently suffered territorial losses. As Ottoman state and society was geared towards constant expansion, their failure to achieve new conquests left the empire unable to adapt to its new relationship with Europe. In addition, the Price Revolution led to the destabilization of Ottoman coinage and a fiscal crisis
17.
Selim III
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Selim III was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV, Selim was killed by a group of assassins subsequently after a Janissary revolt. Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan and his mother Mihrişah Sultan originated in Georgia and when she became the Valide Sultan, she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III was very educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create an army during the peacetime with professional. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion, during the Turko-Russian War he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies, Sultan Mustafa was very influenced by mysticism. Oracles predicted his son Selim would be a world-conqueror, so he organized a joyous feast lasting seven days, Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed his son as his successor, however, Sultan Abdulhamid I took care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education. After Abdulhamids death Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, not yet 27 years old, Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy, many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimeas occupation by Russia and he spoke Arabic and Persian fluently. Selim III was very religious, and very patriotic and he was a poet, a musician and very fond of fine arts. Selim was a modern man and a reformist ruler. He planned to modernize the Ottoman Empire, Prince Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman Army. Selim came to the throne during the 1787–92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim’s early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army, using modern weapons, officers and military experts sent by the different European powers trained in Constantinople and in a number of Anatolian provincial centers. This new force never numbered more than 10,000 active soldiers, under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers
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Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856
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The Imperial Reform Edict was a February 18,1856 edict of the Ottoman government and part of the Tanzimat reforms. The decree from Sultan Abdülmecid I promised equality in education, government appointments, the decree is often seen as a result of the influence of France and Britain, which assisted the Ottoman Empire against the Russians during the Crimean War and the Treaty of Paris which ended the war. Hatt-ı Hümayun was a promise by the Sultan to his citizens, Sultan promised to be held responsible for the constitution of the Provincial Councils and Communal Councils and the fairness of this process and the results. Sultan also promised the freedom of voting in the councils and these goals are promised by the Sultan and the final consideration is in him, in meaning Hatt-ı Hümayun is the Sultans ideas. Hatt-ı Hümayun did not release the government from its previous obligations, Hatt-ı Hümayun granted that all forms of religion freely worshiped, no subject hindered in the exercise of the religion, nor be in any way annoyed. No one shall be compelled to change their religion, the authorities in mixed populations use imperial system to pronounce a sovereign decision. Hatt-ı Hümayun granted the government the responsibility of the formation of roads and canals to increase the facilities of communication, Hatt-ı Hümayun granted the organization of new Code to determine how the works of public utility can be supported. These funds could only be used to benefit of the establishment of ways of communication by land, Hatt-ı Hümayun granted that all the subjects, without distinction, shall be received into the Civil and Military Schools. Every community is authorized to establish Public Schools of Science, Art, however, in these public schools the methods of instruction and the choice of professors in schools of this class shall be under the control of a Mixed Council of Public Instruction. Production of witnesses was granted which the testimonies were accepted upon an oath, suits relating to civil affairs publicly tried. Civil affairs resolved before the Mixed Provincial Councils with the Governor, Hatt-ı Hümayun granted that there will be formulation of the new Codes, penal, correctional, and commercial laws, and rules of procedure and they were translated and published in all the languages. Hatt-ı Hümayun granted that the reform of the penitentiary and other establishments, activities had to reconcile the rights of humanity and with those of justice. Hatt-ı Hümayun granted that police organization can not deny the guarantees for the safety of person, after the revision officers are responsible. The police force was organized in capital, provincial towns and in the districts in separate organizations. Although the goal of the Hatt-ı Hümayun was to bring equality among Ottoman citizens, the biggest change was the Ottoman States acceptance of the notion of minorities. Previously, Muslim government organizations begin to accept non-Muslim citizens, the official state language principle was broken, and the Empire became a multi-language system. Patriarchates began to administer justice on the level, which could be said to weaken the judicial sovereignty of the State. The extending of powers of Patriarchates in administering justice, The extending of the right to property to foreigners, before the Hatt-ı Hümayun Armenian Patriarch was not only the spiritual leader of the community, but its secular leader as well
19.
Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire
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The rise of the Western notion of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman millet concept. Ideas of nationalism began to develop in Europe long before they reached the Ottoman Empire, some of the first effects nationalism had on the Ottomans had a lot to do with the Greek War of Independence. The war began as an uprising against the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, at the time, Mehmet Ali who was a former Albanian mercenary, was ruling Egypt quite successfully. One of his biggest projects was creating an army of conscripted peasants. The Sultan commanded him to lead his army to Greece and put a stop to these uprisings, at the time, nationalism had become an established concept in Europe and certain Greek intellectuals began to embrace the idea of a purely Greek state. Most of Europe greatly supported this notion, partly because ideas of Ancient Greece mythology were being greatly romanticized in the Western world, though the Greece at the time of the revolution looked very little like the European view, most supported it blindly based on this notion. Mehmet Ali had his own motives for agreeing to invade Greece, the Sultan promised Ali that he would make him Governor of Crete, which would increase Alis status. Alis army had considerable success in putting down the Christian revolts at first and they endorsed Greek nationalism and pushed both Alis army and the rest of the Ottoman forces out of Greece. The instance of Greek Nationalism was a factor in introducing the concept to the Ottomans. Because of their failure in Greece, the Ottomans were forced to acknowledge the changes taking place in the West, the result would be the beginning of a defensive developmentalism period of Ottoman history in which they attempted to modernize to avoid the Empire falling to foreign powers. The idea of nationalism that develops out of this is called Ottomanism, and would result in political, legal. Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology that arose in the 20th century mainly as a reaction to Turkish nationalism and it is based on the premise that nations from Morocco to the Arabian peninsula are united by their common linguistic, cultural and historical heritage. Pan-Arabism is a concept, which calls for the creation of a single Arab state. In the 19th century in response to Western influences, a change took shape. Conflict erupted between Muslims and Christians in different parts of the empire in a challenge to that hierarchy and this marked the beginning of the tensions which have to a large extent inspired the nationalist and religious rhetoric in the empire’s successor states throughout the 20th century. This movement, however, was confined almost exclusively to certain Christian Arabs, members of some of these groups came together at the request of al-Fatat to form the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, where desired reforms were discussed. Until Tanzimat reforms were established, the Armenian millet was under the supervision of an Ethnarch, the Armenian millet had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. During the Tanzimat period, a series of reforms provided a limited modernization of the Ottoman Empire also to the Armenians
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Nationalism
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Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
21.
Ethnic nationalism
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Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation is defined in terms of ethnicity. The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that nations are defined by a heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith. It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors, herodotus is the first who stated the main characteristics of ethnicity, with his famous account of what defines Greek identity. He lists kinship, language, cults and customs, the central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that ethnic groups can be identified unambiguously, and that each such group is entitled to self-determination. In international relations, it leads to policies and movements for irredentism to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity. In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism, Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity, often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship, rather than on political membership. Ethnic nationalism is, therefore, seen as exclusive, while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive, rather than allegiance to common civic ideals and cultural traditions, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise narratives of common descent. The theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term ethnic nationalism for non-Western concepts of nationalism as opposed to Western views of a nation defined by its geographical territory, Ethnic nationalism is also present in many states immigration policies in the form of repatriation laws. For example, Israels Law of Return, grants every Jew the right to settle in Israel, in German nationality law, citizenship is open to ethnic Germans. According to the Greek nationality law, Greeks born abroad may transmit citizenship to their children from generation to generation indefinitely, on the other hand, civic nationalism defines membership as an individuals duty to observe given laws and in turn receive legal privileges. Nations before Nationalism excerpt and text search Breuilly, John, Nationalism and the State excerpt and text search De Benoist, Alain. Telos page, online text De Benoist, Alain, vu de droite, Anthologie critique des idées contemporaines. Text search Esman, Milton J. and Itamar Rabinovich, eds, Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East Gurr, Ted Robert, and Barbara Harff. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics online Jones, Larry Eugene & Retallack, James, studies in the History of German Conservatism from 1789 to 1945. Nationalism in Europe & America, Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 online Mohler, die Konservative Revolution in Deutschland 1918–1932. Excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D, the Ethnic Origins of Nations excerpt and text search Smith, Anthony D. The Nation in History, Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism excerpt and text search Smith, the Antiquity of Nations Sunic, Tomislav. Postmortem Report, Cultural Examinations from Postmodernity, shamley Green, UK, The Paligenesis Project,2010
22.
Ethnic conflict
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An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, or economic and this final criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle. Ethnic conflict does not necessarily have to be violent, in a multi-ethnic society where freedom of speech is protected, ethnic conflict can be an everyday feature of plural democracies. For example, ethnic conflict might be a non-violent struggle for resources divided among ethnic groups, however, the subject of the confrontation must be either directly or symbolically linked with an ethnic group. In healthy multi-ethnic democracies, these conflicts are usually institutionalized and channeled through parliaments, assemblies and bureaucracies or through non-violent demonstrations, on the other hand, in authoritarian systems, ethnic minorities are often unable to express their grievances. Grievances are instead allowed to fester which might lead to long phases of silence followed by a violent outburst. Therefore, ethnic peace is an absence of violence, not an absence of conflict, another consequence is that violent ethnic rebellions often result in political rights for previously marginalized groups. Academic explanations of ethnic conflict generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist or constructivist, recently, several political scientists have argued for either top-down or bottom-up explanations for ethnic conflict. The causes of conflict are debated by political scientists and sociologists. Explanations generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist, and constructivist, more recent scholarship draws on all three schools. Primordialist accounts rely on strong ties of kinship among members of ethnic groups, donald L. Horowitz argues that this kinship makes it possible for ethnic groups to think in terms of family resemblances. Clifford Geertz, a scholar of primordialism, asserts that each person has a natural connection to perceived kinsmen. In time and through repeated conflict, essential ties to ones ethnicity will coalesce, ethnic groups will consequently always threaten the survival of civil governments but not the existence of nations formed by one ethnic group. Thus, when considered through a lens, ethnic conflict in multi-ethnic society is inevitable. A number of political scientists argue that the causes of ethnic conflict do not involve ethnicity per se but rather institutional, political. Moreover, primordial accounts do not account for the spatial and temporal variations in ethnic violence, if these ancient hatreds are always simmering under the surface and are at the forefront of peoples consciousness, then ethnic groups should constantly be ensnared in violence. However, ethnic violence occurs in sporadic outbursts, for example, Varshney points out that although Yugoslavia broke up due to ethnic violence in the 1990s, it had enjoyed a long peace of decades before the USSR collapsed. Therefore, some claim that it is unlikely that primordial ethnic differences alone caused the outbreak of violence in the 1990s
23.
Mahmud II
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Mahmud II was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. He was born in the Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Abdul Hamid I. His mother was Nakşidil Valide Sultan, in 1808, Mahmud IIs predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, later became Mahmud IIs vizier. Western Historians give Mahmud a bad reputation for simply being the Sultan during a time of deterioration of the Ottoman Empire, there are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. When the assassins approached the Harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the Harem and he apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, a plain stone staircase at the Altınyol of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her. The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms, Mahmud IIs later reformation efforts were more successful. During the early years of Mahmud IIs reign, his governor of Egypt Mehmet Ali Paşa successfully reconquered the cities of Medina. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques. His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire and this event, together with the occupation of the Ottoman province of Algeria by France in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the territories, especially in Europe. One of Mahmud IIs most notable acts during his reign was the abolition of the Janissary corps in June 1826 and he accomplished this by using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud IIs proposed reforms and this permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited largely from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831 and he ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena
24.
Alemdar Mustafa Pasha
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Alemdar Mustafa Pasha was an Ottoman military commander and a Grand Vizier born in Khotyn in then Ottoman land Ukraine in 1765. Both alemdar and bayraktar mean the bearer and were the names given to the same rank in the Janissary corps. He was originally the ayan of Rusçuk, and one of the strongest ayans of his time, after he arrived, Mustafa IV ordered Selim III and Mahmud II to be killed, he succeeded in getting the former killed. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, seeing Selim III dead, showed fealty to Mahmud II, as vizier, Bayraktar purged the soldiers who had rebelled against Selim, removed conservatives from governmental positions and replaced them with men sympathetic to reform. Bayraktar modernized the army and navy and attempted to reform the Janissaries, bayraktars power and influence and his arrogance wielding it caused a rebellion against his position. In November 1808, the Janissairies attacked the Porte and laid siege to the powder magazine where he. As the Janissaries were about to break in the powder barrels exploded, killing Bayraktar, his guard and he rose through the Janissary corps. After having been promoted to commandership, he took part in the wars against Austria, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha had always been a keen supporter of Sultan Selim III. On 21 June 1808, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha and his army of about 15,000 men arrived in Constantinople and they easily took control of the situation, and under the orders of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, the rebels were killed or exiled. When Mustafa IV learned the events, he decided to have his uncle, Selim III, as well as his brother, Prince Mahmut. The executioners arrived first in the room of Selim III in the palace, Selim III, who was playing reed flute and had no weapons, resisted with his flute, but his efforts proved futile and he was strangulated. His dead body was brought in front of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, while he was weeping, his men warned him that Mustafa IVs men were going to kill the Prince Mahmud as well. In fact, in those moments, the executioners had raided the princes room. Alemdar Mustafa and his men arrived and broke the palace doors and they killed the rebels and eventually saved the prince. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha declared prince Mahmud the new sultan with the name Mahmud II, but differences of opinion soon emerged between the two. First of all, he made an agreement with the representative from Anatolian lands. Sultan Mahmud thought that his authority was limited with that agreement, secondly, he re-established the army of Nizam-ı Cedid under a different name, Sekban-I Cedid Army. The Nizam-ı Cedid Army was an alternative to the corps of Janissaries, Pashas opting for another name can be explained with an effort in order not to anger Janissaries
25.
Auspicious Incident
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The Auspicious Incident was the forced disbandment of the centuries-old Janissary corps by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826. The Janissaries were first created by the Ottoman Sultans who employed captured prisoners as mercenary troops, the Janissary corps eventually consisted of enslaved young Christian boys who were given a strict military education. During the 15th and 16th centuries they were recognized as the best-trained and they became known for their discipline, morale and professionalism. They were paid regularly and were expected to be ready to enter in battle at any time, many Janissaries were not soldiers, but still collected pay from the Turkish state as dictated by the corps. The corps held an effective veto over the government, contributing to the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Any sultan who tried to diminish the status or power of the Janissaries was immediately either killed or deposed, as corruption continued, the Janissary corps began to undermine the Ottoman Empire. Over time it became clear that for the Ottoman Empire to be a power of Europe. The number of Janissaries grew from 20,000 in 1575 to 49,000 and 135,000 in 1826, Turkish historians claim that the counter-Janissary force, which was great in numbers, included the local residents who had hated the Janissaries for years. Historians suggest that Mahmud II purposely incited the revolt and have described it as the coup against the Janissaries. The sultan informed them that he was forming a new army, the Janissaries saw their institution as crucial to the well-being of the Ottoman Empire, especially to Rumelia, and had previously decided they would never allow its dissolution. Thus, as predicted, they mutinied, advancing on the sultans palace, Mahmud II then brought out the sacred standard of the Prophet from inside the treasury, intending all true believers to gather beneath it and thus bolster opposition to the Janissaries. In the ensuing fight the Janissary barracks were set ablaze by fire, resulting in 4,000 Janissary deaths. The survivors either fled or were imprisoned, their possessions confiscated by the Sultan, by the end of 1826 the captured Janissaries, constituting the remainder of the force, were put to death by decapitation in the Thessaloniki fort that soon came to be called the Blood Tower. Roughly 100 other Janissaries fled to the Cistern of Philoxenos where many drowned, the Janissary leaders were executed and their possessions confiscated by the Sultan. The younger Janissaries were either exiled or imprisoned, thousands of Janissaries had been killed, and thus the elite order came to its end. The Sufi Order of the Bektaşi Brotherhood, a core Janissary institution, was outlawed, a new modern corps, Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established by Mahmud II to guard the Sultan and replace the Janissaries. Many ordinary Janissaries, especially in the provinces, began rogue revolts, christians in the Balkans became very hostile to their Muslim convert neighbors and began to rally against the new Turkish armies sent from Constantinople. Some Janissaries survived by keeping a low profile and taking ordinary jobs, immediately after the Janissaries had been disbanded, Mahmud II ordered the court chronicler, Mehmet Esad Efendi, to record the official version of events
26.
Free trade
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Free trade is one of the most debated topics in economics of the 19th, 20th, and 21st century. Arguments over free trade can be divided into economic, moral, the World Trade Organization was created to open up markets and promote international trade based on the Free Trade paradigm. The WTO creates and monitors agreements to reduce trade barriers, and arbitrates in disputes over foreign market access and its definition of Free Trade is trade on a level playing field, so that the unlimited exchange of goods between countries is not necessarily Free. Therefore, any import restriction makes the domestic society as a whole worse off than it would be with unlimited imports, the artificial handicap of a foreign subsidy seems much less just to local production than advantages deriving from geography, natural resources, or native skill. Electorates often prefer fairplay to Utilitarian considerations, if trade barriers are already low, the threat of a trade war of tit-for-tat tariff increases may reduce the temptation for either partner in bilateral trade to raise import barriers. It would tend to decrease the power and revenue flowing to government bureaucrats. In the history of trade, two types of arguments have been advanced in favor of allowing purchases from abroad, and free trade in the broader sense. One set of arguments for free trade could be classified as moral arguments listed below, another set of arguments is essentially economic, that free trade will make society more prosperous. These are mostly technical arguments from the discipline of economics, starting especially with Smiths The Wealth of Nations, the 18th and 19th century intellectuals who backed free trade rarely did so under the rubric of increasing material wealth. In many cases this was given as the least important reason for free trade, rather, they argued that international society would be improved by increased commerce. Some of these, and later, sociopolitical arguments are listed here, adam Smith thought that protectionism against free trade was a scam on the public on behalf of producers, carried out in the name of nationalism. Even if overall economic interests had not been harmed by tariffs, classical economic analysis shows that free trade increases the global level of output because free trade permits specialization among countries. Specialization allows nations to devote their resources to the production of the particular goods. The benefits of specialization, coupled with economies of scale, increase the production possibility frontier. An increase in the production possibility frontier indicates that the absolute quantity of goods. Not only are the quantity of goods and services higher. Free trade policies are often associated with general laissez-faire economic politics and parties, voluntary exchange, by virtue of its voluntary nature, is assumed to be beneficial to the parties involved—why else would they engage in the exchange. Thus, the restriction of voluntary exchange restricts commerce and ultimately the accumulation of wealth in the absence of real-world externalities such as infant industry protection, here is the production possibilities frontier for a fictional country, Country A
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Deindustrialization
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It is the opposite of industrialization. There are multiple interpretations of what this process is, cairncross and Lever offer four possible definitions of deindustrialization, A straightforward long-term decline in the output of manufactured goods or in employment in the manufacturing sector. A shift from manufacturing to the sectors, so that manufacturing has a lower share of total employment. Theories that predict or explain deindustrialization have a long intellectual lineage, rowthorn argues that Marxs theory of declining profit may be regarded as one of the earliest. In parallel, however, technological innovations replace people with machinery, assuming only labor can produce new additional value, this greater physical output embodies a smaller value and surplus value. The average rate of industrial profit therefore declines in the longer term and they suggest deindustrialization may be both an effect and a cause of poor economic performance. Moreover, to the extent that manufacturing firms downsize through, e. g. outsourcing, contracting out, indeed, it potentially has positive effects, provided such actions increase firm productivity and performance. George Reisman identified inflation as a contributor to deindustrialization, institutional arrangements have also contributed to deindustrialization such as economic restructuring. The term de-industrialization crisis has been used to describe the decline of industry in a number of countries. In addition, technological inventions that required less labor, such as industrial robots. The Deindustrialization of America, Plant Closings, Community Abandonment and the Dismantling of Basic Industry, brady, David, Jason Beckfield, and Wei Zhao. The Consequences of Economic Globalization for Affluent Democracies, annual Review of Sociology 33, 313–34. “Deindustrialization and Dispossession, An Examination of Social Division in the Industrial City, ” Sociology 29#1, Pp. 5–17 in, Blackaby, F. Deindustrialisation Cowie, J. Heathcott, J. and Bluestone, B. Beyond the Ruins, The Meanings of Deindustrialization Cornell University Press,2003, the CIA World Factbook Feinstein, Charles. Structural Change in the Developed Countries During the Twentieth Century, oxford Review of Economic Policy 15, 35–55. Fuchs, V R The Service Economy New York, National Bureau of Economic Research Lever, W F ‘Deindustrialisation,6, Pp. 983–999 Goldsmith, M and Larsen, H Local Political Leadership, Nordic Style. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research Vol.28.1, Industrial Sunset, The Making of North Americas Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Confronting Decline, The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England, Business and Regional Economic Decline, The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England Business and economic history online #12 Krugman, Paul
28.
Protectionism
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Protectionist policies protect the producers, businesses and workers of the import-competing sector in a country from foreign competitors. According to proponents, these policies can counteract unfair trade practices, protectionists may favor the policy in order to decrease the trade deficit, maintain employment in certain sectors, or favor the growth of certain industries. In recent years, protectionism has become closely aligned with the anti-globalization movement, There is a broad consensus among economists that the impact of protectionism on economic growth is largely negative, although the impact on specific industries and groups of people may be positive. The doctrine of protectionism contrasts with the doctrine of free trade, a variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported, import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported, to favour local producers. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, however, since export tariffs are often perceived as hurting local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as helping local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas, To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the price of imported goods. The economic effects of a quota is similar to that of a tariff. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, administrative barriers, Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation, Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down, however, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies, Government subsidies are given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to protect jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies, Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports, Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate control, A government may intervene in the exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, international patent systems, There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Peter Drahos explains that States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies, There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist, for example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism
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Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
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Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire
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Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers, particularly France. Turkish capitulations, or ahdnames, were generally bilateral acts whereby definite arrangements were entered into by each contracting party towards the other, according to these capitulations traders entering the Ottoman Empire were exempt from local prosecution, local taxation, local conscription, and the searching of their domicile. The capitulations were initially made during the Ottoman Empires military dominance, to entice and they were however increasingly exploited after military dominance shifted to Europe, allowing significant economic and political abuse by European powers. In the first instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state, beginning with the Genoese in 1453, around 1535 a capitulation was made by Suleiman the Magnificent regarding France. France signed its first treaty of Capitulations with the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo in 1500, after the Turks conquered Egypt in the Ottoman–Mamluk War, the Ottomans upheld the capitulations to the French and applied them to the entire empire. Capitulations signified that which was arranged under distinct headings, the Ottoman Turkish phrase was ahid nameh, the latter did, and the former did not, signify a reciprocal engagement. According to Capitulations, and treaties confirmatory of them, made between the Porte and other states, foreigners resident in Turkey were subject to the laws of their respective countries. In 1914, the Committee of Union and Progress abolished the capitulations in the Ottoman Empire, Capitulations in Egypt ended in 1949 as stipulated in the Montreux Convention Regarding the Abolition of the Capitulations in Egypt in 1937. Hoyle, Mark S. W. Mixed courts of Egypt, F. Ahmad, Ottoman perceptions of the capitulations 1800-1914, Journal of Islamic Studies,11,1, 1-20. Maurits H. van den Boogert and Kate Fleet, ed, the Ottoman capitulations, text and context. Pp. vii, -727, 14p. of plates, ill, the capitulations and the Ottoman legal system, qadis, consuls, and beraths in the 18th century
31.
Duty (economics)
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In economics, a duty is a kind of tax levied by a state. It is often associated with customs, in context they are also known as tariffs or dues. The term is used to describe a tax on certain items purchased abroad. Properly, a duty differs from a tax in being levied on specific commodities, financial transactions, estates, duties may be import duties, excise duties, stamp duties, death or succession duties, etc. but not such direct impositions as personal income taxes. An estate duty is a tax levied on the estate of a person in many jurisdictions or on the inheritance of a person. The tax is sometimes referred to, formally or informally, as a death duty, often, the rate of the duty is similar to a gift duty. Tariff Free economic zone Free port Duty-free shop Smuggling Tax Evasion Likin, tax collected on transportation of goods in Qing China
32.
John Ramsay McCulloch
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John Ramsey McCulloch was a Scottish economist, author and editor, widely regarded as the leader of the Ricardian school of economists after the death of David Ricardo in 1823. He was appointed the first professor of economy at University College London in 1828. He wrote extensively on policy, and was a pioneer in the collection, statistical analysis. McCulloch was a co-founder, and one of the first editors, of The Scotsman newspaper and he edited the 1828 edition of The Wealth of Nations. McCulloch attended the University of Edinburgh, but did not graduate, McCulloch collected the early literature of political economy, and wrote on the scope and method of economics and the history of economic thought. After his death his library was purchased by Lord Overstone and eventually presented to the University of Reading. He was a participant in the Political Economy Club, London, founded by James Mill, mcCullochs works include a textbook, Principles of Political Economy. He worked on subsequent editions until his death and this book contains a memorable discussion of the origins of profit or interest in the case of a cask of new wine. This question is used in discussions of the labour theory of value. Reflecting on discussions in the Political Economy Club, Ricardo had privately expressed his famous opinion about the non-existence of any measure of absolute value, McCulloch died in 1864, and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. McCullochs theoretical work received harsh criticism from Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk in the latters History, but probably no member of the English school has been so unhappy in his treatment of the subject or done the theory of interest such a disservice as McCulloch, wrote Böhm-Bawerk. He hovers about the fringes of a number of divergent opinions and he penetrates just far enough into each to become involved in glaring self-contradictions, but he does not expand any one of them sufficiently to form a theory that even approaches consistency. On the subject of the cask, Böhm-Bawerk wrote that there was an enormous difference between what he was supposed to prove and what he did prove. Although such examples may prove that the passage of time is not enough of a change to produce an increase of value. An Essay on a Reduction of the Interest of the National Debt,1816, on Ricardos Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,1818, Edinburgh Review Taxation and the Corn Laws,1820, Edinburgh Review The Opinions of Messrs. Say, Sismondi and Malthus, on Effects of Machinery and Accumulation,1821, Edinburgh Review On Combination Laws, Restraints on Emigration,1824, Edinburgh Review Political Economy,1824, Encyclopædia Britannica. French Law of Succession,1824, Edinburgh Review, a Discourse on the Rise, Progress, Peculiar Objects and Importance of Political Economy,1824. The Principles of Political Economy, with a sketch of the rise, an Essay on the Circumstances which Determine the Rate of Wages and the Condition of the Working Classes,1826
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Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
34.
Benjamin Disraeli
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Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS was a British politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies. Disraeli is remembered for his voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and he is the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth. Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then part of Middlesex and his father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue, young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837, in 1846 the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the Commons, Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s and he also forged a bitter rivalry with Gladstone of the Liberal Party. Upon Derbys retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that years election and he returned to opposition, before leading the party to a majority in the 1874 election. He maintained a friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 created him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraelis second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire, Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europes leading statesmen, World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support and he angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a speaking campaign, his Liberals bested Disraelis Conservatives in the 1880 election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in opposition and he had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, Endymion, shortly before he died at the age of 76. Disraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 Kings Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the child and eldest son of Isaac DIsraeli, a literary critic and historian. The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background, All Disraelis grandparents and great grandparents were born in Italy, Isaacs father, Benjamin, moved to England from Venice in 1748. Disraelis siblings were Sarah, Naphtali, Ralph, and James and he was close to his sister, and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers
35.
Corn Laws
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The Corn Laws were measures enforced in the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain. They were designed to keep prices high to favour domestic producers. The laws did indeed raise food prices and became the focus of opposition from groups who had far less political power than rural Britain. The Corn Laws imposed steep import duties, making it too expensive to import grain from abroad, the laws were supported by Conservative landowners and opposed by Whig industrialists and workers. The Anti-Corn Law League was responsible for turning public and elite opinion against the laws, in a large, the first two years of the Irish famine of 1845–1852 forced a resolution because of the urgent need for new food supplies. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, Corn included any grain that requires grinding, especially wheat. The laws were introduced by the Importation Act 1815 and repealed by the Importation Act 1846, the laws are often considered examples of British mercantilism. The economic issue was food prices, the price of grain was central to the price of the most important staple food, bread, and the working man spent much of his wages on bread. The political issue was a dispute between landowners and the new class of manufacturers and industrial workers, the former desired to maximise their profits from agriculture by keeping the price at which they could sell their grain high. The Corn Laws enhanced the profits and political power associated with land ownership and their abolition saw a significant increase of free trade. In 1689, traders were provided bounties for exporting rye, malt and wheat, in 1813, a House of Commons Committee recommended excluding foreign-grown corn until the price of domestically grown corn increased to 80 shillings per quarter hundredweight. Nevertheless, the price of 80 shillings a quarter for domestic grain was so high that. David Ricardo, however, espoused free trade so that Britain could use its capital, with the advent of peace in 1814, corn prices decreased, and the Tory government of Lord Liverpool passed the 1815 Corn Law to keep bread prices high. This resulted in rioting in London. Reduced standard of living and food shortages poor harvests led to riots, in 1820, the Merchants Petition, written by Thomas Tooke, was presented to the House of Commons. The petition demanded free trade and an end to protective tariffs, the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, who claimed to be in favour of free trade, blocked the petition. He argued, speciously, that complicated restrictions made it difficult to repeal protectionist laws and he added, though, that he believed Britains economic dominance grew in spite of, not because of, the protectionist system. In 1821 the President of the Board of Trade, William Huskisson, after this Act was passed, the corn price never rose to 80/- until 1828
36.
Ottoman Army (15th-19th centuries)
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Ottoman Classical Army was the military structure established by Mehmed II, during his reorganization of the state and the military. This was the reorganization following Orhan Is standing army paid by salary rather than booty or fiefs. This army was the force during the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the organization was twofold, central and peripheral. This army was forced to disbandment by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 by what is known as Auspicious Incident following a long reform efforts. The Ottomans were one of the first states to maintain an army in Europe since the Roman Empire. The force originated in the 14th century, it was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826, the Janissaries were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultans household troops and bodyguards. Sultan Murad I created the force in 1383 and they began as an elite corps of slaves recruited from young Christian boys, and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. By 1620 they were hereditary and corrupt and an impediment to reform, for all practical purposes, Janissaries belonged to the Sultan, carrying the title kapikulu indicating their collective bond with the Sultan. Janissaries were taught to consider the corps as their home and family, the janissary corps was significant in a number of ways. The janissaries wore uniforms, were paid in cash as regular soldiers, the history Yaya goes to the early Ottoman military forces consisted of irregular nomadic cavalry and volunteer light infantry. These units were efficient against local Byzantine feudal lords but were unable to capture fortified castles by direct assault, established by Sultan Orhan during Alaeddin Pashas reorganization the military in the mid 1320s. Yaya, and Musellem over time they lost their martial qualities and were employed only at such tasks as transportation or founding cannonballs. The organisation was abolished in 1582. The Six Divisions of Cavalry, also known as the Kapıkulu Süvarileri, was a corps of cavalry soldiers in the army of the Ottoman Empire. There were not really six, but four, divisions in the corps, two of the six were sub-divisions. The Silahdars were a division for the Sultan, under the command of the Silahdar Agha. Silahdars were chosen from the best warriors, Infantry soldiers had to enlist as serdengecti and survive suicide missions to join the Silahdar division. Sipahi refers to all freeborn Ottoman Turkish mounted troops other than akıncıs, the word was used almost synonymously with cavalry
37.
Eastern Question
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The Eastern Question is normally dated to 1774, when the Russo-Turkish War ended in defeat for the Ottomans. Imperial Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire, on the hand, Austria-Hungary. The Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse and its westward expansion arrested, the Ottoman Empire never again posed a serious threat to Austria, which became the dominant power in its region of Europe. The Eastern Question did not truly develop until the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century, the Napoleonic era brought some relief to the faltering Ottoman Empire. It distracted Russia from further advances, Napoleon I himself invaded Egypt, but his army was trapped there when the British sank the French fleet. A peace interlude in 1803 allowed the army to return to France, to secure his own domination and to render the rest of Europe virtually powerless, Napoleon established an alliance with Russia by concluding the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Russia undertook to aid Napoleon in his war against Britain, in turn, if the Sultan refused to surrender these territories, France and Russia were to attack the Empire, and the Ottoman domains in Europe were to be partitioned between the two allies. The Napoleonic scheme threatened not only the Sultan, but also Britain, Austria and Prussia, an attack on the Empire, however, did not come to pass, and the alliance concluded at Tilsit was dissolved by the French invasion of Russia in 1812. The term was invented by the famous German historian Leopold von Ranke in his book Die Serbische Revolution, Leopold von Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. These events marked the foundation of Principality of Serbia, for an overview see Wayne S. Vucinich, Marxian Interpretations of the First Serbian Revolution. The Proclamation by Karađorđe in the capital Belgrade represented the peak of the revolution and it also called on Serbs to stop paying the jizya tax to the Porte. The ultimate result of the uprisings was Serbias suzerainty from the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own Parliament, Government, Constitution and its own royal dynasty. The establishment of the constitution in 1835 and the founding in 1808 of its first university, Belgrades Great Academy, by 1833, Serbia was officially recognized as a tributary to the Ottoman Empire and as such, acknowledged as a hereditary monarchy. Full independence of the Principality was internationally recognized during the half of the 19th century. The Eastern Question once again became a major European issue when the Greeks declared independence from the Sultan in 1821 and it was at about this time that the phrase Eastern Question was coined. Ever since the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there had been rumours that the Emperor of Russia sought to invade the Ottoman Empire, and the Greek Revolt seemed to make an invasion even more likely. The British foreign minister, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, as well as the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich, counselled the Emperor of Russia, Alexander I, instead, they pleaded that he maintain the Concert of Europe. A desire for peaceful co-operation was also held by Alexander I, rather than immediately putting the Eastern Question to rest by aiding the Greeks and attacking the Ottomans, Alexander wavered, ultimately failing to take any decisive action
38.
Divan
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A divan or diwan was a high governmental body in a number of Islamic states, or its chief official. The word, recorded in English since 1586, meaning Oriental council of a state, from Turkish divan, from Arabic diwan. It is first attested in Middle Persian spelled as dpywʾn and dywʾn, itself hearkening back, via Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian, ultimately to Sumerian dub, the variant pronunciation dēvān however did exist, and is the form surviving to this day in Tajiki Persian. In Arabic, the term was first used for the registers, then generalized to any register. The sense of the word evolved to custom house and council chamber, then to long, cushioned seat, the latter is the sense that entered European languages as divan. The modern French, Spanish, and Italian words douane, aduana, the first dīwān was created under Caliph Umar in 15 A. H. or, more likely,20 A. H. This first army register was soon emulated in other capitals like Basra, Kufa. With the advent of the Umayyad Caliphate, the number of dīwāns increased, aside from the central government, there was a local branch of the dīwān al-kharāj, the dīwān al-jund and the dīwān al-rasāʾil in every province. The process of Arabization was gradual, Iraq was the first in 697, followed by Syria in 700, Egypt in 705, under the Abbasid Caliphate the administration, partly under the increasing influence of Iranian culture, became more and more elaborate and complex. As part of process, the dīwāns increased in number and sophistication. At the same time, the office of vizier was also created to coordinate government, Caliph al-Saffah established a department for the confiscated properties of the Umayyads after his victory in the Abbasid Revolution. This was probably the antecedent of the later dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ, administering the caliphs personal domains, similarly, under al-Mansur there was a bureau of confiscations, as well as a dīwān al-aḥshām, probably in charge of palace service personnel, and a bureau of petitions to the Caliph. Caliph al-Mahdi created a parallel dīwān al-zimām for every one of the existing dīwāns and these acted as comptrollers as well as coordinators between the various bureaus, or between individual dīwāns and the vizier. In addition, a dīwān al-maẓālim was created, staffed by judges, the remit of the dīwān al-kharāj now included all land taxes, while another department, the dīwān al-ṣadaḳa, dealt with assessing the zakāt of cattle. The correspondence of the dīwān al-kharāj was checked by another department, the treasury department kept the records of revenue and expenditure, both in money and in kind, with specialized dīwāns for each category of the latter. Its secretary had to all orders of payment to make them valid. In addition, a department of confiscated property and confiscated estates existed, the dīwān al-nafaḳāt played a similar role with regards to expenses by the individual dīwāns, but by the end of the 9th century its role was mostly restricted to the finances of the caliphal palace. Under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, a bureau of servants and pages, possibly an evolution of the dīwān al-aḥshām, existed for the number of slaves
39.
Suleiman the Magnificent
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Suleiman I, commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Kanuni in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over 15 to 25 million people, Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empires economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and he annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, at the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with the chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi. He was a poet and goldsmith, he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the Golden age of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic, literary. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hürrem Sultan, a woman from his harem, a Christian of Rusyn origin who converted to Islam, and their son Selim II succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleimans previous heirs apparent Mehmed and Mustafa had died, the former from smallpox and his other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleimans orders, along with his four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars no longer believe that the empire declined after his death, in the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes, in a period often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman the Magnificent, as he was known in the West, was also called Suleiman the First and it is unclear when exactly the term Kanunî first came to be used as an epithet for Suleiman. It is entirely absent from sixteenth and seventeenth-century Ottoman sources, Suleiman was born in Trabzon along the east coast of the Black Sea to Şehzade Selim, probably on 6 November 1494, although this date is not known with absolute certainty. His mother was Hafsa Sultan, a convert to Islam of unknown origins, at the age of seven, Suleiman was sent to study science, history, literature, theology and military tactics in the schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople. As a young man, he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim, a slave who became one of his most trusted advisers. From the age of seventeen, he was appointed as the governor of first Kaffa, then Manisa, upon the death of his father, Selim I, Suleiman entered Constantinople and ascended to the throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. Facial hair is evident but only barely, the sultan appears friendly and in good humor. Rumor has it that Suleiman is aptly named, enjoys reading, is knowledgeable, some historians claim that in his youth Suleiman had an admiration for Alexander the Great. Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the Danube. Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, the fall of Christendoms major strongholds spread fear across Europe
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