1.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
2.
South Asia
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Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, the current territories of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka form the countries of South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation is an economic cooperation organisation in the region which was established in 1985, South Asia covers about 5.1 million km², which is 11. 51% of the Asian continent or 3. 4% of the worlds land surface area. The population of South Asia is about 1.749 billion or about one fourth of the worlds population, overall, it accounts for about 39. 49% of Asias population and is home to a vast array of peoples. The area of South Asia and its extent is not clear cut as systemic. Aside from the region of South Asia, formerly part of the British Empire, there is a high degree of variation as to which other countries are included in South Asia. Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia, but in Southeast Asia by others. Some do not include Afghanistan, others question whether Afghanistan should be considered a part of South Asia or the Middle East, the mountain countries of Nepal and Bhutan, and the island countries of Sri Lanka and Maldives are generally included as well. Myanmar is often added, and by various deviating definitions based on often substantially different reasons, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the common concept of South Asia is largely inherited from the administrative boundaries of the British Raj, with several exceptions. The Aden Colony, British Somaliland and Singapore, though administered at various times under the Raj, have not been proposed as any part of South Asia. Additionally Burma was administered as part of the Raj until 1937, the 562 princely states that were protected by but not directly ruled by the Raj became administrative parts of South Asia upon joining Union of India or Dominion of Pakistan. China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of members of SAARC. This bloc of countries include two independent countries that were not part of the British Raj – Nepal, and Bhutan, Afghanistan was a British protectorate from 1878 until 1919, after the Afghans lost to the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan war. The United Nations Statistics Divisions scheme of sub-regions include all eight members of the SAARC as part of Southern Asia, population Information Network includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as part of South Asia. Maldives, in view of its characteristics, was admitted as a member Pacific POPIN subregional network only in principle, the Hirschman–Herfindahl index of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific for the region includes only the original seven signatories of SAARC. The British Indian Ocean Territory is connected to the region by a publication of Janes for security considerations, the inclusion of Myanmar in South Asia is without consensus, with many considering it a part of southeast Asia and others including it within South Asia. Afghanistan was of importance to the British colonial empire, especially after the Second Anglo-Afghan War over 1878–1880, Afghanistan remained a British protectorate until 1919, when a treaty with Vladimir Lenin included the granting of independence to Afghanistan. Following Indias partition, Afghanistan has generally included in South Asia
3.
Diaspora
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A diaspora is a scattered population whose origin lies within a smaller geographic locale. Diaspora can also refer to the movement of the population from its original homeland, some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return, relationships with communities in the diaspora. The term is derived from the Greek verb διασπείρω, I scatter, I spread about, an example of a diaspora from classical antiquity is the century-long exile of the Messenians under Spartan rule and the Ageanites as described by Thucydides in his history of the Peloponnesian wars. It subsequently came to be used to refer to the movements of the dispersed ethnic population of Israel. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part, an academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. Some writers have noted that diaspora may result in a loss of nostalgia for a home as people re-root in a series of meaningful displacements. In this sense, individuals may have multiple homes throughout their diaspora, diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement. Over time, remotely separated communities tend to vary in culture, traditions, language, the last vestiges of cultural affiliation in a diaspora is often found in community resistance to language change and in maintenance of traditional religious practice. In an article published in 1991, William Safran set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities, while Safrans definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora, he recognised the expanding use of the term. Rogers Brubaker also notes that use of the diaspora has been widening. Brubaker has used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, the paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora, some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case. Brubaker argues that the expansion of the use of the phrase extended it to other, similar cases, such as the Armenian. Brubaker notes that, Albanians, Basques, Hindu Indians, Irish, Japanese, Kashmiri, Koreans, Kurds, Palestinians, furthermore, labour migrants who maintain emotional and social ties with a homeland have also been described as diasporas. In further cases of the use of the term, the reference to the conceptual homeland – to the classical diasporas – has become more attenuated still, to the point of being lost altogether. Brubaker notes that, as of 2005, there were also academic books or articles on the Dixie, white, liberal, gay, queer, professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland, one of the largest diaspora of modern times is the African Diaspora, which dates back several centuries
4.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
5.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
6.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
7.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
8.
Indo-Aryan languages
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The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family, Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers, and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue. While the languages are spoken in South Asia, pockets of Indo-Aryan languages are found to be spoken in Europe. The largest in terms of speakers are Hindustani, Bengali, Punjabi. Proto-Indo-Aryan, or sometimes Proto-Indic, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages and it is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan which is attested as Vedic. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a number of archaic features lost in Vedic. Vedic has been used in the ancient preserved religious hymns, the canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. Mitanni-Aryan is of age to the language of the Rigveda. The language of the Vedas – commonly referred to as Vedic Sanskrit by modern scholars – is only marginally different from Proto-Indo-Aryan the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. From the Vedic, Sanskrit developed as the language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre. Sanskrit is, by convention, referred to by scholars as Classical Sanskrit in contra-distinction to the so-called Vedic Sanskrit. Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects continued to evolve, the oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, Apabhramsa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production, the Sravakachar of Devasena is now considered to be the first Hindi book, the next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani and this Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani, others include Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, the Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum
9.
Natya Shastra
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The Nāṭya Śāstra is a Sanskrit Hindu text on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the text consists of 36 chapters with a cumulative total of 6000 poetic verses describing performance arts. The Nāṭya Śāstra is notable as an ancient encyclopedic treatise on the arts, one which has influenced dance, music, the text has inspired secondary literature such as Sanskrit bhasya such as by the 10th century Abhinavagupta. The title of the text is composed of two words, Nāṭya and Śāstra, the root of the Sanskrit word Natya is Nat which means act, represent. The word Shastra means precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise, the composition date of Natyashastra is unknown, estimates vary between 500 BCE to 500 CE. The Natya Shastra is traditionally alleged to be linked to a 36,000 verse Vedic composition called Adibharata, the text has survived into the modern age in several manuscript versions, wherein the title of the chapters vary and in some cases the content of the few chapters differ. Some recensions show significant interpolations and corruption of the text, along with internal contradictions, the author of the text is unknown, and the Hindu tradition attributes it to the Rishi Bharata. It may be the work of authors, but scholars disagree. Bharat Gupt states that the text stylistically shows characteristics of a compiler in the existing version. The Natyashastra is the oldest surviving ancient Indian work on performance arts, the roots of the text extend at least as far back as the Natasutras, dated to around the mid 1st millennium BCE. The Natasutras are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar, Richmond et al estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE. The Gandharva subgenre also implied celestial, divine associations, while the Gana was free form art, the Vedanga texts such as verse 1.4.29 of Panini Sutras mention these as well. The roots of the Natyashastra thus likely trace to the ancient vedic traditions of integrating ritual recitation, dialogue. The Sanskrit verses in chapter 13.2 of Shatapatha Brahmana, the Vedic sacrifice is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes. The most studied version of the text, consisting of about 6000 poetic verses, is structured into 36 chapters, the tradition believes that the text originally had 12,000 verses. Somewhat different versions of the manuscripts exist, and these contain 37 or 38 chapters. Predominant number of its verses are in precise Anustubh meter, some verses are in Arya meter, the structure of the text harmoniously compiles aspects of the theatrical arts into separate chapters. The text opens with the genesis and history of drama, mentions the role of different Hindu deities in various aspects of the arts
10.
Performing arts
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Performing arts are a form of art in which artists use their voices and/or their bodies, often in relation to other objects, to convey artistic expression. It is different from visual arts, which is when artists use paint/canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects, performing arts include several disciplines, each performed in front of a live audience. Artists who participate in performing arts in front of an audience are called performers, examples of these include actors, comedians, dancers, magicians, circus artists, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting, choreography. A performer who excels in acting, singing, and dancing is commonly referred to as a triple threat, well-known examples of historical triple threat artists include Gene Kelly, Fred Astaire, and Judy Garland. Performers often adapt their appearance, such as costumes and stage makeup, stage lighting. Performing arts may include dance, music, opera, theatre and musical theatre, magic, illusion, mime, spoken word, puppetry, circus arts, performance art, recitation and public speaking. There is also a form of fine art, in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. Most performance art also involves some form of art, perhaps in the creation of props. Dance was often referred to as an art during the Modern dance era. Theatre is the branch of performing arts, concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience, using a combination of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound, any one or more of these elements is performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative style of plays. In the context of performing arts, dance generally refers to movement, typically rhythmic and to music. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement to codified, in dance, the connection between the two concepts is stronger than in some other arts, and neither can exist without the other. Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who practices this art is called a choreographer, music is an art form which combines pitch, rhythm, and dynamic in order to create sound. It can be performed using a variety of instruments and styles and is divided into genres, as an art form, music can occur in live or recorded formats, and can be planned or improvised. Starting in the 6th century BC, the Classical period of performing art began in Greece and these poets wrote plays which, in some cases, incorporated dance. The Hellenistic period began the use of comedy
11.
Sanskrit language
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
12.
Hindustani language
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Hindustani, historically also known as Hindavi, Dehlvi and Rekhta, is the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving primarily from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi, before the Partition of the British Indian Empire, the terms Hindustani, Urdu, and Hindi were synonymous, all covered what would be called Urdu and Hindi today. Hindustani is also spoken by a number of people in Mauritius. Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. Amir Khusro, who lived in the 13th century CE during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms in his writings, the Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled from Delhi, was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic, the term Hindustani was the name given to that variant of Khariboli. For socio-political reasons, though essentially the variant of Khariboli with Persian vocabulary, the more highly Persianised version later established as a language of the court was called Rekhta, or mixed. As an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic words and its development was centred on the poets of the Mughal courts of cities in Uttar Pradesh such as Delhi, Lucknow, and Agra. He continued, But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language and it is linguistic result of Mohammedan invasions of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken by many Hindus in North India and by Musalman population in all parts of India. Next to English it was the language of British Indian Empire, was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters. When the British colonised the Indian subcontinent from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words Hindustani, Hindi and they developed it as the language of administration of British India, further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word Hindustani declined, being replaced by Hindi and Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion & philosophy, under the Bahmani Kings and it is a living language, still prevalent all over the Deccan Plateau. Note that the term Hindustani has generally fallen out of usage in modern India, except to refer to Indian as a nationality. The term used to refer to it is Hindi or Urdu, depending on the religion of the speaker, in common usage in India, the term Hindi includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu end of the spectrum. Urdu is the language of Pakistan and an officially recognised regional language of India. It is also a language in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. In a specific sense, Hindustani may be used to refer to the dialects and varieties used in speech, in contrast with the standardised Hindi
13.
Blighty
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Blighty is a British English slang term for Britain or often specifically England. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word derives from bilayati, in India, vilayati came to be known as an adjective meaning European, and specifically English or British. The term is used as a term of endearment by the expatriate British community or those on holiday to refer to home. In Hobson-Jobson, an 1886 historical dictionary of Anglo-Indian words, Henry Yule, burnell explained that the word came to be used in British India for several things the British had brought into the country, such as the tomato and soda water. During World War I, Dear Old Blighty was a common sentimental reference, the term was particularly used by World War I poets such as Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. Blighty, a weekly magazine, was issued free to World War I troops. It contained short stories, poems, cartoons, paintings and drawings and it was distributed by the War Office, the Admiralty and the Red Cross, and subsidised through donations and sales to the general public. The magazine was revived in 1939 and continued until 1958, in his First World War autobiography Good-Bye to All That, the writer Robert Graves attributes the term Blitey to the Hindustani word for home. He writes, The men are pessimistic but cheerful and they all talk about getting a cushy one to send them back to Blitey. The Music Hall artiste Vesta Tilley had a hit in 1916 with the song Im Glad Ive Got a Bit of a Blighty One, in which she played a soldier delighted to have been wounded and in hospital. When I think about my dugout, she sang, where I dare not stick my mug out, Im glad Ive got a bit of a blighty one. Another Music Hall hit was Take Me Back to Dear Old Blighty, the term was also referenced in the song All American Alien Boy by Ian Hunter, from the 1976 album of the same name. Folksinger Ian Robbs album Rose and Crown features a parody of the traditional song, Maggie Mae. The song contains the lines When I get back to Blighty, UKTV operated a digital television channel called Blighty which opened in February 2009 and closed on 5 July 2013. The subscription channel which concentrated on British-made programming was replaced by a Freeview channel called Drama, Blighty and Sea Pie from the National Library of Scotland, with links to several issues of the magazine
14.
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
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Representative Emanuel Celler of New York proposed the bill, Senator Philip Hart of Michigan co-sponsored it, and Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts helped to promote it. The Hart–Celler Act abolished the system based on national origins that had been American immigration policy since the 1920s. The new law maintained the per-country limits, but also created preference visa categories that focused on immigrants skills, the bill set numerical restrictions on visas at 170,000 per year, with a per-country-of-origin quota. However, immediate relatives of U. S. citizens and special immigrants had no restrictions, the Hart–Celler Act of 1965 marked a radical break from the immigration policies of the past. Previous laws restricted immigration from Asia and Africa, and gave preference to northern and western Europeans over southern and eastern Europeans, in the United States, the national-based formula had been under scrutiny for a number of years. In 1952, President Truman had directed the Commission on Immigration and Naturalization to conduct an investigation, the report, Whom We Shall Welcome, served as the blueprint for the Hart–Celler Act. After Kennedys assassination, President Lyndon Johnson signed the bill at the foot of the Statue of Liberty, the bill still prohibited the entry into the country of sexual deviants, including homosexuals. By doing so it crystallized the policy of the INS to reject homosexual prospective immigrants on the grounds that they were mentally defective, the Immigration Act of 1990 rescinded the provision discriminating against gay people. The Hart–Celler Act amended the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and it maintained per-country limits, which had been a feature of U. S. immigration policy since the 1920s, and it developed preference categories. One of the main components aimed to abolish the national-origins quota and this meant that it eliminated national origin, race, and ancestry as basis for immigration. It created a seven-category preference system, which gave priority to relatives of U. S. citizens and legal permanent residents and to professionals, immediate relatives and special immigrants were not subject to numerical restrictions. Some of the special immigrants include ministers, former employees of the U. S. government, foreign medical graduates, for the first time, immigration from the Western Hemisphere was limited. It added a labor requirement, which dictated that the Secretary of Labor needed to certify labor shortages. Refugees were given the seventh and last category preference with the possibility of adjusting their status, however, refugees could enter the United States through other means as well like those seeking temporary asylum. As per the rules under the Immigration and Nationality Act, U. S. organizations are permitted to employ foreign workers either temporarily or permanently to fulfill certain types of job requirement. Workers willing to perform in a job in return of wages that either meet or exceed the present wage paid by the employers for the occupation in the intended area of employment. However, some rules are applied to each category of visas. H-2A Agricultural Workers should have the highest pay in accordance to the Adverse Effect Wage Rate, the law also stipulates requirements like employer-sponsored meals and transportation of the employees as well as restrictions on deducting from the workers wages
15.
South Asian ethnic groups
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The ethno-linguistic composition of the population of South Asia, that is the nations of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka is highly diverse. The majority of the fall within two large linguistic groups, Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. In todays India, the population is categorized in terms of the 1,652 mother tongues spoken and these groups are further subdivided into numerous sub-groups, castes and tribes. Indo-Aryans form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in Indo-Gangetic Plain, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, dravidians form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in southern India and the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka, and a small pocket in Pakistan. Dardic peoples form a minority among the Indo-Aryans and they are classified as belonging to the Indo-Aryan language group, though sometimes they are also classified as external to the Indo-Aryan branch. They are found in northern Pakistan and in Jammu and Kashmir, the people of the Hunza valley in Pakistan are another distinct population. They speak Burushaski, a language isolate and this is particularly true for many ethnic groups in the northeastern parts of South Asia who are ethnically related to peoples of the Far East. These groups are based solely on a basis and not on genetic basis. Labbay Arab traders who settled in South India Rowther Muslims of Tamil Nadu, boras Trace ancestors to Arab traders and Merchants
16.
MTV
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MTV is an American cable and satellite television channel owned by Viacom Media Networks and headquartered in New York City. Launched on August 1,1981, the originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys. In its early years, MTVs main target demographic was young adults and it has received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTVs influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years, in recent years, MTV had struggled with the secular decline of music-related cable media. In April 2016, MTV announced it would start to return to its original music roots with the reintroduction of the classic MTV series MTV Unplugged. It was also reported that the series MTV Cribs would be making a return on Snapchat, MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the US and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have gone independent. As of July 2015, approximately 92,188,000 US households have received MTV, several earlier concepts for music video-based television programming had been around since the early 1960s. The Beatles had used music videos to promote their records starting in the mid-1960s, CBS rejected the idea, but Williams premiered his own musical composition Classical Gas on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, where he was head writer. The series featured clips from various popular artists, but was canceled by its distributor in 1971. The channel, which featured video disc jockeys, signed a deal with US Cable in 1978 to expand its audience from retail to cable television, the service was no longer active by the time MTV launched in 1981. The QUBE system offered many specialized channels, One of these specialized channels was Sight on Sound, a music channel that featured concert footage and music-oriented television programs. With the interactive QUBE service, viewers could vote for their favorite songs, the original programming format of MTV was created by media executive Robert W. Pittman, who later became president and chief executive officer of MTV Networks. Pittman had test-driven the music format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, Album Tracks, the inspiration for PopClips came from a similar program on New Zealands TVNZ network named Radio with Pictures, which premiered in 1976. The concept itself had been in the works since 1966, when record companies began supplying the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with promotional music clips to play on the air at no charge. Few artists made the trip to New Zealand to appear live. A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of hour in various forms. The first music video shown on MTV was The Buggles Video Killed the Radio Star and this was followed by the video for Pat Benatars You Better Run. Sporadically, the screen would go black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR, MTVs lower third graphics that appeared near the beginning and end of music videos would eventually use the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years
17.
MTV Desi
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MTV Desi is a digital platform from MTV that targeted Desis in the United States, as the name implies. The network features various styles of such as electronic tabla music and English-Gujarati hip-hop. It launched as a network on July 2005 and was shut down in 2007. It was relaunched as a platform in 2012. Rabbi Shergills video Bullah Ki Jaana was the first video played on MTV Desi
18.
BBC Asian Network
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BBC Asian Network is a British radio station whose output is targeted to serve people of South Asian descent, or with an interest in South Asian affairs. The music and news comes out of the urban areas where there are significant communities with these backgrounds. The station has production centres in Birmingham, The Mailbox and London and its parent station is BBC Radio 2 at Western House and it is part of the BBC Audio and Music division. The stations output consists largely of music and talk programmes, although there is a documentary series Asian Network Reports. Over mid-2009, the Asian network provided coverage at melas across the UK as part of the Summer Of Melas, in March 2010 the station, which has the highest per-listener budget of all UK radio stations, was threatened with closure, along with BBC6 Music. A year later, following consultation the BBC Trust announced it was reconsidering its plan to close the station in favour of reducing its budget. It was eventually decided not to close the station and by October 2014 the station had finally exceeded the target of 600,000 listeners which BBC Trust had set in 2011. BBC television had broadcast an Asian news programme, Nai Zindagi Naya Jeevan, since 1968 from its studios in Birmingham, this series followed a traditional news and current affairs format. In 1977 BBC Radio Leicester, responding to the growth of the size of the South Asian population in Leicester, at one point the audience consisted of 67 per cent of the South Asian community in Leicester. In 1979, BBC WM, the BBC radio station for the Midlands, followed Leicesters lead and introduced a similar daily show. On 30 October 1988 The Asian Network was launched on BBC WM and BBC Radio Leicester with an output of 70 hours per week. On Monday 28 October 2002 it was relaunched for the DAB Digital Radio system, in April 2006 the first wave of schedule changes were introduced with further changes coming into effect on 14 May and 21 May with weekend changes occurring from 17 June. In August 2007, the Asian Network received a new logo as part of a general re-brand of all national BBC stations, in 2009, this was re-branded again to add prominence to the Asian aspect of the logo. One of the most significant programmes in the Asian Network lineup was an ongoing Asian soap opera Silver Street which was first broadcast in 2004. Following a cutting of episode lengths to five minutes per day and continued falling listenership, the last episode was broadcast in March 2010. The cancellation grew out of many criticisms of the Asian Network in the BBC Trusts annual report. In July 2009 it was revealed that the Asian Network had lost over 20% of its listeners in a year and, per listener, was the most costly. Silver Street was replaced by monthly half-hour dramas and in August 2010, on 26 February 2010 The Times reported that Mark Thompson, Director General of the BBC, proposed closing the station in a bid to scale back BBC operations and allow commercial rivals more room
19.
Indian classical dance
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The number of recognized classical dances range from eight to more, depending on the source and scholar. The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognizes eight – Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri, scholars such as Drid Williams add Chhau, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela to the list. The Culture Ministry of the Government of India includes Chhau in its classical list and these dances have been regional, all of them include music and recitation in local language or Sanskrit, and they represent a unity of core ideas in a diversity of styles, costumes and expression. The Natya Shastra is the treatise for classical dances of India. Its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of ideas, virtues. The term classical denotes the Natya Shastra-based performing arts, as a religious art, they are either performed inside the sanctum of a Hindu temple, or near it. The Natya Shastra mentions four Pravrittis of ancient dance-drama in vogue when it was composed – Avanti, Dakshinatya, Panchali, sources differ in their list of Indian classical dance forms. The Sangeet Natak Akademi has given recognition to eight Indian dances, the Indian governments Ministry of Culture includes eleven dance forms. Scholars such as Drid Williams and others include Chhau, Yaksagana and these are Nritta, Nritya and Natya, The Nritta performance is abstract, fast and rhythmic aspect of the dance. The viewer is presented with pure movement, wherein the emphasis is the beauty in motion, form, speed, range and this part of the repertoire has no interpretative aspect, no telling of story. It is a performance, and aims to engage the senses of the audience. The Nritya is slower and expressive aspect of the dance that attempts to communicate feelings, in a nritya, the dance-acting expands to include silent expression of words through gestures and body motion set to musical notes. The actor articulates a legend or a spiritual message and this part of the repertoire is more than sensory enjoyment, it aims to engage the emotions and mind of the viewer. A Natya incorporates the elements of a Nritya, all classical dances of India used similar symbolism and rules of gestures in abhinaya. The roots of abhinaya are found in the Natyashastra text which defines drama in verse 6, drama in this ancient Sanskrit text, thus is an art to engage every aspect of life, in order to glorify and gift a state of joyful consciousness. The communication through symbols is in the form of expressive gestures, the gestures and facial expressions convey the ras and bhava of the underlying story. In Hindu classical dances, the artist successfully expresses the ideas by paying attention to four aspects of a performance, Angika, Vachika, Aharya
20.
Bharatanatyam
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Bharatanatyam or Bharathanatiyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. Bharatanatyam is quite possibly the oldest classical dance tradition of India, the dance is accompanied by music and a singer, and typically her guru is present as the director and conductor of the performance. The dance has traditionally been a form of a narration of mythical legends. The performance repertoire of Bharatanatyam, like other classical dances, includes nrita, modern stage productions of Bharatanatyam have incorporated technical performances, pure dance based on non-religious ideas and fusion themes. The term Bharatanatyam is a compound of two words, Bharata and Natyam, the term Bharata in Bharatanaytam, in the Hindu tradition, is not named after the famous performance art sage to whom the ancient Natya Shastra is attributed. The tradition states that the word Bharata is a mnemonic, consisting of bha–ra–ta, the bha stands for bhava, ra stands for raga, and ta stands for tala. The term Natyam is a Sanskrit word for dance, the compound word Bharatanatyam thus connotes a dance which harmoniously expresses bhava, raga and tala. In its history, Bharatanatyam has also been called Sadir, the theoretical foundations of Bharatanatyam are found in Natya Shastra, the ancient Hindu text of performance arts. Natya Shastra is attributed to the ancient scholar Bharata Muni, the most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of ideas, virtues. More direct historical references to Bharatnatyam is found in the Tamil epics Silappatikaram, the ancient text Silappatikaram, includes a story of a dancing girl named Madhavi, it describes the dance training regimen called Arangatrau Kathai of Madhavi in verses 113 through 159. The carvings in Kanchipurams Shiva temple that have dated to 6th to 9th century CE suggest Bharatanatyam was a well developed performance art by about the mid 1st millennium CE. Many of the ancient Shiva sculptures in Hindu temples are same as the Bharata Natyam dance poses, for example, the Cave 1 of Badami cave temples, dated to 7th-century, portrays the Tandava-dancing Shiva as Nataraja. The image,5 feet tall, has 18 arms in a form that expresses the dance positions arranged in a geometric pattern, the arms of Shiva express mudras, that are found in Bharatanatyam. Bharatanatyam, state Allen Noble and Ashok Dutt, has been a source of inspiration to the musicians, poets. Some colonial Indologists and modern authors have stated Bharatanatyam is a descendant of an ancient Devadasi culture, modern scholarship has questioned this theory for lack of any direct textual or archeological evidence. According to James Lochtefeld, Bharatanatyam remained exclusive to Hindu temples through the 19th century, the anti-dance camp accused the dance form as a front for prostitution, while revivalists questioned the constructed histories by the colonial writers. In 1910, the Madras Presidency of the British Empire altogether banned temple dancing, the 1910 ban triggered powerful protests against the stereotyping and dehumanization of temple dancers
21.
Raga
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A Raga, Raag or Ragam, literally means coloring, tingeing, dyeing. The term also refers to a close to melodic mode in Indian classical music. Raga is a remarkable and central feature of classical Indian music tradition, each raga is an array of melodic structures with musical motifs, considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to color the mind and affect the emotions of the audience. A raga consists of at least five notes, and each provides the musician with a musical framework. The specific notes within a raga can be reordered and improvised by the musician, each raga has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood. The raga is considered a means in Indian musical tradition to evoke certain feelings in an audience, hundreds of raga are recognized in the classical Indian tradition, of which about 30 are common. Each raga, state Dorothea E. Hast and others, has its own unique melodic personality, there are two main classical Indian music traditions, North Indian and South Indian, and the concept of raga is shared by both. Raga are also found in Sikh traditions such as in Guru Granth Sahib, similarly it is a part of the qawwali tradition found in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia. Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use rāgas in their compositions, the Sanskrit word raga has Indo-European roots, as *reg- which connotes to dye. It is found in Greek, Persian, Khwarezmian and other languages, in such as raxt, rang, rakt. The words red and rado are also related, Rāga, states Monier Monier-Williams, means the act of colouring or dyeing, or simply a colour, hue, tint, dye. The term also connotes an emotional state referring to a feeling, affection, desire, interest, joy or delight, particularly related to passion, love, or sympathy for a subject or something. In the context of ancient Indian music, the term refers to a note, melody, formula. The word appears in the ancient Principal Upanishads of Hinduism, as well as the Bhagavad Gita, for example, verse 3.5 of the Maitri Upanishad and verse 2.2.9 of the Mundaka Upanishad contain the word raga. The Mundaka Upanishad uses it in its discussion of soul and matter, with the sense that the soul does not color, dye, stain, the Maitri Upanishad uses the term in the sense of passion, inner quality, psychological state. The term raga is also found in ancient texts of Buddhism where it connotes passion, sensuality, lust, alternatively, raga is used in Buddhist texts in the sense of color, dye, hue. The term raga in the connotation of a melodic format occurs in the Brihaddeshi by Matanga dated ca. 8th century. The Brihaddeshi describes raga as a combination of tones which, with beautiful illuminating graces, pleases the people in general, bharata states that certain combination of notes are pleasant, certain not so
22.
Desi daru
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Desi daru is a country liquor alcoholic drink made in the Indian subcontinent. It is traditionally prepared from a procedure that has passed down for centuries. It is the primary and most popular beverage in Indias village and city population. It is fermented and distilled from molasses which is a by product of sugarcane, Desi liquor is a broad term and it can include both legally and illegally made local alcohol. The term desi daru usually refers to legal alcohol while other types of desi liquor may be categorised as Moonshine alcohol, the term desi, which is generally an endonym for local is often applied to food or drink that is considered traditional or native. Daaru is a term used for any alcoholic beverage in India. Sharaab is the Persian-derived equivalent and is used in areas with less frequency. An article in the medical journal The Lancet estimated that nearly two-thirds of the alcohol consumed in India is desi daru, globus spirits mentioned that Indias desi liquor market is about 242 million cases with a growth rate of about 7% per annum. No data regarding Pakistan is available as drinking alcohol is prohibited for Muslims in Pakistan. In village areas, Illicit illegal desi daru has been blamed for domestic violence, there have been several protests against illegal desi liquor shops/bars in villages. There are usually separate bars for legal desi daru, there have been issues in many bars in India where Scotch/English whisky has been adulterated by mixing some quantity of Illicit desi liquor in it before serving it to customers. Several deaths have been reported in India and Pakistan due to consumption of non-factory made toxic liquor, there are several references of desi daru in Bollywood films and songs. 2012 film Cocktail has song named Daru Desi sung by Benny Dayal,2011 film F. A. L. T. U has party song named Char Baj Gaye has reference of desi daru. Scenes in 2011 film Rockstar shows lead actor Ranbir Kapoor and lead actress Nargis Fakhri drinking desi daru,2014 film Main Aur Mr. Riight has song named Desi Daru sung by Jasbir Jassi. Photo of Desi daru by Firstpost
23.
South Asian cuisine
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South Asian cuisine is the cuisine of South Asia, comprising the traditional cuisines from Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Chapati, a type of bread from the former regions, is a common part of meals to be had in many parts of Indian subcontinent. Other staples from many of the cuisines include rice, roti made from atta flour, foods in this area of the world are flavoured with various types of chilli, black pepper, cloves, and other strong herbs and spices along with the flavoured butter ghee. Ginger is an ingredient that can be used in savory and sweet recipes in South Asian cuisine. Chopped ginger is fried with meat and pickled ginger is often an accompaniment to boiled rice, ginger juice and ginger boiled in syrup are used to make desserts. Turmeric and cumin are used to make curries. Common meats include lamb, goat, fish and chicken, beef is less common than in Western cuisines because cattle have a special place in Hinduism. Prohibitions against beef extend to the meat of buffalo and yaks to some extent, pork is considered as a taboo food item by all Muslims and is avoided by most Hindus, though it is commonly eaten in Goa, which has a notable Roman Catholic population from Portuguese rule. A variety of very sweet desserts which use dairy products is also found in South Asian cuisines, the main ingredients to South Asian desserts are reduced milk, ground almonds, lentil flour, ghee and sugar. Kheer is a dairy based rice pudding, a popular and common dessert, many of Indias foods go back as far as five thousand years. The Indus Valley peoples, who settled in what is now northern Pakistan, hunted turtles and they also collected wild grains, herbs and plants. Many foods and ingredients from the Indus period are common today. Some consist of wheat, barley, rice, tamarind, eggplant, the Indus Valley peoples cooked with oils, ginger, salt, green peppers, and turmeric root, which would be dried and ground into an orange powder. Indians have used leafy vegetables, lentils, and milk products such as yogurt and they also used spices such as cumin and coriander. Black pepper which is native to India was often used by 400 A. D, the Greeks brought saffron and the Chinese introduced tea. They also used water, cashews, raisins and almonds
24.
Plant breeding
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Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of human civilization, Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Gregor Mendels experiments with plant hybridization led to his laws of inheritance. Once this work well known, it formed the basis of the new science of genetics. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its basis is broader, covering molecular biology, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry. It has also developed its own technology, one major technique of plant breeding is selection, the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or culling those with less desirable characteristics. Another technique is the interbreeding of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background, for example, a mildew-resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding parent. The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield and mildew resistance, plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding. Pollinators may be excluded through the use of pollination bags, Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to generate genetic diversity. The firms first introduction was Abundance Oat, one of the first agricultural grain varieties bred from a controlled cross, wheat hybrids were bred to increase the crop production of Italy during the so-called Battle for Grain. Heterosis was explained by George Harrison Shull and it describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed, maize was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids. Statistical methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933 another important breeding technique, cytoplasmic male sterility, developed in maize, was described by Marcus Morton Rhoades, CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile pollen. This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor-intensive detasseling and these early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the United States in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after World War II, following World War II a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly related species, and artificially induce genetic diversity
25.
Feni (liquor)
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Feni is a spirit produced exclusively in Goa, India. There are two types of feni, cashew feni and toddy palm feni, depending on the original ingredient, as a thumb rule, the aroma is indicative of a carefully crafted feni. Feni is classified as a liquor, and is therefore not allowed to be sold outside the state of Goa. The word feni is derived from the Sanskrit word phena, this is thought to be because of the bubbles form a light froth when the liquor is shaken in a bottle or poured into a glass. It is generally accepted that coconut feni was produced before and then followed to adapt the same procedure for distilling the exotic cashew fruit. Coconut palms are abundant along the coastline of Western India and Goa, there is ambiguity about when and who started distilling fermented juice into a spirit. The feni consumed in South Goa is generally of an alcohol content as compared to the feni produced in North Goa. Commercially packaged feni is available at 42. 8% abv, in the traditional method of making cashew feni, only tree ripened cashew apples that have fallen are picked and taken for the crush. The cashew apples are de-seeded and then dropped into the stomping area and this area is called a colmbi and is usually a rock cut into a basin shape. The cashew apples are stomped to release the juice, stomping has now gradually been replaced by the use of a press called a pingre. The pulp is then hand-pattied into small mounds traditionally using a particular vine, nudi, the juice produced through this process is known as neero, and is refreshing to drink. The fresh neero is traditionally in an earthen pot called a kodem. Delicate earthen kodem have now replaced by plastic drums for the sake of practicality. The juice is allowed to sit for three days as it ferments. No artificial yeast or nutrients are added to hasten the process, Cashew feni is distilled employing the traditional pot, which is still practiced. A traditional distilling feni is still known as a bhatti, the use of an earthen pot as the boiling pot has now been replaced with copper pots, both known by the same name bhann. The distillate is collected in a pot called a launni. The tradition of water being continuously poured on the launni to condense the distillate has now been replaced by immersing a coil in cold water
26.
Palm wine
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Palm wine is an alcoholic beverage created from the sap of various species of palm tree such as the palmyra, date palms, and coconut palms. It is known by names in different regions and is common in various parts of Asia, Africa the Caribbean. In the Philippines, tubâ and Kallu in Tamil refers both to the freshly harvested, sweetish cloudy-white sap and the one with the red lauan-tree tan bark colorant. In Leyte, the red tubâ is aged with the tan bark for up to six months to two years, until it gets dark red and tapping its glass container gives a sound that does not suddenly stop and this type of tubâ is called bahal and bahalina. Toddy is also consumed in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, where in Sri Lanka it is known as thal ra, kithul ra, the sap is extracted and collected by a tapper. Typically the sap is collected from the cut flower of the palm tree, a container is fastened to the flower stump to collect the sap. The white liquid that initially collects tends to be very sweet, an alternate method is the felling of the entire tree. Where this is practiced, a fire is lit at the cut end to facilitate the collection of sap. Palm sap begins fermenting immediately after collection, due to natural yeasts in the air, within two hours, fermentation yields an aromatic wine of up to 4% alcohol content, mildly intoxicating and sweet. The wine may be allowed to ferment longer, up to a day, to yield a stronger, more sour and acidic taste, longer fermentation produces vinegar instead of stronger wine. Palm wine may be distilled to create a drink, which goes by different names depending on the region. Throughout Nigeria, this is commonly called ogogoro, in some parts in Cameroon it is known as Afofo. In parts of southern Ghana distilled palm wine is called akpeteshi or burukutu, in Togo and Benin it is called sodabe, in the Philippines it is called lambanog, while in Tunisia it is called Lagmi. In parts of Kenya, it is known as changaa, changaa can be applied to wounds to stop heavy bleeding. In Ivory Coast, it is called koutoukou, in part of central and western Democratic Republic of the Congo, palm wine is called malafu. Palm wine tapping is mentioned in the novel Things Fall Apart by the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe and is central to the plot of the novel The Palm Wine Drinkard by Nigerian author Amos Tutuola. Palm wine plays an important role in ceremonies in parts of Nigeria such as among the Igbo peoples. Guests at weddings, birth celebrations, and funeral wakes are served generous quantities, Palm wine is often infused with medicinal herbs to remedy a wide variety of physical complaints
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Arrack
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The clear distillate may be blended, aged in wooden barrels, or repeatedly distilled and filtered depending upon the taste and color objectives of the manufacturer. Arrack is not to be confused with arak, an alcoholic beverage traditionally consumed in Eastern Mediterranean. The word Arrack originated from the Sinhalese word අරක්කු which means any kind of residue and this is not to be confused with the word derived from the Arabic word arak, meaning distillate. In the Middle East and Near East, the term arak is usually used for liquor distilled from grapes and flavored with anise. Unlike arak, the word arrack has been considered by experts to be derived from areca nut. In 1838, Samuel Morewoods work on the histories of liquors was published and this is largely due to the proliferation of distillation knowledge throughout the Middle East during the 14th century. Each country named its own alcohol by using various Latin alphabet forms of the word which was synonymous with distillation at the time. Arrack was banned in the states of Kerala in 1996, in Indonesia, the term arak is widely used to describe the arrack. Arak was an alcoholic beverage during the colonial era. It is considered the rum of Indonesia, because like rum and it is a pot still distillation. To start the fermentation, local fermented red rice is combined with local yeast to give a unique flavor, like rum, Batavia-arrack is often a blend of different original parcels. The Batavia Arak Company also exported arak to the Netherlands and had an office in Amsterdam, some of the arrack brand produced by Batavia Arak Company were KWT and OGL. Batavia-Arrack is said to enhance the flavor when used as a component in other products, as in the herbal and it is used as a component in liqueurs, pastries, and also in the confectionery and flavor industries. In Indonesia, arrack is often created as a form of moonshine, such illicit production may result in methanol-tainted arrack that can lead to death. The Filipino term for wine is alak, derived from the Arabic word arrak, the term arak, though, is specifically used in Ilocano. Lambanóg is commonly described as coconut wine or coconut vodka, as with coconut arrack, the process begins with the sap from the coconut flower. The sap is harvested into bamboo receptacles similar to rubber tapping, the tubà, which by itself is also a popular beverage, is further distilled to produce lambanóg. Until recently, lambanóg was considered an analogue to moonshine
28.
Whisky
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Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Various grains are used for different varieties, including barley, corn, rye, Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks, generally made of charred white oak. Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many classes and types, the typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation, and aging in wooden barrels. The word whiskey is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word uisce meaning water, distilled alcohol was known in Latin as aqua vitae. This was translated to Classical Gaelic as uisce beatha, which became uisce beatha in Irish, early forms of the word in English included uskebeaghe, usquebaugh, usquebath, and usquebae. Much is made of the two spellings, whiskey and whisky. There are two schools of thought on the issue, there is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label, the spelling on the label should not be altered. Some writers refer to whisky or whisky/whiskey to acknowledge the variation, the spelling whiskey is common in Ireland and the United States, while whisky is used in all other whisky producing countries. In the US, the usage has not always been consistent, from the late eighteenth century to the mid twentieth century, American writers used both spellings interchangeably until the introduction of newspaper style guides. Since the 1960s, American writers have increasingly used whiskey as the spelling for aged grain spirits made in the US. Scotch is the internationally recognized term for Scotch whisky, the earliest certain chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in the 1st century AD, but these were not distillations of alcohol. The medieval Arabs adopted the technique of the Alexandrian Greeks, and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century. Distilling technology passed from the medieval Arabs to the medieval Latins, the earliest records of the distillation of alcohol are in Italy in the 13th century, where alcohol was distilled from wine. An early description of the technique was given by Ramon Llull and its use spread through medieval monasteries, largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic and smallpox. The art of distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, the practice of medicinal distillation eventually passed from a monastic setting to the secular via professional medical practitioners of the time, The Guild of Barber Surgeons. The earliest Irish mention of whisky comes from the seventeenth-century Annals of Clonmacnoise, between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a setting and into personal homes. The distillation process was still in its infancy, whisky itself was not allowed to age, renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted
29.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
30.
Vodka
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Vodka is a distilled beverage composed primarily of water and ethanol, sometimes with traces of impurities and flavorings. Traditionally, vodka is made by the distillation of cereal grains or potatoes that have been fermented, though some modern brands use other substances, the European Union has established a minimum of 37. 5% ABV for any European vodka to be named as such. Products sold as vodka in the United States must have an alcohol content of 40%. Even with these restrictions, most vodka sold contains 40% ABV. For homemade vodkas and distilled beverages referred to as moonshine, see moonshine by country, Vodka is traditionally drunk neat, though it is often served chilled in the vodka belt countries. It is also used in cocktails and mixed drinks, such as the vodka martini, Cosmopolitan, vodka tonic, Screwdriver, Greyhound, Black or White Russian, Moscow Mule. The name vodka is a form of the Slavic word voda, interpreted as little water. The word vodka was recorded for the first time in 1405 in Akta Grodzkie, at the time, the word vodka referred to medicines and cosmetic products, while the beverage was called gorzałka, which is also the source of Ukrainian horilka. The word vodka written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus. Although the word vodka could be found in manuscripts and in lubok pictograms. It was attested in Sámuel Gyarmathis Russian-German-Hungarian glossary of 1799, where it is glossed with Latin vinum adustum, in English literature the word vodka was attested already in the late 18th century. In a book of his travels published in English in 1780, william Tooke in 1799 glossed vodka as rectified corn-spirits. In French, Théophile Gautier in 1800 glossed it as a grain liquor served with meals in Poland, in Russian during the 17th and 18th centuries, горящѣе вино or горячее вино was widely used. Others languages include the German Branntwein, Danish brændevin, Dutch, brandewijn, Swedish, brännvin, scholars debate the beginnings of vodka. It is an issue because very little historical material is available. For many centuries, beverages differed significantly compared to the vodka of today, as the spirit at that time had a different flavor, color and smell and it contained little alcohol, an estimated maximum of about 14%, as only this amount can be attained by natural fermentation. The still, allowing for distillation, increased purity, and increased alcohol content, was invented in the 8th century, in Poland, vodka has been produced since the early Middle Ages with local traditions as varied as the production of cognac in France, or Scottish whisky. The word written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus, in these early days, the spirits were used mostly as medicines
31.
Chicken tikka masala
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Chicken tikka masala is an Indian dish of roasted chunks of chicken tikka in a curry. The curry is usually creamy, spiced and orange-coloured, most Indian restaurants serve this dish as it is one of the favourite dish in the country and all over the world among the Indian cusine lovers. It has been claimed to have originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, some claim that it originated in Glasgow. It is among the UKs most popular dishes, leading a government minister, Robin Cook, Chicken tikka masala is chicken tikka, chunks of chicken marinated in spices and yogurt, that is then baked in a tandoor oven, and served in a masala sauce. A tomato and coriander sauce is common, but no recipe for chicken tikka masala is standard, a survey found that of 48 different recipes, the sauce usually includes tomatoes, cream, coconut cream, and various spices. The sauce or chicken pieces are coloured orange using foodstuffs such as powder, paprika powder, or tomato purée. Other tikka masala dishes replace chicken with lamb, fish, or paneer, the origin of the dish is disputed. One of the explanations is that it originated in Punjab in the Indian Subcontinent, rahul Verma, Delhis most authoritative expert on street food, said he first tasted the dish in 1971 and that its origins were in Punjab. He sent it back to the waiter saying its dry, at the time, Dad had an ulcer and was enjoying a plate of tomato soup. So he said why not put some tomato soup into the curry with some spices and they sent it back to the table and the bus driver absolutely loved it. He and his friends came back again and again and we put it on the menu, the motion was not chosen for debate, nor did Sarwar speak on this subject in Parliament. They suggest that the shape of things to come may have been a recipe for Shahi Chicken Masala in Mrs Balbir Singh’s Indian Cookery published in 1961 and he went on to explain that Chicken tikka is an Indian dish. The masala sauce was added to satisfy the desire of British people to have their meat served in gravy, the claim that chicken tikka masala is a British national dish met with both acclamation and sceptical opposition. Chicken tikka masala is served in restaurants around the world, including Indian restaurants in Britain, a 2012 survey of 2,000 people in Britain claimed that it is the countrys second-most popular foreign dish to cook, after Chinese stir fry. Curry, A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
34.
University of Texas at Austin
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Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
35.
All Things Considered
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All Things Considered is the flagship news program on the American network National Public Radio. It was the first news program on NPR, premiering on May 3,1971 and it is broadcast live on NPR affiliated stations in the United States, and worldwide through several different outlets, including the NPR Berlin station in Germany. All Things Considered and Morning Edition were the highest rated radio programs in the United States in 2002 and 2005. The show combines news, analysis, commentary, interviews, and special features, and its segments vary in length and style. ATC airs weekdays from 4,00 p. m. to 6,00 p. m. Eastern Standard Time or Pacific Standard Time or from 3,00 p. m. to 5,00 p. m. A weekend version of ATC, Weekends On All Things Considered, broadcasts run about 105 minutes with local content interspersed in between to complete two hours. In September 2010, All Things Considered had an average audience of 1.8 million. ATC is co-hosted by Robert Siegel, Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro and Kelly McEvers, the first broadcast of ATC was fed to about 90 radio stations on May 3,1971, with host Robert Conley. During the first week, these stations were not allowed to broadcast the feed live, the first story was about the march on Washington, D. C. and the growing anti-Vietnam War protests taking place there. It was not until 1979, by which time most affiliates had expanded their broadcast days to begin at 6 a. m. or earlier, that NPR premiered Morning Edition. Weekends On All Things Considered is a version of the show that premiered in 1977, with host Robert Conley. Guy Raz was the host of program, until he left to be the host of the TED Radio Hour. On February 13,2013, NPR announced that it was relocating production of WATC to NPR West, ATC was excluded from the NPR deal with Sirius Satellite Radio so as not to compete with local stations airing the show. The format is less rigid than that of Morning Edition, with an array of type. The length of stories tends to be greater than Morning Edition, certain types of personal interest stories are almost always covered within this limit, those relating to hard news or entertainment tend to last the standard three-and-a-half to four minutes. The program begins with the familiar Don Voegeli theme song under a billboard of the stories to be covered during the hour. Then the standard five-minute NPR newscast is delivered from one minute to six minutes past the hour, the newscast offers a cutaway after three minutes, allowing stations to cover the last 2.5 minutes with evening rush-hour news and traffic reports. For those stations that run the newscast untouched, a 30-second music bed follows instead, the first, or A segment, begins at,06,30 after the hour
36.
National Public Radio
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NPR produces and distributes news and cultural programming. Individual public radio stations are not required to broadcast all NPR programs that are produced and its content is also available on-demand via the web, mobile, and podcasts. The organizations legal name is National Public Radio and its brand is NPR. Is NPR has been used by its hosts for many years. However, National Public Radio remains the name of the group. National Public Radio replaced the National Educational Radio Network on February 26,1970 and this act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, and established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which created the Public Broadcasting Service in addition to NPR. A CPB organizing committee under John Witherspoon first created a Board of Directors chaired by Bernard Mayes, the board then hired Donald Quayle to be the first president of NPR with 30 employees and 90 charter member stations, and studios in Washington, D. C. NPR aired its first broadcast in April 1971, covering United States Senate hearings on the Vietnam War, a month later, the afternoon drive-time newscast All Things Considered began, on May 3,1971, first hosted by Robert Conley. NPR was primarily a production and distribution organization until 1977, when it merged with the Association of Public Radio Stations, NPR suffered an almost fatal setback in 1983 when efforts to expand services created a deficit of nearly US$7 million. After a congressional investigation and the resignation of NPRs president, Frank Mankiewicz, NPR also agreed to turn its satellite service into a cooperative venture, making it possible for non-NPR shows to get national distribution. It took NPR approximately three years to pay off the debt, delano Lewis, the president of C&P Telephone, left that position to become NPRs CEO and president in January 1994. In November 1998, NPRs board of directors hired Kevin Klose, NPR spent nearly $13 million to acquire and equip a West Coast 25, 000-square-foot production facility, NPR West, which opened in Culver City, Los Angeles County, California, in November 2002. C. In November 2003, NPR received US$235 million from the estate of the late Joan B, Kroc, the widow of Ray Kroc, founder of McDonalds Corporation. This was the largest monetary gift ever to a cultural institution, in 2004 NPRs budget increased by over 50% to US$153 million due to the Kroc gift. US$34 million of the money was deposited in its endowment, the endowment fund before the gift totaled $35 million. NPR will use the interest from the bequest to expand its news staff, the 2005 budget was about US$120 million. In August 2005, NPR entered podcasting with a directory of over 170 programs created by NPR, by November of that year, users downloaded NPR and other public radio podcasts 5 million times
